Nematode. Introduction, Morphology, Feeding Habits, Ecology and Spread.

Nematodes are invertebrate round worms that inhabit marine, freshwater, and
terrestrial environments.
They comprise the phylum Nematoda (or Nemata) which includes parasites of plants
and of animals, including humans, as well as species that feed on bacteria, fungi,
algae, and on other nematodes. Four out of every five multicellular animals on the
planet are nematodes. Nematodes that feed on other organisms are important
participants in the cycling of minerals and nutrients in the ecosystem that is
fundamental to other biological activity. (Plant-parasitic nematodes) PPN’s are
microscopic roundworms that feed on plants. Most species feed on roots but some
feed on plants foliar tissues.
 Morphology
The nematode body is more or less transparent. It is covered by a colorless cuticle,
which is usually marked by patterns or other markings. The cuticle molts when a
nematode goes through the successive juvenile stages. The cuticle is produced by the
hypodermis, which consists of living cells and extends into the body cavity as four
chords separating four bands of longitudinal muscles. The muscles enable the
nematode to move. Plant-parasitic nematodes are small, 300 to 1,000 micrometers,
with some up to 4 millimeters long, by 15–35 micrometers wide. Their small diameter
makes them invisible to the naked eye, but they can be observed easily under the
microscope. Nematodes are, in general, eel shaped and round in cross section, with
smooth, un-segmented bodies, without legs or other appendages. The females of some
species, however, become swollen at maturity and have pear-shaped or spheroid
bodies. The reproductive systems of nematodes are well developed. Females have one
or two ovaries, followed by an oviduct and uterus terminating in a vulva. The male
reproductive structure is similar to that of the female, but there is a testis, seminal
vesicle, and a terminus in a common opening with the intestine. A pair of protrusible,
copulatory spicules are also present in the male. Reproduction in plant parasitic
nematodes is through eggs and may be sexual or parthenogenetic. Many species lack
males. Life cycle histories of most plant parasitic nematodes are, in general, quite
similar. Eggs hatch into juveniles, whose appearance and structure are usually similar
to those of the adult nematodes. Juveniles grow in size, and each juvenile stage is
terminated by a molt. All nematodes have four juvenile stages, with the first molt
usually occurring in the egg. After the final molt the nematodes differentiate into
males and females. A life cycle from egg to egg may be completed within 2 to 4
weeks under optimum environmental, especially temperature, conditions but will take
longer in cooler tempratures.
 Feeding Habits of Nematode
According to the feeding mode nematodes are ecto-parasitic, semi-endo parasite and
others are endo-parasitic. Ecto-parasitic nematodes feed on plant tissues from outside
of the plant, semi endo parasite feed on plant from both outside and inside whereas
endo-parasitic nematodes feed on plant tissues from within the plant. Nematodes can
be further divided into migratory and sedentary types. If the adult female moves
freely through the soil or plant tissues, the nematode is said to be migratory. Plant
parasitic nematodes are distributed throughout the world and attack almost all major
crops. Several species of plant parasitic nematodes various crops in the subtropics
causing economic damage to the crops.
 Ecology.
Almost all plant pathogenic nematodes live part of their lives in the soil. Many live
freely in the soil, feeding superficially on roots and underground stems, and in all,
even in the specialized sedentary parasites, the eggs, the preparasitic juvenile stages,
and the males are found in the soil for all or part of their lives. Soil temperature,
moisture, and aeration affect survival and movement of nematodes in the soil.
Nematodes occur in greatest abundance in the top 15 to 30 centimeters of soil. The
distribution of nematodes in cultivated soil is usually irregular and is greatest in or
around the roots of susceptible plants, which they follow sometimes to considerable
depths (30–150 centimeters or more). The greater concentration of nematodes in the
region of host plant roots is due primarily to their more rapid reproduction on the food
supply available and also to attraction of nematodes by substances released into the
rhizosphere. To these must be added the so-called hatching factor effect of substances
originating from the root that diffuse into the surrounding soil, markedly stimulating
the hatching of eggs of certain species. Most nematode eggs, however, hatch freely in
water in the absence of any special stimulus.
 Spread.
Nematodes spread through the soil slowly under their own power. The overall
distance traveled by a nematode probably does not exceed a few meters per season.
Nematodes move faster in the soil when the pores are lined with a thin film of water
(a few micrometers thick) than when the soil is waterlogged. In addition to their own
movement, however, nematodes can be spread easily by anything that moves and can
carry particles of soil. Farm equipment, irrigation, flood or drainage water, animal
feet, birds, and dust storms spread nematodes in local areas, whereas over long
distances nematodes are spread primarily with farm produce and nursery plants. A
few nematodes that attack the above- ground parts of plants not only spread through
the soil as described earlier, but they are also splashed to the plants by falling rain or
overhead watering.

1. WHITE TIP NEMATODES.

Its first reported form japan in 1915 and called black grain disease. It has been
reported form Pakistan and has spread in all most the rice growing areas of Pakistan.
Symptoms.
The common name, white tip, based on the characteristics symptoms caused on the
leaf tips which become chlorotic or white. Diseased plants are stunted, lack vigor and
produce small penicles. In field the white tip symptoms appear at the beginning of
elongation period of the plants. The nematode is known to be viable in seed more then
three years.
Causal organisms: perpetuation and spread.
Nematode Aphelenchoide besseyi survives on infested seed but is also capable of
surviving in soil. The nematode can migrate form diseased ones causing infestation of
germination seed transplanted seedling.
a) Crop rotation is also very effective measure for the control of nematode disease.
The rice nematode cannot survive in the absence of rice crop.
2. STEAM NEMATODE/ UFRA DISEASE OF RICE.
The disease caused by this nematode is known as (Ufra or Dak pura). The disease
spread in all growing areas of Bangladesh and Thailand. It has also been reported in
Pakistan.
Symptoms.
Leaves of infected plant showed chlorosis. Followed by withering and death. The
infected leaves become twisted or severely malformed. The basal portion of the young
leaves become wrinkled, followed the whitish green discoloration. The symptoms in
field usually appear after two months of planting.
Causal organisms: perpetuation and spread.
The nematode ditylenchus angustus was first reported by Butlerin 1908. known to be
obligate actoparasite. Infected occur when seedling are few days old when humidity is
sufficient.
Control.
b) Hot water treatment is very effective in controlling the white tip nematode. The
infested seed are soaked in water with 20C temperature for 16-20 hours & soaked in
hot water having temperature of 50-51C for 6-5 minute. This process is recommended
60 days before sowing
c) Removal and destruction of straw in infested fields.
d) Use of chemical. In Pakistan. Temik 10G and Furadan 3G used nematicides for the
control of nematode disease.
e) Use of resistant varieties is also a very good control of nematode disease but no
such work has been done in this country.
3. EAR COCKLE OF WHEAT.
Ear cockle of wheat causes an important disease of wheat in Pakistan, India. Russia,
Syria and Egypt. Losses as high as 30-40% are not unusual. In Pakistan 2% loss in
yield has been reported form D.G. Khan, Muzaffra Garh, Jhang and Faisalabad
districts annually.
Symptoms.
Infected flower produce small dark gall infested of seed. The leaves become twisted
and wrinkled as the nematode feed on leaf primordia. The growth of plant is arrested.
There are two disease of wheat infected with A. tritici in India. Yellow ear rot (tundu)
results form joint infection by bacterium, Corynebacterium tritici and the nematode.
Causal organisms: perpetuation and spread.
The causal organism of Angunia. Tritici cool and moist climate is specially favourable
for development of this nematode.
Control.
a) Crop rotation with non host crop for 1-2 years will eliminate nematodes present in
the field.
b) Clean seed should be sown. This may be obtained form a healthy crop or may be
sieve method and hot water treatment method.
c) Use resistant varieties.
4. POTATO CYST NEMATODE:
It is also known as the “golden cyst nematode & reported form Utrore valley of
Northern areas.

Symptoms.
Upper ground parts of the plant do not show any specific symptom. Root and some
tissue tubers tiny spherical white or yellow female. The cyst contain eggs of the
nematode foliage portion under severe attack become pale and wilting occurs under
drought condition.
Causal organisms: perpetuation and spread.
The disease caused by a nematode Globodera rostochiensis, the nematode enters the
plant roots. Female enlarge and rupture the root tissues but remains attached to the
roots and in the soil viable for longer period.
Control
a) Cultivated resistant varieties.
b) Long crop rotation but not with egg plant and tomato.
c) Use granular temic 10G or Furadan 3G reduce the incidence of disease.
d) Quarantine measures are essential to restrict movement of potato form infected new
areas.
5. ROOT KNOT NEMATODE OF POTATO.
The disease has been reported form the KPK & Muree hills.
Symptoms.
knots and galls of varying size and shape are easily seen on the roots. Paling &
stunting of leaves lead to wilting under warm weather. Interaction of nematode with
host caused the development of uni nucleate giant cells form where the nematode
obtain its food.
Causal organisms: perpetuation and spread.
The nematode meloidegyne sp. Is responsible for the disease. Dissemination takes
place through soil tubers and implements.
Control
a) Restrict shipment of seed tubers and plants form other infected areas.
b) Crop rotation with cereals is helpful.
c) Soil treatment with Tylone etc.