No 135 • OCTOBER 2023
FEATURE ARTICLE
Exploration Guides for High-Grade Hypogene Porphyry
Copper Deposits
Richard H. Sillitoe (SEG Lindgren Fellow)1,† and José Perelló (SEG Fellow)2
1
27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, London N6 6ND, England
2
Blaise Cendrars 6736, Vitacura, Santiago, Chile
Abstract
Hypogene porphyry Cu deposits,
unaffected by supergene
enrichment, are generally perceived
as relatively low-grade orebodies,
in keeping with a current average
production grade of 0.53% Cu.
Nonetheless, all or large parts of
some deposits exceed 1% Cu, and
smaller deposit components can
be much higher in grade, locally
>6% Cu. In view of the major
economic and environmental
benefits afforded by high grades,
we briefly review geologic
features and factors conducive to
development of >1% hypogene
Cu ore in porphyry Cu systems.
Intense quartz veinlet stockworks,
magmatic-hydrothermal breccias,
vuggy residual quartz or vein
systems in telescoped lithocaps,
proximal skarns, carbonate-
replacement mantos and pipes, low-
permeability barriers, and reactive
mafic host rocks—either alone
or in various combinations—are
identified as particularly favorable
features because they enhance rock
permeability and/or reactivity; most
of them may be taken into account
when planning and conducting
exploration programs, thereby
maximizing the chances of high-
grade porphyry Cu discoveries.
Introduction
Shallow supergene ore, the traditional
source of high grades in porphyry Cu
deposits, is being rapidly depleted, and
using solvent extraction-electrowinning
recovery as a proxy, it currently
accounts for only 18% of globally
mined Cu (International Copper
Study Group, 2022). Given that future
large-scale production from porphyry
Cu ores will inevitably come from
†
Corresponding author: e-mail,
aucu@compuserve.com
doi: 10.5382/SEGnews.2023-135.fea-01
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by Jackelin Ochoa
SEG DISCOVERY
deeper hypogene resources, discovery
of high-grade mineralization, either
entire deposits or parts thereof, will
facilitate the expansion of Cu output
required for the energy transition. Head
grades at operating mines have been
falling progressively to 0.53% Cu, with
development projects averaging only
0.39% (McCrae, 2018). Nonetheless,
hypogene porphyry Cu ± Au ± Mo
deposits can vary greatly in average
grade (<0.3–>2% Cu) and, in some
cases, include exceptionally high-
grade (3–>6% Cu) components, which,
depending on their relative positions,
can either increase average Cu grades or
constitute stand-alone orebodies.
High grades are desirable for
several reasons, not least of which
are accelerated payback of capital
expenditure, lower operating costs, and,
hence, enhanced profitability. Mining
of high-grade deposits also gives rise to
lower water and (conventional) energy
consumption, lower carbon footprints,
and less waste rock and tailings per
tonne of Cu produced, irrespective of
whether they are extracted from open
pits or underground by caving or other
bulk-mining methods (e.g., Norgate and
Jahanshahi, 2010). Particularly high-
grade ore may be amenable to selective
underground extraction using backfill,
thereby minimizing grade dilution and
surface subsidence (e.g., Sivakugan et
al., 2015).
Based on familiarity with a variety
of porphyry Cu deposits worldwide,
we review the main geologic features
and components that can host
high-grade hypogene ore, with brief
mention of processes contributing to
their formation. Bearing in mind the
dependence of published resource
figures on cutoff grade, Cu price, and
other nongenetic factors, orebodies
containing >1% Cu are analyzed herein
because they would remain high grade
whatever underlying assumptions
might be used for resource estimation
purposes. The >1% Cu ore is considered
at various scales, ranging from all or
parts of 19 deposits (Table 1) to discrete
13
deposit components, such as breccias,
massive sulfide replacements, vein
systems, and skarns (Table 2), with
the ultimate aim of determining the
controls on high grade. This review
does not address genetic aspects of
porphyry Cu formation that may
influence ore grade; rather the emphasis
throughout is on practical criteria that
can be readily factored into exploration
programs at regional, district, or deposit
scales to target any high-grade ore as
soon and inexpensively as possible.
For brevity, standard generic alteration
names are used throughout (Fig. 1;
Tables 1, 2).
Features Conducive to
High-Grade Development
Intense quartz veining
Quartz veinlets in porphyry Cu
deposits, mostly of A-type but including
those of B-type (Gustafson and Hunt,
1975), are typically steeply inclined
and constitute multigenerational,
multidirectional arrays, although
sheeted veinlets also occur, especially
in Au-rich deposits. A-type veinlets
can contain anhydrite, K-feldspar,
magnetite, and/or pyrite as well as the
bulk of the Cu-bearing sulfide minerals,
with generally subordinate amounts
occurring as attendant disseminations
(Fig. 2a, b). Individual quartz veinlets
can have complex histories involving
repeated reopening (e.g., Monecke et
al., 2018). The veinlets form by rock
extension induced by large underlying
accumulations of overpressured
magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, which
precipitate quartz as they ascend,
cool, and depressurize. Because of
its retrograde solubility, the veinlet
quartz undergoes partial dissolution
during further temperature decline
(~450°–375°C at moderate pressures;
Monecke et al., 2018); this, combined
with thermal contraction (Tosdal and
Dilles, 2020), creates minute open
cavities and cracks that augment
fracture permeability, helping to focus
continued fluid ascent and providing
 14

by Jackelin Ochoa
Table 1. Selected Characteristics of Representative Hypogene Porphyry Cu Deposits with Large Tonnages Averaging >1% Cu
Principal alteration formed with high Sulfidation state
Porphyry Cu deposit Size (Mt), grade (% Cu) Likely control(s) of high Cu grade Cu grade (overprinted alteration) of Cu mineralization Reference
Red Chris, British NA, >1 Intense quartz stockwork Potassic, (chlorite-sericite) Low Rees et al. (2015)
Columbia, Canada
Resolution, Arizona, 1,624, 1.47 Magmatic-hydrothermal breccias, mafic host Potassic, sericitic, advanced argillic Low, intermediate, Hehnke et al. (2012)
USA rock, magnesian + calcic skarn, hypogene high
enrichment
Bingham Canyon, 641, 1.03 (+0.47 g/t Au)1 Intense quartz stockwork Potassic Low Porter et al. (2012)
Utah, USA
Quebradona (Nuevo 104, 1.1 (+0.64 g/t Au)1 Intense quartz stockwork Potassic, (chlorite-sericite) Low Bartos et al. (2017)
Chaquiro), Colombia
Rosario, Collahuasi, 1,094, 1.031 Intense quartz stockwork Potassic, (chlorite-sericite), sericitic Low, intermediate, Masterman et al.
Chile high (10%) (2005)
Chuquicamata, Chile 205, 1.281 Telescoped vein system Potassic, sericitic Low, high Rivera et al. (2012)
MMH, Chile 227, 1.06 + 1427, 1.421 Vein-breccia system (shallow) + halo and Advanced argillic (alunite; shallow) High (shallow) + low Boric et al. (2009)
quartz veinlet stockwork (deep) + potassic (deep) (deep)
Esperanza, Chile 128, 1.0 (+0.5 g/t Au)1 Intense quartz stockwork Potassic Low Perelló et al. (2004)
Filo del Sol, Argentina- NA, >1 Vuggy residual quartz, hypogene enrichment Advanced argillic (residual quartz) Very high, high Perelló et al. (2023)
Chile
Río Blanco, Chile 1,507, 1.191 Magmatic-hydrothermal breccias Sericitic, potassic Intermediate, low Vargas et al. (1999)
Los Sulfatos, Chile 819, 1.37 Magmatic-hydrothermal breccias Sericitic, potassic Intermediate, low Irarrazaval et al.
(2010)
Exploration Guides for High-Grade Hypogene Porphyry Copper Deposits (cont.)

El Teniente, Chile 1,829, 1.271 Mafic host rocks, magmatic-hydrothermal Potassic Low Skewes et al. (2002)
breccias
Čukaru Peki Lower 700, 1.12 (+ 0.24 g/t Au)1 Intense quartz stockwork Potassic, (chlorite-sericite) Low Jelenković et al.
SEG DISCOVERY

Zone, Serbia (2016)

Far Southeast, Luzon, 119, 1.02 (+1.39 g/t Au)1 Intense quartz stockwork Chlorite-sericite-albite Low Calder et al. (2022)
Philippines

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Onto, Sumbawa, 1,065, 0.962 (+ 0.58 g/t Intense quartz stockwork in early porphyry, top Advanced argillic (quartz-alunite- Very high Burrows et al. (2020)
Indonesia Au) seal, breccia host, hypogene enrichment pyrophyllite)
Grasberg, Papua, 1,174, 1.56 (+1.75 g/t Au)1 Mafic and impermeable host rocks, intense Potassic Low Leys et al. (2020)
Indonesia quartz stockwork
Golpu, Papua New 820, 1.0 (+0.7 g/t Au) Impermeable host rock, intense quartz Potassic Low Rinne et al. (2018)
Guinea stockwork
Northparkes, NSW, 132, 1.1 (+0.5 g/t Au) Intense quartz stockwork Potassic, sericitic Low Lickfold et al. (2003)
Australia
Hugo Dummett North, 820, 1.82 (+0,42 g/t Au) Intense quartz stockwork, mafic host rock, Potassic, sericitic (muscovite), Low, high Crane and Kavalieris
Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia hypogene enrichment advanced argillic (quartz- (2012)
pyrophyllite, kaolinite)

1
High-grade portions of deposits
2
>1% Cu resource not publicly available
NA, resource not publicly available
No 135 • OCTOBER 2023
 No 135 • OCTOBER 2023 SEG DISCOVERY 15

sites for Cu-Fe sulfide deposition

(Redmond et al., 2004; Landtwing et

Harrison and Reid (1997)

Hedenquist et al. (1998)

Lipten and Smith (2005)
al., 2005; Monecke et al., 2018; Fig. 2a,

Bendezú and Fontboté

Jelenković et al. (2016)

Jelenković et al. (2016)

Paul and Knight (1995)
Reed and Dilles (2020)
b). Consequently, high quartz veinlet
intensities generally correlate well with

Leys et al. (2012)

Leys et al. (2012)

Einaudi (1982a)
the highest Cu and any associated Au

Maher (2010)
Perry (1969)

Perry (1961)
values (e.g., Einaudi, 1994; Perelló et al.,
Reference

2004; Setyandhaka et al., 2008; Gruen et

(2009)
al., 2010; Redmond and Einaudi, 2010;
Rees et al., 2015; Bartos et al., 2017).
Molybdenum values correlate well with
B-type quartz veinlet intensities but
Cu mineralization
Sulfidation state of

High, intermediate

High, intermediate
High, intermediate
Low, intermediate

Low, intermediate

generally rather poorly with A-type

Low, minor high

Very high, high

veinlet and Cu contents (e.g., Bingham
Canyon; Porter et al., 2012).

Low, high
Very high
In most porphyry Cu deposits, the
Table 2. Examples of High-Grade Ore Components Associated with Hypogene Porphyry Cu Deposits

High

High
earliest intrusions have the widest and
Low

Low

Low
highest intensities of quartz veinlets
and, hence, the highest Cu tenors,
implying that the earliest fluids released
Advanced argillic (residual

Advanced argillic (residual

Advanced argillic, sericitic

Advanced argillic (quartz-

Advanced argillic (quartz-

Potassic, minor advanced
Calc-silicate (prograde +

from underlying magma reservoirs

quartz, quartz-alunite)

Retrograde calc-silicate
Calc-silicate (prograde)

Calc-silicate, potassic,
Prograde calc-silicate

Prograde calc-silicate

are probably responsible for the most

Principal alteration

alunite-kaolinite)
Specularite-quartz

intense rock fracturing and maximal

alunite-zunyite)

Cu transport (e.g., Gustafson and Hunt,

retrograde)

Pyrite-quartz

1975; Redmond and Einaudi, 2010;

sericitic
quartz)

Sillitoe, 2010; Figs. 1a, 2c, d). Early

argillic

porphyries are, of course, also affected

by later Cu-bearing veinlet generations
introduced during emplacement of
intermineral porphyry phases (Fig. 1a,
375, 1.95 (+0.72 g/t Au)

155, 1.57 (+0.16 g/t Au)

96, 1.4 (including 9, 6.2)

556, 1.49 (+1.25 g/t Au)

441, 1.85 (+0.98 g/t Au)

Size (Mt), grade (% Cu)

b). However, there are exceptions in

30, 1.61 (+0.88 g/t Au)

28.7, 3.7 (+2.4 g/t Au)

34.5, 2.2 (+3.4 g/t Au)

559, 1.24 (+1.03% Zn)
54, 5.5 (+1.4 g/t Au)

which precursor porphyry intrusions

26, 4.7 (+1 g/t Au)

acted as wall rocks, presumably because

7, 6 (+0.8% Mo)

they predated magmatic fluid ascent

(e.g., Red Chris; Rees et al., 2015).
193, 4.26

The result is that early intrusions

48, 1.1

in some relatively shallowly (~1.5–4

km) emplaced deposits are intensely
veined, with >20% and as much as 90%
Kucing Liar calcic and magnesian exoskarn
Lepanto massive sulfide and breccia body
Upper Zone massive sulfide-replacement

of the rock volume made up of quartz

Ertsberg East calcic and magnesian exo-
Magma carbonate-replacement mantos

and, as a consequence, containing

La Colorada magmatic-hydrothermal

Bor massive sulfide-replacement and

skarn, endoskarn, brecciated skarn

exceptionally high Cu values, in some

Smelter massive sulfide limestone-
Calcic exoskarn, brecciated skarn

Calcic exoskarn beneath top seal

deposits locally exceeding 5% (Fig.

Carbonate-replacement bodies
Calcic and magnesian exoskarn

2c, d). There is a common tendency

for these high-intensity quartz veinlet
body beneath top seal
Telescoped vein system
High-grade component

stockworks to be localized in and

pegmatoid breccia

replacement body

stockwork bodies

around the apices of early porphyry

beneath top seal

intrusions, locally extending down

Calcic exoskarn

their upper flanks, with veinlets tending

to become progressively more widely
+ veins

spaced inward and downward (e.g.,

Grasberg, Hugo Dummett North, Onto,
Quebradona, Red Chris; Table 1; Figs.
1a, 2c, d).
Bingham Canyon, Utah, USA

Grasberg, Papua, Indonesia

Ertsberg, Papua, Indonesia

A-type quartz veinlet stockworks

Host porphyry Cu deposit

Far Southeast, Philippines

Cananea, Sonora, Mexico
Resolution, Arizona, USA
Christmas, Arizona, USA

are generated during potassic (biotite

Coroccohuayco, Peru
Butte, Montana, USA

Bisbee, Arizona, USA

> K-feldspar) alteration (Gustafson

Borska Reka, Serbia

Čukaru Peki, Serbia

and Hunt, 1975), which in many

Colquijirca, Peru
Antamina, Peru

deposits clearly accompanies the high

Cu ± Au values, as documented at
Bingham Canyon (Redmond et al.,
2004). Copper grades tend to be highest
where pyrite-free, low-sulfidation-state

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 16 SEG DISCOVERY No 135 • OCTOBER 2023

Exploration Guides for High-Grade Hypogene Porphyry Copper Deposits (cont.)

Vuggy residual
quartz + massive sulfide
Quartz-alunite

Base of
lithocap
Sericitic
veins Quartz­
Chlorite-sericite
pyrophyllite

Propylitic

Skarn

a b

� Magmatic-hydrothermal [2J Andesitic volcanic unit

� breccia
a�c Early (a), intermineral (b), � Mafic unit e:23 Carbonate horizon
�� and late-mineral (c) porphyry
Fig. 1
Fig. 1. Illustrations showing selected lithologic, alteration, and mineralization types in a) weakly telescoped and b) highly telescoped porphyry Cu
systems. Features capable of hosting >1% Cu ore are highlighted: 1. intense quartz veinlet stockwork near apex of potassic-altered, early porphyry
intrusion; 2. high-sulfidation mineralization, including massive sulfide replacement, beneath lithologic barrier; 3. magmatic-hydrothermal breccia
with shallow sericitic alteration transitioning downward to potassic alteration; 4. lithocap, including vuggy residual quartz and high-sulfidation min-
eralization, telescoped over intense quartz veinlet stockwork in potassic-altered early porphyry; 5. vein system associated with advanced argillic and
sericitic alteration; 6. prograde and retrograde proximal skarn; 7. carbonate-replacement mantos alongside lithocap and sericitic alteration; and 8.
grade enhancement in potassic-altered mafic host rock.

sulfide assemblages containing bornite
± digenite ± chalcocite are present,
which is generally in early porphyry
intrusions, although potassic alteration
in several exceptionally high-grade
deposits is chalcopyrite dominated
(Resolution and Grasberg; Hehnke et al.,
2012; Leys et al., 2020). Chalcopyrite
± bornite in A-type quartz veinlets can
be accompanied by chlorite-sericite
(fine-grained white mica) ± K-feldspar ±
albite alteration (e.g., Calder et al., 2022;
Schirra et al., 2022), although this may
result from overprinting of preexisting
Cu-rich potassic zones (Cernuschi et
al., 2023). At Northparkes and Hugo
Dummett North, intense quartz
veinlet stockworks are overprinted by
sericitic (muscovite) alteration and
associated high-grade bornite-chalcocite
mineralization (Lickfold et al., 2003;
Crane and Kavalieris, 2012).
Although much of the chalcopyrite
is typically present in and around
A-type quartz veinlets, the Cu contents
of a number of high-grade deposits
are augmented by chalcopyrite-
dominated sulfide veinlets that clearly
cut those of A- and B-type (e.g., El
Teniente, Far Southeast, Grasberg,
Quebradona, Red Chris, Resolution,
Rosario; Fig. 2b). These veinlets,
commonly termed C-type (Monecke
et al., 2018, and references therein),
appear to have formed during continued
hydrofracturing and introduction of
Cu that could not be accommodated in
preexisting quartz veinlets and, judging
by the absence of accompanying quartz,
at temperatures within the field of
retrograde quartz solubility (Monecke et
al., 2018).
In the relatively few porphyry Cu
deposits related to deeper (>~5 km)
intrusions and formed from single-
phase magmatic fluids, Cu-bearing
sulfides are hosted mainly by early halo
veinlets in which they occur largely as
disseminations in sericite (phengite)-
K-feldspar ± biotite ± andalusite halos
rather than along the centerlines
(Proffett, 2009; Cernuschi et al., 2023).
However, appreciable tonnages of
>1% Cu ore contained in early halo
veinlets are unknown, although at
Chuquicamata and MMH they make
a substantial contribution to the large
>1% Cu resource (Boric et al., 2009;
Rivera et al., 2012; Table 1).
Lithologic barriers
In some porphyry Cu deposits, a case
can be made for grade enhancement
by containment of ore-forming fluids
by relatively impermeable wall rocks,
which may also inhibit quartz veinlet
formation because of their relative
ductility. The Dalam diatreme in the
upper part of the Grasberg deposit is
separated from massive, unmineralized,
marbleized limestone wall rocks by a
late-stage, 20- to 40-m-wide body of
massive pyrite that formed by carbonate
replacement over a ~1-km vertical
interval (Leys et al., 2020), implying
internal retention and minimal lateral
dispersion of fluids and contained
metals (Sillitoe, 2010). Other relatively
impermeable rock types are considered
to have played a similar role elsewhere,
a particularly good example being the
phyllite that envelops the Golpu deposit
(Rinne et al., 2018; Table 1).
Where porphyry Cu intrusions have
their apices preserved, it is evident that
suprajacent impermeable rocks can
act as effective top seals that impede
upward propagation of intrusions,
alteration, and mineralization, thereby
assisting development of high grades,
as exemplified by an andesitic flow unit
above the Onto deposit (Burrows et al.,
2020). At Filo del Sol, flanking mafic
dikes and overlying mafic sills helped to
confine Cu-Au mineralization (Perelló
et al., 2023). Permeability and ductility

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by Jackelin Ochoa
 No 135 • OCTOBER 2023 SEG DISCOVERY 17

Fig. 2. Copper-bearing quartz veinlets in high-grade porphyry Cu deposits. a) Crosscutting A-type quartz veinlets in biotite-altered porphyry, with
chalcopyrite and lesser bornite present in cavities along faint, irregular centerlines and as fine-grained disseminations. Esperanza, Chile. b) A-type
quartz veinlet with internal cracks and microcavities containing chalcopyrite, which is also present as a crosscutting, C-type veinlet and abundant dis-
seminations. Potassic-altered host porphyry overprinted by chlorite-sericite, Grasberg, Indonesia. 1-cm scribe tip for scale. c) Highest quartz veinlet
intensity (>20 vol %) and highest Cu grade confined to apex of early porphyry intrusion, Quebradona (Nuevo Chaquiro), Colombia (after Bartos et
al., 2017). d) Highest quartz veinlet intensity (>90 vol %) and highest Cu grade confined to apex of early porphyry intrusion, Hugo Dummett North,
Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia (after Crane and Kavalieris, 2012).

contrasts between porphyry stocks and
overlying rocks may also have been
an important factor in development
of intense quartz veining and high Cu
grades in the apices of porphyry stocks,
as described above (Figs. 1a, 2c, d).
Constituent parts of porphyry
Cu deposits or prospects can also be
confined beneath top seals, which
were arguably instrumental in grade
development. Examples are provided by
the diorite sill above the Coroccohuayco
Cu skarn, massive andesite above the
high-sulfidation Upper Zone at Čukaru
Peki, and the clay-rich pyroclastic unit
above the Lepanto pyrite-enargite-
luzonite-replacement body (Table 2).
Hydrothermal breccias
Magmatic-hydrothermal,
phreatomagmatic (diatreme), and
phreatic breccias are all capable of
localizing high-grade ore in porphyry
Cu deposits because of their intrinsic
permeability and capacity to focus fluid
upflow (Sillitoe, 1985). Nonetheless,

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by Jackelin Ochoa
 18
Exploration Guides for High-Grade Hypogene Porphyry Copper Deposits (cont.)
magmatic-hydrothermal breccias are
by far the most common hosts for
high-grade ore because they are direct
products of overpressured magmatic
fluids and more likely to have plenty
of interclast void space (Fig. 3a, b).
Magmatic-hydrothermal breccias
are typically intermineral in timing,
implying linkage to intermineral rather
than early porphyry intrusions as well
as commonly being “blind” because
they are insufficiently energetic to attain
shallow, epithermal levels (Sillitoe, 2010;
Fig. 1a, b).
The overall contribution of
magmatic-hydrothermal breccias to
metal inventories is primarily dependent
on their size. In the Río Blanco-Los
Bronces district, as many as 20 breccias
account for exceptionally high-grade
(2–>10% Cu) ore locally, high average
grades of constituent deposits (e.g.,
1.37% Cu at Los Sulfatos), and roughly
half of the 200 Mt of contained Cu
(Irarrazaval et al., 2010; Table 1). In most
high-grade deposits, however, breccias
account for <20% and, commonly, <10%
of the ore, although even such relatively
small percentages can have potentially
significant economic impacts (e.g., El
Teniente, Filo del Sol, and Resolution;
Table 1). Unusual, partly brecciated,
quartz-dominated pegmatoid bodies in
porphyry Cu systems, interpreted here
as sites of magmatic fluid accumulation
that failed to become sufficiently
overpressured to generate throughgoing
breccias, can also give rise to high-grade
ore, as exemplified by La Colorada at
Cananea (6% Cu; Perry, 1961; Table 2).
Many magmatic-hydrothermal
breccias can undergo sericitic alteration,
commonly tourmaline-bearing (Fig.
3a, b), but downward transitions to
potassic assemblages characterize
some vertically extensive breccias, as
observed at Río Blanco-Los Bronces
(Vargas et al., 1999; Irarrazaval et al.,
2010; Fig. 1a). This downward alteration
change is paralleled by transitions from
pyrite through chalcopyrite-pyrite to
chalcopyrite-bornite and even bornite-
digenite in the case of Río Blanco-Los
Bronces (Irarrazaval et al., 2010). As
pyrite diminishes downward, magnetite
appears. Uncommonly, magmatic-
hydrothermal breccias formed during
potassic alteration can be overprinted
by advanced argillic alteration and high-
grade, high-sulfidation mineralization
(e.g., Filo del Sol; Perelló et al., 2023;
Fig. 1b). The pegmatoidal quartz body
at La Colorada also underwent this
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by Jackelin Ochoa
SEG DISCOVERY
same superimposition of alteration and
mineralization (Perry, 1961; Einaudi,
1982a).
If magmatic-hydrothermal breccias
are to make high-grade ore, it is
essential that appreciable open space
for Cu-bearing sulfides still exists after
cementation by paragenetically earlier
minerals, typically quartz, white mica,
and tourmaline (Fig. 3a, b) or, at greater
depths, quartz, biotite, K-feldspar, and
magnetite. In view of their common
intermineral timing, Cu-mineralized
clasts can also make important grade
contributions. Anhydrite is commonly
the paragenetically latest breccia infill
(Fig. 3b) and is readily leached by
supergene solutions, in places to depths
of many hundreds of meters, leaving
characteristic interclast cavities.
Phreatomagmatic breccias associated
with porphyry Cu deposits are
commonly late mineral in timing and,
hence, poorly mineralized or entirely
barren (Sillitoe, 1985), but premineral
examples can host high-grade ore (e.g.,
Grasberg and Onto; Leys et al., 2012;
Burrows et al., 2020). Phreatic breccias
are generally confined to the shallow,
epithermal environment, but in highly
telescoped porphyry Cu systems, they
can contain high-grade, high-sulfidation
mineralization present in both clasts
and later cement (e.g., Filo del Sol;
Perelló et al., 2023).
Vuggy residual quartz
Residual quartz is exclusive to advanced
argillic lithocaps, the shallow parts of
porphyry Cu systems, where it marks
upflow pathways of highly acidic (pH
<1.5) and corrosive fluids generated by
condensation of magmatic vapor into
groundwater aquifers (Stoffregen, 1987).
In rocks containing feldspar phenocrysts
or reactive lithic clasts, the acid leaching
imparts a vuggy texture that enhances
rock permeability. Hence, structurally
or stratigraphically controlled bodies
of vuggy residual quartz can act as
preferred conduits for any later fluids
depositing high- or very high sulfidation
mineralization, comprising abundant
pyrite plus one or more of enargite,
luzonite, bornite, digenite, chalcocite,
and covellite. Vuggy residual quartz
associated with and overprinted by
silicification and phreatic brecciation
in lithocaps above and/or adjacent
to the tops of porphyry Cu deposits
helped to localize several high-grade
Cu-Au orebodies, with massive sulfide
replacement especially common
No 135 • OCTOBER 2023
beneath top seals (e.g., Bor, Čukaru Peki,
and Lepanto; Table 2; Figs. 1a, 3c).
Rapid synmineral uplift and
concomitant erosion can result in
highly telescoped porphyry Cu systems,
in which advanced argillic lithocaps
overprint and reconstitute deeper
alteration, including quartz-veined
potassic zones (Sillitoe, 1994; Sillitoe
and Perelló, 2005; Tosdal and Dilles,
2020; Figs. 1b, 3d, e). Telescoping can
result in high Cu (± Au) grades because
of hypogene enrichment, whereby
Cu remobilized from chalcopyrite in
and around quartz veinlet stockworks
is supplemented by that introduced
under high-sulfidation conditions
during advanced argillic alteration
(Brimhall, 1979; Sillitoe, 1995, 2010;
Fig. 3d). The high Cu and Au grades
in the Aurora zone at Filo del Sol are
hosted by permeable bodies of vuggy
residual quartz that overprinted not
only quartz veinlet stockworks but also
magmatic-hydrothermal breccia, both of
which were originally developed under
potassic-stable conditions (Perelló et
al., 2023; Table 1; Fig. 1b). Likewise, at
the Onto deposit, some of the highest
grades (>2.5% Cu) are hosted by vuggy
residual quartz zones developed in both
the diatreme breccia and quartz veinlet-
stockworked intrusions (Burrows et al.,
2020; Table 1).
Vein systems
Many porphyry Cu systems and
their component parts display
obvious structural control because of
elongation in particular directions,
in places parallel to mapped faults.
However, notwithstanding the
influence of external structural controls
(Redmond and Einaudi, 2010; Harris
and Holcombe, 2014), quartz veinlet
stockworks are largely the products
of hydraulic fracturing, in contrast to
later vein sets that form once district-
scale stress regimes are reimposed (e.g.,
Gruen et al., 2010; Tosdal and Dilles,
2020). In a few deposits, including Butte
(Sales, 1914), Chuquicamata (Rivera
et al., 2012; Fig. 3f), MMH (Sillitoe et
al., 1996), and Rosario (Masterman et
al., 2005), such late fault and fracture
systems localized high-grade, high-
sulfidation Cu mineralization in the
shallow parts of porphyry systems,
generally in the roots of advanced
argillic lithocaps (Fig. 1a). The
subparallel vein arrays can extend for
several kilometers along strike and
to depths of ~1.5 km. As in the case
 No 135 • OCTOBER 2023 SEG DISCOVERY 19

Fig. 3. Breccias and high-sulfidation mineralization in porphyry Cu deposits. a) Sericitic-altered, magmatic-hydrothermal breccia cemented by early
tourmaline (black), traces of quartz, and later chalcopyrite (yellow). Río Blanco-Los Bronces, Chile. b) Sericitic-altered, magmatic-hydrothermal
breccia cemented by early tourmaline (black) and later chalcopyrite (yellow) and anhydrite (lavender). Río Blanco-Los Bronces, Chile. c) High-sulfida-
tion, massive sulfide-replacement ore composed of fine-grained pyrite overgrown by covellite. Čukaru Peki, Serbia. d) Intense A-type quartz veinlet
stockwork transformed to vuggy residual quartz during telescoping of lithocap over potassic-altered porphyry intrusion. Chalcopyrite was removed
from veinlets and pyrite and covellite deposited in cavities. Onto, Indonesia. e) Hypogene Cu enrichment caused by overprinting of potassic-altered
porphyry containing A-type quartz veinlets by quartz-alunite alteration and high-sulfidation mineralization. Note characteristic rimming of pyrite by
fine-grained admixtures of copper-bearing sulfides and sulfosalts (black), and occurrence of sulfides as disseminations and related hairline cracks in
both wall rock and quartz veinlets. Filo del Sol, Argentina-Chile. f) Elongate sericitic alteration zone (white) hosting >1% Cu ore as high-sulfidation
pyrite, enargite, and covellite telescoped over potassic alteration (exposed on benches to left); looking south along the 3-km length of the Chuqui-
camata open pit, Chile. Sericitic zone is truncated to west by postmineral West fault. Heavy equipment (shovels and blast-hole drill rigs) for scale.

of telescoped deposits (see above),
hypogene Cu enrichment is likely (e.g.,
Brimhall, 1979) and may combine with
fault dilatancy in the development of
high grades; in the case of Butte, these
average >4% Cu (Reed and Dilles, 2020;
Table 2).
Skarns and carbonate replacements
It is universally recognized that the
buffering capacity of fairly pure
limestone or dolostone units within
relatively permeable, thinly bedded
(volcano-)sedimentary sequences
facilitates prograde ± retrograde
skarn formation when accessed by
magmatic-hydrothermal fluids involved
in porphyry Cu formation (Einaudi,
1982a; Fig. 1a). Proximal skarns, chiefly
exoskarns alongside early porphyry
contacts (e.g., Mrozek et al., 2015),
invariably have higher Cu tenors (Table
2) than those in related porphyry-type
mineralization because permeability is
enhanced by skarn-forming reactions
as well as by fracturing and veining
induced by repetitive porphyry
emplacement and magmatic fluid
expulsion (Einaudi, 1982b; Meinert
et al., 2005). Several large Cu skarns
abut subeconomic porphyry Cu ± Mo
mineralization, as observed at Christmas
(Perry, 1969), Antamina (Lipten and
Smith, 2005), and Coroccohuayco
(Maher, 2010), perhaps suggesting that
mineralizing fluids are preferentially
transferred to the adjoining carbonate
rocks (Einaudi, 1982b). Elsewhere,
however, the porphyry Cu deposits are
high grade albeit still lower in grade
than the genetically related skarns
(Tables 1, 2).
Porphyry Cu-related skarns have
varied forms dictated by the interplay
between porphyry stock contacts,

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 20
Exploration Guides for High-Grade Hypogene Porphyry Copper Deposits (cont.)
relative receptivity of carbonate units,
and degree of fault control (Einaudi,
1982a; Meinert et al., 2005). Skarn
development can follow porphyry
contacts over vertical intervals of 1.5 to
>2 km (e.g., Bingham Canyon, Ertsberg
East, and Antamina; Harrison and Reid,
1997; Leys et al., 2012; Mrozek et al.,
2015; Table 2; Fig. 4a). Large Cu skarns
can be associated with the apices of
porphyry stocks (e.g., Antamina; Lipten
and Smith, 2005), but vertical extent is
the ultimate control on size (>4,000 Mt
at Ertsberg East; Leys et al., 2012; Fig. 4a).
High-grade Cu mineralization
follows prograde calcic or magnesian
skarn formation alongside porphyry Cu
stocks, but either prograde (Antamina,
Coroccohuayco) or retrograde (Ertsberg
East) skarn can be the dominant host
to ore, which is generally in the form
of low- to intermediate-sulfidation
chalcopyrite-bornite, chalcopyrite,
and/or chalcopyrite-pyrite assemblages
(Table 2). Magmatic-hydrothermal skarn
breccias host particularly high-grade Cu
ore at Antamina and Ertsberg East (Table
2). Unusually, very high sulfidation-state
pyrite-covellite mineralization is present
in retrograde skarn at Kucing Liar (Leys
et al., 2012; Table 2).
High-grade, carbonate-replacement
Cu orebodies can also form in
association with porphyry Cu deposits
as either pyrite-rich, quartz-massive
sulfide (e.g., Bisbee) or massive
specularite-pyrite-chalcopyrite ±
bornite (e.g., Magma)-replacement
mantos or pipes in (marbleized)
limestone (Einaudi, 1982a, b; Paul
and Knight, 1995; Fig. 1b; Table 2).
The fluids responsible have lower
temperature and pH and higher S
fugacity than those required for skarn
development, thereby dictating an
association with porphyry intrusions
altered to sericitic and/or advanced
argillic assemblages (Einaudi, 1982a, b;
Fig. 1b). Where carbonate replacement
takes place above rather than
alongside porphyry intrusions, the
resultant Cordilleran-type deposits are
dominated by proximal quartz, pyrite,
and enargite along with advanced
argillic minerals (e.g., Colquijirca, Peru;
Bendezú and Fontboté, 2009; Table 2).
Replacement processes favor carbonate
units with higher permeability, which
can be further enhanced during early
replacement by either specularite or
quartz-pyrite (Paul and Knight, 1995;
Bendezú and Fontboté, 2009).
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SEG DISCOVERY
Mafic host lithologies
Several of the world’s highest-grade
porphyry Cu deposits are hosted by
rock packages in which mafic lithologies
are volumetrically important (Fig. 1a).
These include gabbro, diabase, and
basaltic andesite porphyry at El Teniente
(Skewes et al., 2002), tholeiitic basaltic
volcanic rocks at Hugo Dummett
North (Crane and Kavalieris, 2012),
Proterozoic Apache Diabase sills at
Resolution (Hehnke et al., 2012; Fig.
4b), and possibly the dioritic Dalam
diatreme at Grasberg (Leys et al., 2020;
Table 1). These mafic rocks are major Cu
repositories, estimated to account for
80% of the resource at El Teniente (Vry
et al., 2010).
A solid case can be made for high
ferrous Fe contents in these mafic rocks
acting as a reductant, thereby aiding
precipitation of Cu transported in
oxidized magmatic fluids and serving
as a sort of chemical trap, principally
at the potassic alteration stage (Sillitoe,
2010; Fig. 1a). By the same token,
mafic-poor lithologies are generally
unreceptive host rocks (e.g., quartzite
at Resolution and Bingham Canyon;
Hehnke et al., 2012; Porter et al., 2012).
Synthesis of Controls on High-
Grade Development
High-grade porphyry Cu formation
ultimately reflects efficient cooling
of a focused flux of hot, ascendant,
magmatic fluids. However, it is
argued here that development of high
Cu grade is favored by structurally
and hydrothermally generated
permeability and rock reactivity
of porphyry intrusions and their
immediate host rocks. Permeability
and, as a consequence, focused fluid
flow are appreciably enhanced by
the following: intense quartz veinlet
stockworks; skarnification or quartz-
pyrite/specularite replacement of
carbonate host rocks; hydrothermal
brecciation, particularly of relatively
early, magmatic-hydrothermal type;
and vuggy residual quartz formation
or district-scale, fault-controlled
vein formation relatively late in
the evolution of advanced argillic
lithocaps (Fig. 1a, b). Rock reactivity
plays major roles in skarn formation
and chemical reduction of ore fluids
by mafic lithologies (Fig. 1a). The
corollary is unreactive lithologies,
such as rhyolite and quartzite, favor
advanced argillic alteration, including
No 135 • OCTOBER 2023
residual quartz formation, because
of their low neutralization capacities
for acidic fluids. The features favoring
development of >1% Cu ore can occur
alone but are commonly present in
various combinations (Tables 1, 2).
Grade enhancement is undoubtedly
favored by the presence of Cu-rich, low-
sulfidation-state bornite-, digenite-, and/
or chalcocite-bearing sulfide assemblages
in the cores of potassic zones (Fig. 5a,
b), and by hypogene Cu enrichment
where Cu-bearing potassic zones
are overprinted by high-sulfidation-
state sulfide associations (Fig. 5a, d).
Alteration type per se does not appear
to be a fundamental control on grade
development, given that potassic,
chlorite-sericite, sericitic, and advanced
argillic (residual quartz, quartz-alunite,
and quartz-pyrophyllite) assemblages
are all capable of hosting high-grade
porphyry Cu ore (Fig. 1a, b); however,
potassic assemblages are clearly the
most common, accounting for all or
part of the >1% Cu ore in two-thirds
of the resources listed in Table 1. Nor
does sulfidation state of Cu-bearing
sulfides appear to be particularly
influential, because high-grade Cu ore
exists in zones characterized by low-
sulfidation-state chalcopyrite-bornite
and bornite ± digenite ± chalcocite (Fig.
5a, b), intermediate-sulfidation-state
chalcopyrite-pyrite (Fig. 5a, c), and high-
and very high sulfidation-state pyrite-
enargite, pyrite-bornite, pyrite-digenite,
and pyrite-covellite (Fig. 5a, d). These
high- and very high sulfidation-state
assemblages commonly have elevated
contents of deleterious elements, most
notably As, of metallurgical concern.
The potential independence of grade and
alteration type, and hence sulfidation
state, is further emphasized by deposits
in which Cu contents remain essentially
unchanged upward from potassic
through chlorite-sericite and sericitic to
advanced argillic alteration over vertical
intervals of at least 1 km (e.g., Sillitoe et
al., 2013). In marked contrast, however,
deeply developed sodic-calcic alteration
is typically low grade or barren (e.g.,
Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Sillitoe et al.,
2013).
Fundamental controls on develop­
ment of high Cu grades, such as vol-
ume, metal content, and duration of
magmatic fluid flux along with Cu
precipitation efficiency, are undoubtedly
also important (e.g., Landtwing et al.,
2005; Chelle-Michou et al., 2017;
Audétat, 2019) but difficult to assess
 No 135 • OCTOBER 2023 SEG DISCOVERY 21

'' Large et al., 2020). Reference to Tables

' 1 and 2 reveals that >1% Cu grades can
occur in Au-rich porphyry deposits as
'
\
\ 4,000 m
+ well as in those that contain by-product
Mo but little or no Au. When we bear
•
• •
'' in mind that the former are typically
generated more shallowly than the
\ latter (Murakami et al., 2010), depth
3,500 m of deposit formation does not appear
• /
/

+ / to be a fundamental factor controlling

• Cu grade, although extremely deep (>5
• km) deposits dominated by early halo
• veinlets do not appear to average >1%

.
+ Cu. Physical disruption by late intrusive

.
phases (Fig. 1a, b), particularly where
+ +
• present as multiple dikes, can dilute
•
.
bulk Cu grades, rendering subeconomic
+ + even initially high-grade porphyry Cu
• +• +• +
+ mineralization (e.g., Komopa, Papua,
+ • Indonesia and Liamu, Papua New Guin-
• • • +
a + ea; R.H. Sillitoe, unpub. report, 1995; J.

[±] Ertsberg intrusion D Quartz stockwork Marble front

Perelló, unpub. data, 2017).

D Mainly micritic
limestone
0Skarn Fault Exploration Guides
Alteration Bedding
8 �andstone and a � a: Potassic
� Unconformity
Regional and district scales
limestone kfi.J b: Propylitic
b During both greenfields and
brownfields exploration, previously
mapped and documented geology can
be used to select areas with greater
potential for high-grade porphyry
Cu development. Arc segments
characterized by extensive shelf-
Sea level carbonate sequences, as exemplified
by Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic
formations in New Guinea, Peru,
and parts of western North America,
respectively, are obviously more
-500 m propitious for porphyry Cu-related skarn
and carbonate-replacement deposits,
including those of shallow, Cordilleran
type (Table 2). Massive limestone
and other apparently impermeable
lithologies, such as phyllite, would
-1,000 m
G sedimentary
also be of interest because of their
Postmineralization
rocks I 0 I Advanced argillic alteration potential to generate high grades

D > 1% Cu shell
through magmatic fluid impoundment.
Porphyry-related rocks Similarly, areas with mafic volcanic

l¾I b:a: Magmatic-hydrothermal

Porphyry (various phases)
breccia
D > 2% Cu shell or intrusive rocks of whatever age,
relatively uncommon in mature
Country rocks Base of supergene arc terranes, could be preferentially
alteration
[2yJ a: Undifferentiated explored in the hope of encountering
V b: Diabase sill Fault potassic alteration containing high-
grade Cu ore (e.g., Fig. 4b).
Fig. 4. High-grade components of porphyry Cu deposits. a) Vertically extensive, Cu-rich skarn The tectonic regimes of arc
abutting potassic-altered porphyry intrusion, Ertsberg East, Papua, Indonesia (after Leys et al., segments can also influence grade
2012). b) High-grade Cu orebody relative to mafic host rocks, magmatic-hydrothermal breccia, development. Arcs formed during
and hypogene-enriched advanced argillic alteration zone, Resolution, Arizona (after Hehnke et contractional tectonism caused by
al., 2012).
flat-slab subduction or continent-
continent collision undergo crustal
using geologic criteria alone; however, by high-precision radiometric dating thickening and shortening, high uplift
duration of fluid ascent in geologi- of early and late porphyry intrusions rates, and rapid erosion. Porphyry Cu
cally young systems can be addressed bracketing Cu mineralization (e.g., deposits forming in them are those

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by Jackelin Ochoa
 22 SEG DISCOVERY No 135 • OCTOBER 2023

Exploration Guides for High-Grade Hypogene Porphyry Copper Deposits (cont.)

Fig. 5. Sulfide assemblages responsible for high-grade porphyry Cu deposits. a) Stability relationships of sulfide minerals commonly present in
porphyry Cu deposits as a function of O and S activities at 300°C (after Beane and Titley, 1981). The orange band approximates the upward
progression from low-sulfidation (LS)- through intermediate-sulfidation (IS)- to high-sulfidation (HS)-state assemblages. At temperatures <300°C,
higher-sulfidation pyrite-digenite and pyrite-covellite assemblages are also present. Abbreviations: bn = bornite, cc = chalcocite, cp = chalcopyrite,
enar = enargite, hem = hematite, mag = magnetite, po = pyrrhotite, py = pyrite, ten = tennantite. b) Low-sulfidation-state chalcopyrite, bornite,
and digenite disseminated in potassic-altered porphyry. Filo del Sol, Argentina-Chile. c) Early chlorite (dark green) and intermediate sulfidation-state
pyrite-chalcopyrite (pale yellow) cementing chlorite-sericite-altered magmatic-hydrothermal breccia. High-grade zone at Zaldívar, Chile. d) High-sul-
fidation pyrite and enargite in vuggy residual quartz alteration. Filo del Sol, Argentina-Chile.

more likely to be highly telescoped,
with advanced argillic lithocaps,
locally including vuggy residual quartz,
overprinting potassic alteration-hosted
quartz veinlet stockworks to produce
hypogene Cu enrichment (Figs. 1b,
3d, e, 5d). Formation of telescoped
porphyry Cu deposits can take <1 m.y.
where uplift rates attain 1 km/m.y.,
as at Filo del Sol (Perelló et al., 2023;
Table 1). Telescoping is even more
likely where deposit formation takes
place over longer time intervals, say
about 2 to 4 m.y., probably involving
more than one porphyry intrusion
event, as strongly suspected in the
cases of Butte (Reed and Dilles, 2020),
Rosario (Masterman et al., 2005), and
Chuquicamata (Reynolds et al., 1998).
In rare cases, however, telescoping and
high-grade hypogene Cu enrichment
can be caused by confinement of
entire systems beneath unbreached
lithologic and silicic alteration barriers,
as documented at Onto (Burrows et al.,
2020; Table 1).
Sufficient radiometric dating to chart
rapidity of uplift is beyond the scope of
most greenfields exploration programs,
although a number of academic studies
of tectonic uplift have been undertaken
in prospective arc terranes (e.g., Kurtz
et al., 1997). Nonetheless, several
regional-scale geologic features may be
used as proxies. Favorable arc segments
for telescoped porphyry systems are
likely to be characterized by thick-
skinned, high-angle reverse faulting,
confinement of porphyry intrusions to
fault-bounded basement blocks, and
little or no volcanism contemporaneous
with porphyry Cu formation (Sillitoe
and Perelló, 2005; Perelló et al., 2023;
Fig. 1b).
Deposit scale
At the deposit scale, there are a number
of geologic features that can be used
to infer high-grade Cu potential.
High intensities (>20 vol %) of quartz
veinlets, which are well preserved
during weathering (Fig. 6a), can be
good indicators of elevated subsurface
Cu grades, even if direct evidence of Cu
mineralization is absent in outcrop; any
accompanying Au and/or Mo values
may, however, remain. If intense quartz
stockworks are overprinted by advanced
argillic alteration, particularly vuggy
residual quartz (Fig. 3d)—also well-
preserved during weathering—it can
be assumed that the system underwent
extreme telescoping and, therefore,
hypogene Cu enrichment is distinctly
possible.
Hydrothermal breccias of any type
should immediately arouse interest. If

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 No 135 • OCTOBER 2023
Fig. 6. Effects of supergene activity on porphyry Cu deposit components. a) Surface expression
of intense quartz veinlet stockwork in potassic-altered porphyry subjected to surficial weather-
ing. Hammer for scale. b) Magmatic-hydrothermal breccia cemented by tourmaline (blue-gray)
and minor chalcopyrite (yellow, on left), showing cavities remaining after dissolution of parage-
netically late anhydrite by ambient groundwater.
breccia clasts are little comminuted,
largely monolithic, and strongly
sericitic-altered (Fig. 3a), then a
magmatic-hydrothermal origin could
be indicated. If the breccias contain
open space, they have probably
undergone supergene sulfide oxidation
and/or anhydrite dissolution (Fig. 6b);
however, if there was available space for
late anhydrite, then there must have
been plenty of interclast void space for
deposition of any paragenetically earlier
or contemporaneous sulfide minerals
(Fig. 3b). Even if pyrite, with or without
sphalerite and galena, dominates near-
surface sulfide cement, downward
change to more Cu-rich sulfide minerals
is certainly possible (e.g., Cananea and
Los Sulfatos; Perry, 1961; Irarrazaval et
al., 2010).
Exposed Cu skarns should be
relatively straightforward to recognize,
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by Jackelin Ochoa
SEG DISCOVERY
although the zonal position of any high
Cu grades, for example near the marble
front or associated with retrograde
alteration (Einaudi, 1982a), may require
detailed mineralogic observations (e.g.,
Meinert, 1997). The generally more
pyritic nature of carbonate-replacement
deposits may lead to more extensive Cu
leaching in the supergene environment,
although the resultant gossans should
be readily recognizable in carbonate
terrains. It is important to bear in mind
that both Cu skarns and carbonate-
replacement deposits commonly
accompany low-grade porphyry Cu
centers lacking economic potential.
It is likely that high-grade
components of porphyry Cu deposits,
such as intense quartz veinlet
stockworks, magmatic-hydrothermal
breccias, high-sulfidation massive
sulfides, skarns, and carbonate
23
replacements, will be concealed within
or around outcropping porphyry Cu
systems beneath premineral rocks.
The high-grade quartz stockwork at
Quebradona developed at the apex of
a “blind” porphyry intrusion beneath
~250 m of volcanic cover (Bartos et al.,
2017; Fig. 2c); magmatic-hydrothermal
breccias at Resolution do not attain the
preserved paleosurface (Hehnke et al.,
2012; Fig. 4b); La Colorada pegmatoid
breccia at Cananea lies under ~100 m of
poorly mineralized cover (Perry, 1961);
Coroccohuayco Cu skarn is capped
by an unmineralized, subsurface sill
(Maher, 2010); and the Čukaru Peki
high-sulfidation deposit is concealed
beneath unaltered massive andesite,
with the bonanza-grade ore (13.5%
Cu, 10.4 g/t Au) confined immediately
beneath it (R.H. Sillitoe, unpub.
report, 2017). Therefore, just because
high-grade Cu mineralization is not
apparent at or near surface, it does not
necessarily mean that the entire deposit
or prospect is unexceptional. Indeed,
increasing recognition of top seals
above high-grade Cu ore may imply
the need for a modified exploration
approach, and perhaps more target
testing, because development of
shallower alteration and mineralization
may be stymied, at least vertically above
ore (e.g., Onto; Burrows et al., 2020).
Postmineralization stratigraphic and/or
structural concealment can, of course,
give rise to similarly “blind” high-grade
Cu ore (e.g., Hugo Dummett North;
Wainwright et al., 2017).
Conclusions
This brief review highlights the spectrum
of features and components in and
around porphyry Cu deposits that are
conducive to high-grade development
and, as a consequence, to forming
economically and environmentally more
attractive orebodies. It seems that intense
quartz veinlet stockworks, magmatic-
hydrothermal breccias, hypogene
enrichment near the base of telescoped
lithocaps, and especially reactive or
impermeable host rocks are the most
important common geologic attributes
with the potential to generate porphyry
Cu deposits with grades exceeding
1% Cu. In contrast, ultrahigh-grade
(2–>6% Cu), high-sulfidation massive
sulfide and carbonate-replacement
bodies, magmatic-hydrothermal breccias,
and vein systems are more likely to
constitute stand-alone orebodies, with
 24
Exploration Guides for High-Grade Hypogene Porphyry Copper Deposits (cont.)
or without accompanying high-grade
porphyry Cu deposits (Tables 1, 2).
The fact that many of these high-grade
porphyry Cu components are commonly
concealed at depth beneath variably
altered but weakly mineralized or barren
premineral rocks implies that a thorough
understanding of district and porphyry
Cu geology, a good imagination, and
plenty of drill meters are often needed to
discover them.
Acknowledgments
Provision of data by and discussions
with Humberto Brockway, Dave
Burrows, Craig Feebrey, Jorge Gomez,
Ken Krahulec, Larry Meinert, Guillermo
Müller, Sergio Rivera, and Alan Wilson;
manuscript reviews by Dave Burrows,
Mac Canby, and Alan Wilson; figure
preparation by Héctor Poblete; and
expeditious manuscript handling
by Bruce Gemmell are gratefully
acknowledged. We dedicate this article
to the late Francisco (Pancho) Ortiz
in recognition of a lifetime devoted
to Chilean Cu exploration, including
siting the drill hole that discovered
the spectacularly high-grade supergene
enrichment at the Escondida porphyry
Cu deposit.
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then returning
to the University
of London as a Shell postdoctoral re-
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base, and lithophile metal deposits
and prospects in 100 countries, but fo-
cuses primarily on the epithermal gold
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25
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José (Pepe)
Perelló gained
a B.Sc. degree
from Universi-
dad de Chile,
Santiago, Chile,
and an M.Sc.
degree from
Queen’s Uni-
versity, Kings-
ton, Ontario,
Canada. He worked 18 years for BHP
and 22 years for Antofagasta Minerals
during which time he was involved
in early- and advanced-stage explora-
tion of a variety of base and precious
metal deposits and prospects, mainly
porphyry, IOCG, and sediment-hosted
copper, in 51 countries worldwide. He
is now enjoying semiretirement and
part-time independent consultancy in
economic geology and exploration.