Lec.

19
+ 1
Lec. 20

CE 371 Surveying
EDM & Stadia

Dr. Ragab Khalil

Department of Landscape Architecture
Faculty of Environmental Design
King AbdulAziz University
Room LIE15
Overview
2

• EDM
• Classification of EDM Instruments
 Electro-optical Instruments
 Microwave Instruments
• Fundamental Principles of EDMI Operation
• Total Station Instruments
• Accuracy of EDM Instruments
• Sources of Errors
• Stadia
• Stadia Measurements for Horizontal Sights
• Stadia Measurements for Inclined Sights
• Precision of Stadia Measurements
Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying
 EDM
3

• An electronic distance-measuring (EDM) instrument can

determine distances by measuring phase changes that
occur as electromagnetic energy of known wavelength
travels from the instrument and returns.
• Accurate distance measurements can be obtained rapidly
and easily. Distances can be measured over bodies of
water or rugged terrain that is inaccessible for taping.
• According to wavelength of transmitted electromagnetic
energy, EDM instruments are classified as Electro-optical
and Microwave instruments.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Electro-optical Instruments
Reflector
Light Beam

S B
Transmitter

FIGURE 6.1: Measurement principle of an electro-optical EDM.

Composed of transmitter (main instrument) and

reflector.
• Transmit visible and infrared waves.
• Wave lengths range from 0.7 to 1.2 micrometers.
• Range from 1 to 3 km. Maximum ranges 20 km.
• Use Amplitude Modulation (AM) wave.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Microwave instruments

Remote unit
Microwave beam

B
Master unit

FIGURE 6.2: Measurement principle of a microwave EDM.

Composed of two identical units: Master

and Remote.
• These instruments transmit microwave signals.
• Wavelengths range from1.0 to 8.6 millimeters.
• Can measure much longer distances of up to 80 km.
• Use Frequency Modulation (FM) wave.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

Fundamental Principles of EDM Operation

Amplitude

 /2

0° 90° 180° 270° 360° Phase

FIGURE 6.3: Phase angle of a sinusoidal wave.

V
=
f

Where  = wavelength (distance traveled during the period of one cycle)

V = velocity of propagation (V = 299792.5  0.4 km/sec in a vacuum)
f = frequency in Hz (cycle/sec)

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Fundamental Principles of EDMI Operation

90

180 0

270

Phase Angle 

Assume that  = 100 m

If 1 = 80, it corresponds to a distance = (80/360) *  = 22.22 m
If 2 = 135, it corresponds to a distance = (135/360) *  = 37.5 m
If 3 = 240, it corresponds to a distance = (80/360) *  = 66.67 m
Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying
Electronic Distance Measurement
EDM

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Transmitter Transmitted Returning
waves waves
Reflector
50°

300°

FIGURE 6.4: Measurement of phase difference.

The instrument is not capable of 1 

measuring the term n, it can only S = 2 (n + 360  )
measure the phase shift . Where:  = wavelength
To solve this problem, a signal with n = total number of full
longer wavelength is used such that wavelengths
the distance between the instrument  = phase difference
and the reflector is less than  .

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 To go around measuring n in the previous equation
(which is difficult to measure with a single
frequency), the EDM sends several frequencies
successively and measures the phase differences
and sums the fractions of the distance to find the
total distance (see table below).
Measured  1 
Frequency (m) 
Phase Difference 2 360°
F1 = 14.989625 MHz  1 = 250° 20 6.944 m
F2 = 1.4989625 MHz  2 = 98° 200 27 m
F3 = 149.89625 KHz  3 = 190° 2000 527 m
F4 = 14.989625 KHz  4 = 91° 20000 2527 m
S = 6.944 + 20 + 500 + 2000 = 2526.944 m

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Example 2
11

• An EDMI transmits 2 signals having wavelengths 1.000 m

and 2000.0 m. When measuring a distance, the phase
shifts were: 186.70o and 308.97o respectively. Compute
the length of this measured distance.
Solution:
• For first signal,
• measured distance = 1.000 (186.70o/360o) = 0.519 m
• For second signal,
• measured distance = 2000.0 (308.97/360)=1716.5 m
• Therefore, the distance = 0.519 + 1716 = 1716.519 m.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

Total station
12

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 RETRO-REFLECTORS
• Fixed and tilted
• Single and multiple

FIGURE 6.7: Examples of retro-reflectors

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Accuracy of EDM Instruments
14

• An EDM instrument with an accuracy of ±(5 mm + 3 ppm)

indicates a fixed error of 5 mm regardless of the distance
measured, and a variable error of 3 parts per million (ppm)
of the measured distance.

• For short distances, fixed error is more critical than

variable error, while for long distances the opposite is true.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Example
15

• Distance X= 5580.284 m is measured by two EDMI instruments.

Instrument A has an accuracy equals to ±(5 mm + 3 ppm), while
instrument B accuracy is ±(3 mm + 5 ppm). Compute the error in
distance X made by each instrument. Which instrument is better to
use? Why?

• Solution:
• Error using instrument A= 5 mm + 3 (5580284 mm /1,000,000) =
21.7 mm
• Error using instrument B= 3 mm + 5 (5580284 mm /1,000,000) =
30.9 mm
• It is better to use instrument A, because it produces less error

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Sources of Errors
16

• Instrumental errors:
such as prism constant, electronic center constant of the
instrument, frequency change of the signal. These errors can
be eliminated by periodic checking of the EDM instrument
against a calibrated base line.
• Natural errors:
such as variation in temperature, pressure, and humidity.
These can affect the atmospheric index of refraction, which
will affect the speed of transmitted electromagnetic signal in
air.
• Human (personal):
such as misreading or miswriting a measurement, or failing
to center and level the EDM instrument.
Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying
 Systematic Errors
17

• Systematic errors can be eliminated by using certain

mathematical formulas and by proper field measurements and
calibration of instruments.
• Prism constant and electronic center constant can be subtracted
from measured distance.
• Temperature, pressure, and humidity effect on atmospheric
index of refraction can be computed from special charts or
formulas and then eliminated from the measurements.
• In some total stations, temperature, pressure, and humidity are
measured and directly entered into the instrument to eliminate
their effects.
• By measuring distance AB from A to B and then from B to A,
some systematic errors can be eliminated.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Stadia

From similarity of triangles:

d/f = I/i or d = (f/i) I= K I
thus D = K I + C
Because of the signs of f and c the distance C
becomes negligible, thus,

• I) rod intercept, or stadia

interval
• (i) spacing between stadia
hair
• (f/i) = k = 100: stadia
interval factor
• C = (c + f) approximately
0, Stadia constant
D = KI = 100 I, for horizontal sight
Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying
 Example
19

• It is required to determine the horizontal distance between

points A and B by stadia method. A theodolite at A is used to
sight a level rod at B while the telescope is horizontal. The rod
readings are u =1.85 m, l =0.45 m. If the stadia interval factor
K =100, what is the horizontal distance HAB? If elevation of A
is 10.00 m, hiA=1.60 m, compute elevation of B.
• Solution:
• H= K I = K (u-l) = 100 (1.85 - 0.45) = 140.00 m
• ElevB = 10.00 + 1.60 - (1.85+0.45)/2 = 10.45 m.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Stadia Measurements for Inclined
Sights
20

• I’=I cos (a)

• L= K I’ = K I cos (a)
• H= L cos (a)
• H= K I cos2 (a) = 100 I cos2 (a)
• H= 100 I sin2 (z)

• V= 100 I cos (a) sin (a)

• V= 50 I sin (2z)

• ElvO=ElvM + hi + V - R

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

 Example
21

• A theodolite is used to determine horizontal distance HAB

and the elevation ElevB of point B. The following stadia
readings were taken: zenith angle z=82o, u =1.92 m, r
=1.15 m, l =0.32 m. If K=100, ElevA=500.00 m, telescope
height hiA = 1.60 m, compute horizontal distance HAB and
elevation of B.
• Solution:
• Stadia interval I = u - l = 1.92 - 0.32 = 1.60 m
• HAB=K I (sin z)2 =100(1.60)(sin 82o)2 = 156.90 m
• V = 0.5 K I sin(2z) = 0.5 (100) (1.60) sin(282o) = 22.05 m
• ElevB= ElevA + hiA + V - r = 500.00 + 1.60 + 22.05 - 1.15 =
522.50 m

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

Precision of Stadia Measurements
22

• Stadia survey is not suitable for precise horizontal distance

measurements or difference in elevations.
• Error ratio can be as low as 1/300 to 1/500 which makes it
suitable for rough measurements such as in topographic
surveys.
• For long distances, half the stadia interval I can be used to
intercept the level rod.

Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying

Summary
23

• EDM
• Classification of EDM Instruments
 Electro-optical Instruments
 Microwave Instruments
• Fundamental Principles of EDMI Operation
• Total Station Instruments
• Accuracy of EDM Instruments
• Sources of Errors
• Stadia
• Stadia Measurements for Horizontal Sights
• Stadia Measurements for Inclined Sights
• Precision of Stadia Measurements
Dr. Ragab Khalil KAU – FED – CE371 - Surveying