ACN_Dec 2019 question answer

Q. 1 Attempt the following question (2*6)

A) Choose the correct answer from multiple alternatives.
I) Which of the following protocols used UDP as a transport layer protocol?
A) DNS B) SMTP C) HTTP D) Telnet
Ii) What is the maximum number of IP address that can be assigned to hosts?
Assume subnet is 255.255.255.229
A) 4 B) 6 C) 8 D) 16
Iii) What is maximum size of Ethernet frame?
A) 32 bytes B) 64 bytes C) 1518 bytes D) 256bytes
Iv) What is minimum size of IP header?
A) 60 bytes B) 20 bytes C) 10 bytes D) 30 bytes
V) Which of the following describe function (s) of router?
A) Packet filtering B) Switching
C) path selection D) All above
VI) Which protocol is used to find the logical address of a local device from
physical address?
A) ARP B) RARP C) ICMP D) IP

Q1. B) Calculate the latency (from first bit sent to last bit received) for the
following: I) 1-Gbps Ethernet with a single store and forward switch in the path,
and a packet size of 5000 bits. Assume that each link introduces a propagation
delay of 10 us and that the switch begins retransmitting immediately after it
has finished receiving the packet ii) Same as (I) but with three switches.
1)transmission time=12000/100*10^6= 120 us

packer reaches at switch=120+10=130us

 then from switch to destination=130

so total latency=260us

2)for 3 switches =130*4=520 us(as packet has to go over 4 links)

Q. 2 Attempt the following question

A) What is stop and wait protocol? Prove that efficiency of stop and wait protocol is 1/(1+2a) and
through put is efficiency* bandwidth

Efficiency of Stop and Wait Protocol

Stop and Wait is a flow control protocol. In which the sender sends one
packet and waits for the receiver to acknowledge and then it will send the
next packet. In case if the acknowledgement is not received, the sender
will retransmit the packet. This is the simplest one and easy to implement.
but the main disadvantage is the efficiency is very low.

Total time taken to send one packet,

= Tt(data) + Tp(data) + Tq + Tpro + Tt(ack) + Tp(ack)

Since,
 Tp(ack) = Tp(data)

And,
Tt(ack) << Tt(data).

So we can neglect Tt(ack)

Tq = 0 and Tpro = 0

Hence,
Total time = Tt(data) + 2 * Tp
Where,
Tt(data) : Transmission delay for Data packet
Tp(data) : propagation delay for Data packet
Tq: Queuing delay
Tpro: Processing delay
Tt(ack): Transmission delay for acknowledgment
Tp(ack) : Propagation delay for acknowledgment
We know that the Efficiency (η),
= Useful time / Total cycle time.
= Tt / (Tt + 2*Tp)
= 1 / (1+2*(Tp/Tt))
= 1 / (1+2*a)

where,
a = Tp / Tt
if Tt(ack) :Transmission delay for acknowledgment , Tq: Queuing delay
and Tpro: Processing delay is mention

We know that the Efficiency (η),

=Useful time / Total cycle time

=Tt(data) /Tt(data) + Tp(data) + Tq + Tpro + Tt(ack) + Tp(ack)

Above formula is applicable for any condition, if any of the things are not given
we assume it to be 0.

Other name of Efficiency are Line Utilization or Link Utilization or Sender

Utilization.

Throughput: Number of bits send per second, which is also known as Effective
Bandwidth or Bandwidth utilization.

Throughput=Length of frame/Total Cycle time

=L/(Tt(data) + Tp(data) + Tq + Tpro + Tt(ack) + Tp(ack)) —1

=(L/BW)*BW)/(Tt(data) + Tp(data) + Tq + Tpro + Tt(ack) + Tp(ack))
=Tt(data)*BW/(Tt(data) + Tp(data) + Tq + Tpro + Tt(ack) + Tp(ack))

= η*BW –
2
we know that Tt(data)=L/BW

where Tt(data)=Transmission Delay

BW=Band Width

Above formula is applicable for any condition, if any of the things are not given
we assume it to be 0.

Other name of Throuhput are Effective Bandwidth or Bandwidth Utilization or

Maximum data rate possible.

Throughput,
= L/(Tt + 2*Tp)
= ((L/BW)*BW)/(Tt + 2*Tp)
= Tt/(Tt + 2*Tp) * BW
= 1/(1 + 2a) * BW

Hence, Throughput
= η * BW

where,
BW : BandWidth
L : Size of Data packet

Factors affecting Efficiency:

n = 1/(1 + 2*(Tp/Tt)
= 1/(1 + 2*(d/v)*(BW/L))

where,
d = distance between source and receiver
v = velocity

Example: Given,
Tt = 1ms
Tp = 2ms
Bandwidth = 6 Mbps

Efficiency(η)
= 1/(1 + 2*a)
= 1/(1 + 2*(2/1))
= 1/5
= 20 %
Throughput
= η * BW
= (1/5) * 6
= 1.2 Mbps

Q2. B) What is TCP? Give differences between TCP and UDP. Also give three
names of typical applications in which TCP is used as transport protocol.

What is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)?

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the
Internet protocol suite. It lies between the Application and Network Layers
which are used in providing reliable delivery services. It is a connection-
oriented protocol for communications that helps in the exchange of
messages between different devices over a network. The Internet Protocol
(IP), which establishes the technique for sending data packets between
computers, works with TCP.

Working of TCP
To make sure that each message reaches its target location intact, the TCP/IP model
breaks down the data into small bundles and afterward reassembles the bundles into
the original message on the opposite end. Sending the information in little bundles of
information makes it simpler to maintain efficiency as opposed to sending everything in
one go.
After a particular message is broken down into bundles, these bundles may travel along
multiple routes if one route is jammed but the destination remains the same.

Features of TCP/IP
Some of the most prominent features of Transmission control protocol are

1. Segment Numbering System

• TCP keeps track of the segments being transmitted or received by

assigning numbers to each and every single one of them.
• A specific Byte Number is assigned to data bytes that are to be
transferred while segments are assigned sequence numbers.
• Acknowledgment Numbers are assigned to received segments.

2. Connection Oriented

• Itmeans sender and receiver are connected to each other till the
completion of the process.
• The order of the data is maintained i.e. order remains same before and
after transmission.

3. Full Duplex

• In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice – versa
at the same time.
 • It increases efficiency of data flow between sender and receiver.

4. Flow Control

• Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is done
to ensure reliable delivery.
• The receiver continually hints to the sender on how much data can be
received (using a sliding window)

5. Error Control

• TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data transfer

• Error control is byte-oriented
• Segments are checked for error detection
• Error Control includes – Corrupted Segment & Lost Segment
Management, Out-of-order segments, Duplicate segments, etc.

6. Congestion Control

• TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network

• Congestion level is determined by the amount of data sent by a sender

Advantages

• It is a reliable protocol.
• It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as one for recovery.
• It gives flow control.
• It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the exact
order that it was sent.
• Open Protocol, not owned by any organization or individual.
• It assigns an IP address to each computer on the network and a domain
name to each site thus making each device site to be distinguishable
over the network.

Disadvantages

• TCP is made for Wide Area Networks, thus its size can become an issue
for small networks with low resources.
• TCP runs several layers so it can slow down the speed of the network.
• It is not generic in nature. Meaning, it cannot represent any protocol stack
other than the TCP/IP suite. E.g., it cannot work with a Bluetooth
connection.
 • No modifications since their development around 30 years ago.

Differences between TCP and UDP

The main differences between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) are:

Transmission Control Protocol

Basis User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
(TCP)

UDP is the Datagram-oriented

TCP is a connection-oriented
protocol. This is because
protocol. Connection
there is no overhead for
orientation means that the
opening a connection,
Type of Service communicating devices
maintaining a connection, or
should establish a connection
terminating a connection.
before transmitting data and
UDP is efficient for broadcast
should close the connection
and multicast types of
after transmitting the data.
network transmission.

TCP is reliable as it guarantees The delivery of data to the

Reliability the delivery of data to the destination cannot be
destination router. guaranteed in UDP.

TCP provides extensive error-

checking mechanisms.
UDP has only the basic error-
Error checking
It is because it provides flow checking mechanism using
mechanism
control and acknowledgment checksums.
of data.

An acknowledgment segment is
Acknowledgment No acknowledgment segment.
present.

There is no
Sequencing of data is a feature of sequencing of data in
Sequence Transmission Control UDP. If the order is
required, it has to be
 Protocol (TCP). this means that managed by the
packets arrive in order at the application layer.
receiver.

UDP is faster,
TCP is comparatively slower than
Speed simpler, and more
UDP.
efficient than TCP.

There is no
retransmission of lost
Retransmission of lost packets is
Retransmission packets in the User
possible in TCP, but not in UDP.
Datagram Protocol
(UDP).

TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable UDP has an 8 bytes

Header Length
length header. fixed-length header.

Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

It’s a connectionless
Handshaking Uses handshakes such as SYN,
protocol i.e. No
Techniques ACK, SYN-ACK
handshake

TCP doesn’t support UDP supports

Broadcasting
Broadcasting. Broadcasting.

UDP is used
TCP is used by HTTP, by DNS, DHCP,
Protocols
HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet. TFTP, SNMP, RIP,
and VoIP.

The TCP connection is a byte UDP connection is a

Stream Type
stream. message stream.

Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.

 This protocol is used
in situations where
This protocol is primarily utilized in
quick communication
situations when a safe and
is necessary but
trustworthy communication
Applications where dependability
procedure is necessary, such as
is not a concern,
in email, on the web surfing, and
such as VoIP, game
in military services.
streaming, video, and
music streaming, etc.

Also give three names of typical applications in which TCP is used as transport
protocol.

• Process to Process or end to end Communication using Port numbers

• Transmits the data as a stream of bytes from source to destination
• It groups the data that comes from the application into packets called
Segments. It also adds a header to each data segment and sends it to
the network layer
• It offers Full Duplex communications
• Reliable Service: TCP uses an acknowledgment mechanism which
makes it reliable
• It offers Flow control, Error control, and Congestion control too.

Q. 3.Attempt the following question (6*2)

A) A TCP connection is in the ESTABLISHED state. The following events occur one
after another:
I) A FIN segment is received.
Ii) The application sends a “close” message.
What is the state of the connection after each event? What is the action after
each event?

TCP Connection Termination

In TCP 3-way Handshake Process we studied that how connections are
established between client and server in Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) using SYN bit segments. In this article, we will study how TCP
 close connection between Client and Server. Here we will also need to
send bit segments to a server which FIN bit is set to 1.

TCP supports two types of connection releases like most connection-

oriented transport protocols:

1. Graceful connection release –

In the Graceful connection release, the connection is open until
both parties have closed their sides of the connection.
2. Abrupt connection release –
In an Abrupt connection release, either one TCP entity is forced to
close the connection or one user closes both directions of data
transfer.

Abrupt connection release :

An abrupt connection release is carried out when an RST segment is sent. An RST
segment can be sent for the below reasons:

1. When a non-SYN segment was received for a non-existing TCP

connection.

2. In an open connection, some TCP implementations send an RST

segment when a segment with an invalid header is received. This will
prevent attacks by closing the corresponding connection.

3. When some implementations need to close an existing TCP

connection, they send an RST segment. They will close an existing
TCP connection for the following reasons:
o Lack of resources to support the connection

o The remote host is now unreachable and has stopped

responding.

When a TCP entity sends an RST segment, it should contain 00 if it does not belong to
any existing connection else it should contain the current value of the sequence number
for the connection and the acknowledgment number should be set to the next expected
in- sequence number on this connection.

Graceful Connection Release :

The common way of terminating a TCP connection is by using the TCP header’s FIN
flag. This mechanism allows each host to release its own side of the connection
individually.

How mechanism works In TCP :

1. Step 1 (FIN From Client) –

Suppose that the client application decides it wants to close the
connection. (Note that the server could also choose to close the
connection). This causes the client to send a TCP segment with
the FIN bit set to 1 to the server and to enter the FIN_WAIT_1 state.
While in the FIN_WAIT_1 state, the client waits for a TCP segment
from the server with an acknowledgment (ACK).
2. Step 2 (ACK From Server) –
When the Server received the FIN bit segment from Sender (Client),
Server Immediately sends acknowledgement (ACK) segment to the
Sender (Client).
3. Step 3 (Client waiting) –
While in the FIN_WAIT_1 state, the client waits for a TCP segment
from the server with an acknowledgment. When it receives this
segment, the client enters the FIN_WAIT_2 state. While in
the FIN_WAIT_2 state, the client waits for another segment from the
server with the FIN bit set to 1.
 4. Step 4 (FIN from Server) –
The server sends the FIN bit segment to the Sender(Client) after
some time when the Server sends the ACK segment (because of
some closing process in the Server).
5. Step 5 (ACK from Client) –
When the Client receives the FIN bit segment from the Server, the
client acknowledges the server’s segment and enters
the TIME_WAIT state. The TIME_WAIT state lets the client resend the
final acknowledgment in case the ACK is lost. The time spent by
clients in the TIME_WAIT state depends on their implementation, but
their typical values are 30 seconds, 1 minute, and 2 minutes. After the
wait, the connection formally closes and all resources on the client-
side (including port numbers and buffer data) are released.
6. In the below Figures illustrate the series of states visited by the server-side and
also the Client-side, assuming the client begins connection tear-down. In these
two state-transition figures, we have only shown how a TCP connection is
normally established and shut down.

7. TCP states visited by ClientSide –

8.
9. TCP states visited by ServerSide –
 10.

Q. 3.B) What is fiber optic communication? Enlist the advantages of fiber optic
technology in communication systems?
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another
by sending pulses of infrared or visible light through an optical fiber.[1][2] The light is a form
of carrier wave that is modulated to carry information.[3] Fiber is preferred over electrical
cabling when high bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference is
required.[4] This type of communication can transmit voice, video, and telemetry through local
area networks or across long distances.[5]

Optical Fiber Communication

In optical fiber communication, data is transmitted as a single wavelength light source. The
electrical signals converted to this light source can travel long distances with more power
and less distortion. The data density per optical fiber is much greater than a traditional
conductor transmission and has more data packets.
An optical fiber communication system converts input electrical signals into light at the
transmitter end. This type of system only supports digital data. Analog data signals are
converted into digital signals using a coder or converter circuit. The light source rapidly
turns on and off on the reception of the digital signal and carries the same data as the input
electrical signals.

At the receiving end, light detectors are employed to receive the light signals from the
optical fiber. Usually, the receiver consists of electronic amplifiers with photodetectors.
Silicon and germanium diodes are typical photodetectors in optical fiber communication.
The digital signals from amplifiers are directly fed to the destination. If the target
destination requires analog signals, decoders are utilized for conversion.

The Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication

Internet communication, cable TV, and television broadcasting systems benefit from the
use of fiber optics technologies in signal transmission. The advantages of optical fiber
communications include:

• High-speed data transmission

• Data security

• Data reliability

Q. 4.Attempt the following question (2*6)

A) Consider two regions, 900-1000nm and 1350 nm in a fiber low – loss spectrum. Calculate
the actual bandwidth provided by each region. (Assume velocity of light in fiber is 2.3*
10’8m/s.)

Q. 4.B) what is DHCP? What is necessicity of DHCP server in the network?

Difference between CWDM and DWDM :

S.
CWDM DWDM
No.
 CWDM system having less than 8
DWDM system having more than 8 active wavelengths
1. active wavelengths per optical
per optical fiber.
fiber.

2. It is defined by wavelengths. It is defined by frequencies.

3. It has lower capacity as compared. It has higher capacity as compared.

4. It has low cost. It has high cost.

It has short range communication

5. It has long range communication distance.
distance.

6. It uses wide range frequencies. It uses narrow range frequencies.

Its light signal is not amplified

7. Its light signal amplification can be used here.
here.

Its no. of active wavelengths per

8. Its no. of active wavelengths per fiber more than 8.
fiber fewer than 8.

It breaks the spectrum into big

9. It dices the spectrum into small pieces.
chunks.

10. It has more wavelength spacing. It has less wavelength spacing as compared.

It uses cooling laser that upholds temperature tuning

11. It does not use cooling laser. and thus, provides better performance, increased
safety and extend the lifespan of DWDM system.

Advantages- Advantages-

• Less power consumption • Reducing the number of repeater “amp” sites

because of electronic • Growth that you pay for
12. tuning. • The largest capacity system obtainable.
• More compact space • Maximum range possible with EDFA’s
requirements • O, A, and M systems are developed to
• Able to use MMF cable or maturity.
SMF fibre
 • Cheaper and more
compact wave filters
• Savings on startup and
growth costs
• Can be powered by LEDs or
lasers
• Increased payload sizes per
channel

Disadvantages- Disadvantages-

• Lower range • More power consumption

• Amplification versus
regeneration
13.
• Not as much capacity as
DWDM
• The functions O, A, and M
are not carrier-class.
• Require large space
• High EDFA costs for amplifiers
• Start-up costs are higher than for a CWDM
system of equal value.
• High-precision lasers and wave filters are
required

Q. 5. A. Explain in detail evolution of WDM.

In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology

which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using
different wavelengths (i.e., colors) of laser light.[1] This technique
enables bidirectional communications over a single strand of fiber (also called wavelength-
division duplexing) as well as multiplication of capacity.[1]

The term WDM is commonly applied to an optical carrier, which is typically described by its
wavelength, whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier, more
often described by frequency.[2] This is purely conventional because wavelength and frequency
communicate the same information. Specifically, frequency (in Hertz, which is cycles per
second) multiplied by wavelength (the physical length of one cycle) equals velocity of the carrier
wave. In a vacuum, this is the speed of light(usually denoted by the lowercase letter, c). In glass
fiber, velocity is substantially slower - usually about 0.7 times c. The data rate in practical
systems is a fraction of the carrier frequency.

System
 The concept was first published in 1970 by Delange,[4] and by 1980 WDM systems were being
realized in the laboratory. The first WDM systems combined only two signals. Modern systems
can handle 160 signals and can thus expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to
over 16 Tbit/s.

A system of 320 channels is also present WDM systems are divided into three different
wavelength patterns: normal (WDM), coarse (CWDM) and dense (DWDM).

Q., 5 B what do you mean by GMPLS technology. How does MPLS work.

What is GMPLS (Generalized Multiprotocol Label Switching)?

GMPLS (Generalized Multiprotocol Label Switching) is a networking technology
that enables fast and reliable network switching of data flows on any type of
network infrastructure. GMPLS extends Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
by adding support for time-division multiplexing (TDM), optical fiber switching,
Layer 2 switching, and optical wavelength switching, in addition to packet-based
switching.

GMPLS was developed to extend the benefits of MPLS to any type of network.
It enables participating routers and switches to quickly make decisions on how
to forward data based on how it is received instead of performing processing-
 intensive IP-based routing. It also enables link management, failover
redundancy and quality of service.

Request for Comments 3945 standardized GMPLS in 2004. It incorporates the

functionality developed for Multiprotocol Lambda Switching.

How does GMPLS work?

GMPLS speeds up data flow by determining the path that the data will take as
soon as the data is ingested into the network at the ingress point. This happens
at a label edge router, which determines the path that the data takes through
the network to the exit or egress point label edge router.

These paths are called labeled switched paths (LSPs). It makes this decision
based on the characteristics of the ingress interface. The following are the LSP
selection criteria in GMPLS:

• TDM links are identified by time slot.

• Wavelength (lambda) division multiplexing links are identified by
wavelength.
• Fiber optic and copper links are identified by fiber strand or port.
• How does MPLS work?

What Is MPLS?
Multiprotocol label switching is an ultra-reliable, premium-grade, IP-connected
bandwidth solution that can help mid-size to enterprise companies build private-like
networks — and has been a bedrock technology for more than 25 years. (The
technology is projected to continue growing in popularity.)

In standard IP routing, the packets of data contain no information beyond the

target/destination IP address where the packet is being sent. Therefore, every router
along a particular packet's journey must make an independent forwarding decision
based on the packet’s network-layer header.

How Does MPLS Work?

MPLS leverages the concept of predetermined “labels” to route traffic, instead of relying
solely on ultimate source and destination addresses. This is done by appending a short
bit sequence to the packet, known as forwarding equivalence class (FEC) or class of
service (CoS). These labels have the ability to be insightfully derived and also indicate
the type of traffic they carry.

MPLS has a wide range of benefits: better performance, reduced network congestion,
higher-quality, better bandwidth management and utilization of resources, scalability,
security, and ultimately better end-user perceptibility.

MPLS has established itself in the role of connecting corporate point-to-point locations

Q. 6. A. What is wavelength conversion? What are the characteristics of ideal wavelength

converter should process?

What is wavelength conversion?

Wavelength conversion is an example of signal processing at the aggregate line rate, i.e.
the OTDM bit rate. In [35] the first clear demonstration (with BER characterization) of optical
signal processing at >100 Gbit/s was presented in the form of a 640 Gbit/s wavelength
conversion experiment

An ideal wavelength converter should possess the following

characteristics [5]: transparency to bit rates and signal formats; fast
setup time of output wavelength

Q. B what is SONET? Explain with figure bit STS-1 frame format

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a
communication protocol, developed by Bellcore – that is used to transmit
a large amount of data over relatively large distances using optical fibre.
With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same
time over the optical fibre. Key Points:

• Developed by Bellcore
• Used in North America
• Standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• Similar to SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) which is used in
Europe and Japan.