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Human Development
T EN TH ED ITI ON

Thomas L. Crandell and

Corinne Haines Crandell

James W. Vander Zanden

TM
viii Contents

Physical Changes and Health 411

12 Adolescence: Emotional and Social Physical Performance 411
Development 368 Physical Health 411
Development of Identity 370 ❖ IMPLICA CTICE: Family Nurse
Hall’s Portrayal of “Storm and Stress” 370 Practitioner, Ronald Dingwell 412
Sullivan’ 370 Socioeconomic Status, Race-Ethnicity, and Gender 418
Erikson: The Crisis of Adolescence 372 Drug and Alcohol Use 419
Cultural Aspects of Identity Formation 373 Mental Health 420
❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE: Coping with
Peers and Family 378
Stress 425
The Adolescent Peer Group 378
Sexuality 426
❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: Text Messaging
and Teens: whr R U now? 381 Cognitive Development 428
Adolescents and Their Families 381 Post–Formal Operations 428
Thought and Information Processing 429
Sexuality, Courtship, and Love 384
Differing Romantic Behavioral Patterns 384 Moral Reasoning 431
Courtship 384 Kohlberg and Postconventional Reasoning 431
Love 385 Moral Relativism and the Millennials 433
Sexual Expression and Behavior 386 Summary 434
Teenage Pregnancy 387
Sexual Orientation 389 Key Terms 435
Following Up on the Internet 435
Career Development and Vocational Choice 390
Preparing for the World of Work 391
Changing Employment Trends in the United States 391
Balancing Work and School 392 14 Early Adulthood: Emotional and Social
Graduation Rates and Dropout Rates 392 Development 436
Risky Behaviors 393 Theories of Emotional-Social Development 438
Social Drinking and Drug Abuse 394 Psychosocial Stages 438
❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE: Emerging Adulthood 439
Whether Someone Y Stages in a Young Man’s Life 440
Problem 395 Stages in a Young Woman’s Life 442
T 396 Establishing Intimacy in Relationships 443
397 Friendship 443
Summary 399 Love 444
Diversity in Lifestyle 445
Key Terms 400
Leaving Home 446
Following Up on the Internet 400 Living at Home 446
Staying Single 447
Cohabiting 447
450
PART SEVEN Same-Sex Partners 450
EARLY ADULTHOOD 401 Getting Married 452
Family Transitions 455
13 Early Adulthood: Physical and ❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: The Decline
Cognitive Development 402 456
Developmental Perspectives 404 Transition to Parenthood 458
Demographics of Early Adulthood 404 Same-Sex Parenthood 460
Generation X 404 Separation and Divorce 461
The Millennial Generation 405 Single-Parent Mothers 462
Conceptions of Age Periods 406 Single-Parent Fathers 464
Age Norms and the Social Clock 407
Age-Grade Systems 408 Work 464
Life Events 409 ❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE:
❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: The Long-T of Fathers Today 465
of Childhood Sexual Abuse 410 The Significance of Work for Women and Men 466
The Search for Periods in Adult Development 411 Differing Work Experiences for Women and Men 470
 Contents ix

Interactionist Models 511

Gender and Personality at Midlife 512
Key Terms 472
Personality Continuity and Discontinuity 517
Following Up on the Internet 472
The Social Milieu 518
Familial Relations 518
PART EIGHT ❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE: Adaptation in
525
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD 473 Friendship 528
The Workplace 529
15 Middle Adulthood: Physical and ❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: Baby Boomers and Social
Cognitive Development 474 Networking 530
Redefining Middle Age 476 Job Satisfaction 531
Midlife Career Change 532
Sensory and Physical Changes 476 Unemployment, Underemployment, and Early
Vision 476 Retirement 533
❖ IMPLICA Occupational/Physical Choosing Retirement 534
477
Hearing 478 Summary 535
Taste and Smell 478 Key Terms 535
Appearance 479
Body Composition 480 Following Up on the Internet 536
Changes in the Skeletal System 483
Female Midlife Change 484
Male Midlife Change 485 PART NINE
Health and Lifestyle 486 LATE ADULTHOOD 537
Sleep 487
Cardiovascular Fitness 487
❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE: A Schedule of
17 Late Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive
Checkups for Midlife Adults 488 Development 538
Cancer 492 Aging: Myth and Reality 540
The Brain 492 Older Adults: Who Are They? 540
❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: Myths 543
493 ❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: Generational Tensions:
Stress and Depression 495 544
Sexual Functioning 495 Women Live Longer Than Men 548
Midlife Men and Women at Risk for HIV/AIDS 497
Health 548
Cognitive Functioning 498 Exercise and Longevity 549
Research Findings: A Methodological Problem 499 Nutrition and Health Risks 550
The Varied Courses of Cognitive Abilities 499 Biological Aging 553
Maximizing Cognitive Abilities 500 Biological Theories of Aging 557
Cognition and Dialectical Thinking 501
Cognitive Functioning 558
Moral Commitments 502 The Varied Courses of Different Cognitive
Abilities 559
Overestimating the Effects of Aging 560
Key Terms 505 Memory and Aging 561
Learning and Aging 563
Following Up on the Internet 505
Decline in Cognitive Functioning 563
Moral Development 566
16 Middle Adulthood: Emotional and James Fowler’s Theory of Faith Development 566
Social Development 506 ❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE:
Faith and Well-Being in Later Life 567
Theories of the Self in Transition 508
Maturity and Self-Concept 508 Summary 569
Stage Models 509
Key Terms 570
Trait Models 510
Situational Models 511 Following Up on the Internet 570
x Contents

18 Late Adulthood: Emotional PART TEN

and Social Development 571 THE END OF LIFE 603
Social Responses to Aging 573
False Stereotypes 573 19 Dying and Death 604
Positive and Negative Attitudes 573 The Quest for “Healthy Dying” 606
Self-Concept and Personality Development 574 Thanatology: The Study of Death and Dying 608
Psychosocial Theories 575 ❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE: An Example of a
❖ MORE INFORMATION YOU CAN USE: Living Will 609
Reminiscence: Conducting a Life Review 576 The Right-to-Die Movement 609
A Trait Theory of Aging 578 The Hospice Movement 614
Other Theories of Aging 578 The Dying Process 617
Selective Optimization with Compensation 580 Defining Death 617
A Life-Span Model of Developmental Regulation 582 Confronting One’s Own Death 618
The Impact of Personal Control and Choice 582
❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: End of Life: Who
Familial Roles: Continuity and Discontinuity 583 Decides? 619
Love and Marriage 584 Dying 621
Singles 586 Causes of Death 623
❖ FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS: Older Adults and Grief, Bereavement, and Mourning 625
Their Online Romantic Relationships 587 Adjusting to the Death of a Loved One 625
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Widows and Widowers 628
Elderly 588 The Death of a Child 629
Children or Childlessness 588
Grandparenting and Great-Grandparenting 589 Toward an Understanding of the Afterlife 630
Siblings 590 Near-Death Experiences 630
Religious Beliefs 633
Social and Cultural Support 590 Final Thoughts About Life and Death 634
Friendships 590
Retirement/Employment 591 Summary 634
A Change in Living Arrangements 593 Key Terms 635
Elder Abuse 596
Policy Issues and Advocacy in an Aging Society 598 Following Up on the Internet 635
❖ IMPLICA CTICE: Professor and
Gerontologist, William C. Lane, PhD 599 Glossary 636
References 649
Summary 600 Credits 719
Key Terms 601 Name Index 722
Subject Index 727
Following Up on the Internet 601
PREFACE
T
O PROVIDE YOU WITH THE MOST
recent research findings in human development
over the past three years, we have done an exhaus-
tive search of the research literature across many disci-
plines to provide the most up-to-date, organized, and
easy-to-read account of the overall organization and
sequence of development across the life span. As with the
past nine editions, we strive to continue our legacy as
McGraw-Hill’s premier multidisciplinary human devel-
opment textbook by offering our readers a wide array of
contexts in which to make sense of the complex nature
of the human condition. Changing demographics, new
biosocial technologies, increased plasticity within and
between stages of development, the implications of fertil-
ity decline in Western societies, the lengthening of the life
span, and the globalization of cultures require today’s
students to understand human development through an
increasingly multicultural and multidisciplinary lens. In
addition, the recent serious challenges posed by global
economic decline, geopolitical unrest, and massive natu-
ral disasters in various countries contribute to our under-
standing of the resilience of the human condition.
While remaining committed to covering the subject
matter comprehensively, we have shortened this revision
by an equivalent of 20 pages. The text was written to hold
students’ interest and attention, and it can be used in a
typical semester (14 to 15 weeks) for traditional classroom
instruction, blended-instruction classes (some traditional
and some online), and courses offered solely online.
Also, unlike many competing textbooks, the tenth
edition of Human Development is not cluttered with
visual features that undermine the reader’s ability to dis-
tinguish the most important information, and the key
relationships among ideas, from everything else on the
page. Too often textbook pages are filled with large, dis-
tracting figures, multiple colors, and numerous photos
that overwhelm the reader’s short-term memory and cre-
ate cognitive overload. Although they may look appeal-
ing in marketing brochures, such graphic devices as large
photos, boxed inserts, multiple highlighting techniques,
several competing colors, many key terms defined in the
margins, and other misplaced pedagogical devices con-
fuse the reader and make it difficult to focus on the
information to be learned—the content of the text itself.
Each page of the Crandell, Crandell, & Vander Zanden
tenth edition is organized using in-text learning aids
based on sound principles of human learning, informa-
tion usability, and cognitive psychology.
You, the student, in reading this text, will soon come
to realize that human development is emerging as a truly
vibrant and relevant field for the twenty-first century—
on the professional backgrounds and life experiences of the
authors. So, before you read about human development
over the next several months, you may well ask, “What are
the unique backgrounds of the authors of this text?”
Tom Crandell, an educational psychologist and psy-
, continue to build on the foundation of
James Vander Zanden’s work. We teach developmental psy-
chology classes, conduct research, write about human devel-
opment, and actively reflect upon the stages of life across
the life span. We bring to this text a wealth of knowledge
blended with personal experience about the issues facing
families with children with special needs, Millennial cohab-
, families
supporting aging relatives, and families coping with the
recent loss of a beloved parent and grandparent.
Our third child, Becky, our daughter/stepdaughter
with Down syndrome, has particularly enriched our
lives, and she and her friends and coworkers have made
us more conscious of the complexity of human develop-
ment. We are pleased to note that since (in the seventh
edition of our text) we began providing information
about the development of all individuals (including those
differently abled), some other authors of books about
life-span development have followed our lead. In our
view, this only makes sense! Many of the clients and
patients served in the psychology, education, health care,
therapeutic, human services, and social services fields are
“atypical” individuals who need professional guidance to
achieve their full potential. Thus we continue, in this
tenth edition, to include some information about the
development of differently abled persons. Our other
three adult children have been equally successful and are
xi
xii Preface
pursuing careers and/or raising our four grandchildren,
who are a joy. At the same time, our mothers are in late
adulthood and have needed increasing assistance. One of
our mothers recently became seriously ill and passed
away very quickly, after living a full, healthy life of nearly
97 years. We are left with countless memories and a deep
appreciation for her lifetime of caring and love. The rich-
ness of life experience is truly coming full circle for us.
James Vander Zanden, sociologist and professor
emeritus at Ohio State University and the author of this
text for 20 years, wrote this book from the perspective of
a man who endured abuse from an early age and subse-
quently had a troubled childhood and adolescence. He
became intrigued by the study of human behavior,
decided to make it his career, and dedicated himself to
betterment of the human condition. Prior to writing the
first edition of this text, James Vander Zanden lost his
wife to illness, and he was left with the awesome respon-
sibility of raising two young sons as a single parent.
Leaving the academic environment for a few years, he
began researching and writing Human Development and
assumed the role of full-time parent to his children. His
work in the area of human development over the life
span helped him immensely in raising his sons. Both
young men have earned Ph.D. degrees and are living
happy, productive, and rewarding lives.
In U.S. contemporary life, about 5 percent of men in
the United States are single parents, balancing the respon-
sibilities of working and raising children. In a poignant
revelation, James Vander Zanden admits difficulties
“moving ahead” in his professional career during those
child-raising years; his challenges were not unlike the
obstacles faced by many employed women who, as either
single or married mothers, are also devoted to parenting
their children. Yet looking back, James Vander Zanden
believes the rewards and satisfaction of parenthood were
far greater than those found in academia.
Just as the birth of a new child in a family changes
the entire family, so too does newer research about
human development add to the expanding collection of
classic theories about what is “normal” or what can be
dents reading this text will learn that the study of human
development has generated a diverse body of knowledge
that incorporates a variety of views and theoretical
approaches. Some theories address a single aspect of
development, whereas others cover changes over the
entire life span. Developmental psychologists are reach-
ing out to other disciplines and embracing a multidisci-
plinary, collaborative approach that draws on concepts
and contributions from anthropology, biology, sociol-
ogy, social psychology, gender studies, medicine, social
history, demography, criminology, and many other fields.
Our cross-cultural knowledge base is expanding, and
the Internet offers nearly instant access to published
empirical findings from research conducted around the
world. The result is that the field has much to offer
humans in their global efforts to cope with serious social
problems such as poverty, disease, and an ever-growing
aging and ethnically diverse population.
Although developmentalists recognize individual var-
iation due to genetic influences, they also study the en-
vironmental (social and ecological) context in which
behavior occurs. Developmentalists are especially con-
cerned with the far-reaching environmental effects of
poverty on human development. To investigate contem-
porary concerns, they are placing greater reliance on
time-extended research designs and are enlarging the
breadth of their research objectives.
We hope that students who read this textbook will
find answers to their questions about their own lives,
much as we have done in our research and writing of this
book. It is our earnest desire that courses in human
development and developmental psychology help stu-
dents move toward Abraham Maslow’s ideal of becom-
ing self-actualized men and women. They should acquire
a new vision of the human experience, which can help
them lead fuller, richer, and more productive lives. For
readers who are or will be parents, another of our goals is
to help you increase your understanding of the needs of
growing children and improve your parenting skills.
We share the belief of many people that education is
not the sum of 8, 12, 16, or more years of schooling.
Instead, it is a lifelong habit, a striving for growth and
wise living. Education is something we retain after we
have put away our texts, recycled our lecture notes, and
forgotten the minutiae we learned for an exam. There-
fore, textbooks must present controversy and unan-
swered questions. Otherwise, students may come to
believe that facts are the stuff of education, and they will
derive a false sense of security from cramming their heads
full of information rather than expanding their minds
with thoughtful analysis. The essence of human develop-
ment is real people living in a real world, and many of the
special features in this tenth edition of Human Develop-
ment offer students an opportunity to think critically
about various developmental issues and how these issues
are related to their personal lives—and to the lives of
those they hope to assist in their professional careers.
To The Instructor
the experience of only the “average” person. And it is not
research. Our text enables students to gain a good under-
standing of the issues surrounding the diverse population in
the United States and other societies today so that they can
formulate questions and pursue further learning that will
rst

. Thus, the past few editions have been used not
only in U.S. colleges and universities but also in England,
Canada, and (in translation) China.
Throughout this text, we look at populations at risk
and consider how they experience development and why
their experience is different. We explain how poverty,
race-ethnicity, gender, age, and ability shape develop-
ment and decision making. These are overarching issues
elds of psychology,
education, health care, therapy, and human services need
to understand if they are to provide effective interven-
tions and support. We have also taken care to give your
students a variety of examples of how developmental
theory can be translated into applications useful in both
their personal and their professional lives.
ORGANIZATION AND FOCUS
OF THE TENTH EDITION
emotional, and social growth as blending in an unending,
the life span, Human Development emphasizes develop-
ment in context. This approach focuses on the development
of people within families and the larger ecological-societal
contexts implied by this theme. By examining the ground-
Stanley Hall, Alfred Binet, Lewis Terman, Jean Piaget, Erik
Erikson, Urie Bronfenbrenner, Lev Vygotsky, Alfred
Adler, Diana Baumrind, Dr. Benjamin Spock, Dr. T
Brazelton, Andrew Meltzoff, K. Warner Schaie, Daniel
Elisabeth Kübler
the complex network of developmental tasks that shape us
as we move through the life span.
Much like the course of human life, this edition
reflects both continuity and change. Like previous edi-
tions, the tenth edition of Human Development features
a chronological approach to studying the life span and
consists of 19 chapters. The first two chapters orient the
student to the central research methods and the wide vari-
ety of theories applied in the study of human develop-
ment. Chapter 3 examines beginnings: reproduction,
heredity and genetics, and the prenatal period. Chapter 4
presents birth and the first two years of infant growth.
Chapters 5 and 6 address the cognitive, language,
emotional, and social development of the infant. From
Chapter 7, “Early Childhood,” to Chapter 18, “Late
Adulthood,” each stage of the life span is organized into
two chapters: Physical, cognitive, and moral development
are examined in the first of these two, and emotional and
social development follow in the second chapter of each
pair. Chapter 19 deals with end-of-life preparations,
dying, death, and coping with grief and loss.
Preface xiii
PEDAGOGY AND DESIGN
OF THIS TEX T
We have provided readers with carefully prepared learn-
ing aids to help them identify, understand, and remember
the most important information presented (both for
evaluation on tests of the material and for application in
the real world). These learning aids include chapter pre-
views, critical thinking questions, within-text review
questions, highlighting of key terms, end-of-chapter
summaries of key concepts, and a glossary of terms at
the end of the book. The design of the text has been
updated for clarity of presentation to enhance student
learning.
The chapter preview serves as an advance orga-
nizer—a cognitive bridge between the concepts learned
in the previous chapter and the new concepts to be intro-
duced in the current chapter. The critical thinking ques-
tions were devised to encourage students to challenge
their own beliefs about critical issues of human develop-
ment related to that chapter. The in-text review ques-
tions
and give students an opportunity to assess and review
what they have just read.
Updated photo elements and graphics were care-
fully selected and strategically placed to pique and main-
tain the interest of learners. The section titled Segue at
the end of each chapter helps readers review what they
have just learned and relate it to the new information to
follow in the next chapter. Topical summary statements
provide an organizational framework to help students
remember and integrate what they have learned. These
summary statements can also be used by students who
are “top-down” learners and prefer to look at an over-
view of the material before reading the specific content of
the chapter. The key terms listing provide a concise
review of the basic vocabulary to be learned in each chap-
ter. The lists of relevant Web sites were carefully selected
to enable the reader to follow up on issues of interest,
discussion, or further research. The chapter summaries
and the end-of-text glossary list key concepts and defini-
tions for easy referral and serve as excellent review
sources for students who are required to take compre-
hensive finals or state certification exams.
PRACTICAL AND INFORMATIVE
BOXED MATERIAL
In an effort to highlight the most current issues in a com-
prehensive and accessible manner, three different kinds
of boxes are carefully woven into the text narrative. The
More Information You Can Use boxes offer practical
information that can help students make better-informed
xiv Preface
decisions as they encounter real-life situations. Further
Developments boxes take an in-depth look at specific
issues across the life span. Implications for Practice
boxes provide readers who are exploring careers in
human development with helpful information furnished
by professionals working in key occupations.
NEW TO THE TENTH EDITION
This edition has been significantly streamlined to make it
easier to use as a learning tool for both classroom and
ing outdated or repetitive information, and new research
has been judiciously selected to ensure that students have
the most current information on important developmen-
tal topics—without unnecessary statistical density.
We had several main objectives in revising the tenth
edition:
1. To improve the readability of our textbook by stream-
lining all chapters. This edition has been reduced by
an equivalent of 20 pages. We accomplished this with-
out altering the warm and caring tone or the helpful
themes for which our textbook is recognized.
2. To reduce statistical density, in order to promote
ease of learning and comprehension of key concepts
and facts.
3. To provide additional research on how gender, race-
ethnicity, and social-economic circumstances affect
development. For example, more studies on gay,
lesbian, bisexual, and transgender issues across the
life span are included.
4. To present students with the most up-to-date re-
search in many domains of study across the human
life span. Overall, this edition contains about 1,000
new references, including important research that
examines development from both a multicultural
and a multidisciplinary perspective.
5. To add new boxed topics that highlight important
and interesting developmental issues. In addition,
several Implications for Practice boxes provide
information for students interested in pursuing
some careers related to human development:
genetic counselor, licensed certified social
worker, speech-language pathologist, special
education teacher, family nurse practitioner,
occupational/physical therapist, and professor
and gerontologist.
6. To introduce students to new information and strat-
egies for managing many experiences and challenges
that they will face across the life span—in their per-
sonal lives as well as in their professional roles.
THINKING CRITICALLY
As we have said, a course on human development should
do more than lay out for students a body of scientific
findings. Rote memorization of definitions and facts
does not do justice to the dynamic nature of this subject
matter. We must encourage students to think critically
and creatively about their own development and how it
is shaped by the world around them. This text will pro-
vide students with a deeper understanding of the human
experience and the variety of factors that directly or indi-
rectly mold their life course.
The challenging, real-life topics we discuss include
research on the complex effects of immigration (Chapter 1);
the emergence of the “young-old” and the “oldest-old”
(Chapter 2); the newest assisted reproductive technolo-
gies, updated research on the Human Genome Project,
and stem-cell research and human cloning (Chapter 3);
the effects of poverty on preterm births and infancy by
race-ethnicity, as well as various practices in labor and
delivery (Chapter 4); differing theories of language acqui-
sition, bilingualism, and effects of infant media viewing
on cognitive and language outcomes (Chapter 5); current
research on gay and lesbian parenting, child care across
cultures, rising rates of autism, the effects of child mal-
treatment, and parenting practices that promote child
well-being (Chapter 6); demographic trends and implica-
tions for children’s health, (Chapter 7); health beliefs and
practices across cultures; Muslim American cultural
expectations; the infl , brain, and hor-
mones on gender behaviors; and parenting practices
(Chapter 8); the latest statistics on child obesity and its
implications, current research on ADHD and learning
disabilities, and why Asian children strive for excellence
(Chapter 9); children of “choice mothers” (Chapter 10);
adolescent health-risk behaviors, including risk for HIV/
AIDS; an assessment of how U.S. students compare aca-
demically with other students around the globe; and new
research on the effects of father absence from the home
(Chapter 11); the racial-ethnic socialization of teens, and
statistics and outcomes of higher teen school dropout
rates (Chapter 12); traits of the Millennial Generation,
sexual health issues, and emerging adulthood as a new
years of marriage; how divorce affects successive genera-
tions; and young-adult lifestyle arrangements in Western
cultures, including rising rates of cohabitation and de-
cline of marriage (Chapter 14); the benefits and risks of
popular diet programs in middle age, and the challenge of
maintaining physical and cognitive health into old age
(Chapter 15); factors promoting lifelong marriage, and
stepfamily adaptations (Chapter 16); longer life expec-
tancy across cultures, faith and well-being in late life,
emergence of the oldest cohort as a political and social
force in America, rising rates of Alzheimer’s disease and

latest research, and the debate between generations on
Social Security and health care (Chapter 17); research find-
ings on lesbian and gay elderly
to providing for a rapidly increasing number of elders,
policy issues in an aging society, faith and adjustment
to aging, and grandparenting and great-grandparenting
(Chapter 18); the right-to-die and hospice movements, the
impact of religious beliefs, rituals that surround dying and
(Chapter 19).
COMMITMENT TO DIVERSIT Y
Past editions of Human Development have been lauded
for their sensitivity and coverage of issues of race-ethnic-
ity, class, gender, aging, and ability. The tenth edition
continues this legacy by updating and integrating infor-
mation on cross-cultural, minority, gender, and individ-
ual differences wherever possible. The tenth edition of
Human Development reflects our attitude toward human
diversity—this exciting aspect of U.S. culture is inte-
grated into discussions in every chapter of the text, rather
than separated out as boxed material. This edition con-
siders the light that recent developmental research has
shed on important issues for growing immigrant popula-
tions, including Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans,
and Muslim Americans. Because more women than ever
in Western cultures are bearing children in middle age
and using fertility procedures to do so, the known risks
are greater for pregnancies with multiple fetuses. Thus,
with developmental differences are presented. This edi-
tion continues to address the development of lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals from adoles-
cence into late adulthood. And it explores the fact that
nearly all societies of the world are creating policies to
address the rapidly increasing elderly population.
Calling attention to emerging issues in human devel-
opment is a crucial component of our task as teachers
and authors. Specific examples of this approach include
research on the complex effects of immigration in the
United States (Chapter 1); the range of developmental
theories across various domains of the life course (Chap-
ter 2); the Human Genome Project and the trend of
childbirth in midlife (Chapter 3); childbirth in America
(Chapter 4); boosting babies’ brain power (Chapter 5);
the rising incidence of autism (Chapter 6); health beliefs
and practices across cultures, including the use of video
games with health benefits (Chapter 7); preparing chil-
dren from widely diverse backgrounds for kindergarten
(Chapter 8); educating students with differing abilities
and cultural backgrounds, genius and giftedness, and
for children of veterans (Chapter 10); the rise in cos-
Preface xv
metic surgery for teens, the continuing decline in teen
pregnancy rates, and the increase in moral relativism
among teens (Chapter 11); cultural aspects of adolescent
identity formation; racial and ethnic socialization; sexual
minority teens and transition to early adulthood; text
messaging, “sext” messaging, and teens; and changing
employment trends for teens (Chapter 12); emerging
adulthood as a new stage of development, and coping
with the long-term effects of child sexual abuse (Chap-
ter 13); the increase in cohabitation and decline of mar-
riage in Western cultures, the continuing rise in single
parenthood across Western societies, same-sex relation-
ships, lesbian and gay parenthood, and the diversity
among the roles that fathers play and among the family
structures found in U.S. households (Chapter 14); the
impact of the large Baby Boom generation, the risks and
benefits of hormone replacement therapy, the latest
estern
countries, and the impact of the Patient Protection and
Affordable Care Act for retirees (Chapter 15); the diver-
sity of family households in middle age, unemployment
and early retirement in middle age, the increasing num-
bers of elderly who continue working, and the increase
of social networking in middle age (Chapter 16); the
increasing use of telemedicine and telehealth among
seniors, the challenges that women in particular face
when they survive their spouse, the increasing rates of
Alzheimer’s disease, and the presence of ever more cen-
tenarians and supercentenarians (Chapter 17); the
increasing numbers of minority elderly in the U.S. pop-
ulation; increasing rates of volunteerism among the
elderly; older adults and online relationships; the social
well-being of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender
elderly; the increasing numbers of grandparents raising
grandchildren; and how faith contributes to well-being
in late adulthood (Chapter 18); expansion of the hospice
movement, the “end-of-life choice” (or “right-to-die”)
movement, who makes end-of-life decisions, and cross-
cultural views of an afterlife (Chapter 19).
Expanded Coverage on Crucial Issues
In addition to including coverage of such topics as early
intervention services for children born at risk (Chapter 7)
and the latest research on results of longitudinal studies
of the effects of divorce on future generations (Chap-
ter 14), the tenth edition of Human Development is unri-
valed in its detailed coverage of numerous critical issues.
This unique quality is an outgrowth of our commitment
to students’ learning and overall breadth of knowledge.
We begin by addressing the changing conception of
age and aging, including a focus on how “old age” has
been redefined in the Western world (Chapter 1). Student
concerns about relevancy are addressed in a box about
how to put developmental theory to use in one’s own life
xvi Preface
(Chapter 2). Information on the Human Genome Project
has been updated. Breakthroughs in infertility treatments
and information on stem-cell research and human clon-
ing are covered (Chapter 3). We have added information
about how the effects of poverty on preterm births and
infancy interact with the variable of race-ethnicity. Tradi-
tional cultural beliefs and practices in labor and delivery
among various ethnic groups are discussed, as is the sig-
nificance of early caregiver bonding within diverse fam-
ily structures (Chapter 4). We describe the effects of
video viewing on babies’ cognitive and language devel-
opment (Chapter 5). There is expanded coverage of rais-
ing a child with a pervasive developmental disorder such
as autism or attention-deficit disorder, as well as under-
standing the needs of an intellectually gifted or talented
child (Chapters 8 and 9).
The more recent research we have discussed in this
edition of Human Development addresses such topics as
emotional health and its relationship to cognitive growth
and later job and life satisfaction (Chapters 6, 8, 16, and
18); gay and lesbian parenting (Chapter 5); early educa-
tion practices in different cultures and the range of exten-
sive services needed to educate an increasing number
of children from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds
(Chapters 6, 7, and 9); and child-care practices across
cultures and cross-cultural expectations for emotional-
social development in early childhood. Information on
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
is updated with recent regulations for educating children
with a learning disability or attention-deficit hyperactiv-
ity disorder (Chapter 9). The family continues to be a
special focus, as we consider the influence of mothers
and fathers, single parents, same-sex parents, and step-
parents on children’s emotional-social development
(Chapter 10); adolescent substance abuse, sexual orien-
tation and sexual behaviors, and increasing rates of teen-
age obesity.
Also discussed are the expanding social influence of
teen networking sites, such as Facebook (Chapters 11 and
12); emerging adulthood as a new stage of development
(Chapter 13); demographic differences among the pres-
ent four generations of adults, lesbian and gay parent-
hood, and differing work experiences for men and
women (Chapter 13). Americans’ redefinition of middle
age by maximizing physical abilities and staying healthy
in midlife, reproduction after menopause, factors pro-
moting lifelong marriage, and the increasing cohabitation
rate among older adults are described (Chapters 15, 16,
and 17). We also address the oldest American cohort as a
political force and the longer lives that millions live, cre-
ating generational tensions (including the Social Security
and health-care debates); the greater role played by faith
and well-being in later life; the role of the elderly across
cultures; and the trend of more grandparents raising their
grandchildren (Chapters 17 and 18). In Chapter 17 the
extension of life by many years (transhumanism) is intro-
duced; personal choice, the right-to-die debate, and the
hospice movement are discussed; and cross-cultural and
religious views on coping with dying and death are
summarized.
Positive Approach to Adulthood and Aging
The text features an extensive, candid discussion of the
aging process, from young adulthood through late adult-
hood. Topics examined include the latest research and
theories on biological aging, the longevity of a growing
number of centenarians, methods of life extension, mem-
middle-aged and older adults, the special needs of lesbian
and gay elderly, theories of adjustment to physical decline
and loss of social relationships, sexuality in late adult-
hood, adult day care and various institutional arrange-
ments, psychosocial changes and aging (including the use
of online social networking), the role of faith for many
who are aging, the psychosocial needs of widows and
widowers, and planning for one’s own end-of-life care
and needs. Many of these issues on aging are presented
from cross-cultural perspectives. At the suggestion of
reviewers, we added a new section on various views of
near-death experiences and an afterlife.
New Photo Program
In looking through this tenth edition, you will undoubt-
edly note the beauty and creativity of our updated photo
program (which is more than 50 percent revised). The
photos and illustrations in Human Development dis-
play our commitment to making concepts as clear as
possible and to representing humanity in all its diversity.
Sensitivity to race-ethnicity, gender, age, and ability (or
disability) is significant, and this is reflected in the pho-
tos we have chosen for this edition.
New References
The tenth edition of Human Development is both a
useful teaching tool and a resource of considerable
depth for students and instructors. In each chapter, the
citations to source material have been streamlined to
allow for easier reading of the text. The more than
1,000 new references that have been added to this edi-
tion are strategically integrated throughout the text.
Additionally, at the conclusion of each chapter, the
reader is invited to explore up-to-date research find-
ings and relevant professional organizations by visiting
a number of Web sites on the Internet. These Web sites
can be hot-linked through the McGraw-Hill Higher
Education Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/
crandell10.

SUPPLEMENTS
The supplements listed here may accompany the tenth
edition of Human Development. Please contact your
local McGraw-Hill representative for details concerning
policies, prices, and availability, because some restric-
tions may apply. You can find your local representative
by using the “Rep Locator” option at www.mhhe.com.
For Instructors
Prepared by Craig Vivian
Monmouth College
This collection of resources includes tools to benefit any
classroom, such as learning objectives, chapter summa-
ries, lecture topics, classroom activities, student projects,
updated and expanded video suggestions, and a list of
s Manual can be found in
the Instructor’s Edition section of this text’s Online
Learning Center, and instructors can gain access by
a simple registration process by contacting your local
McGraw-Hill representative.
Online Learning Center
.mhhe.com/crandell10)
The Instructor’s Edition of this text’s companion Web
site includes the Instructor’s Manual, the Test Bank, a full
set of PowerPoint presentations, suggested web links to
Internet resources from this text, and an Image Gallery
of selected images and tables from the book. Access to
the Instructor’s Edition is password protected.
McGra abase (VAD)
for Life-Span Development
Jasna Jovanovic
University of Illinois—Urbana-Champaign
McGraw-Hill’s Visual Assets Database is a password-
protected online database of hundreds of multimedia re-
sources for use in classroom presentations, including
original video clips, audio clips, photographs, and illustra-
tions—all designed to bring concepts in human develop-
ment to life. For information about this unique resource,
contact your McGraw-Hill representative.
McGraw-Hill Contempor Learning Series
T versial
Issues in Life-Span Development
In this debate-style reader, current controversial issues
are presented in a format designed to stimulate student
interest and develop critical thinking skills. Each issue
is thoughtfully framed with an issue summary, an issue
introduction, and a postscript. An instructor’s manual
with testing material is available for each volume. “Taking
Preface xvii
Sides in the Classroom” is also an excellent instructor
resource with practical suggestions for incorporating
this effective approach in the classroom. Each Taking
Sides reader features an annotated listing of selected
Web sites and is supported by our student Web site,
www.mhcls.com.
Annual Editions: Human Development
This annually updated collection of articles covers topics
related to the latest research and thinking in human
development. These editions contain useful features,
including a topic guide, an annotated table of contents,
s guide,
containing testing materials, is also available.
Notable Sources in Human Development
This resource is a collection of articles, book excerpts, and
research studies that have shaped the study of human
The selections are organized around major areas of study
within human development. Each selection is preceded by
a headnote that establishes the relevance of the article or
.
For Students
Online Learning Center
.mhhe.com/crandell10)
The companion Web site for Human Development,
Tenth Edition, offers an array of resources for students,
including chapter outlines, learning objectives, links to
Internet resources, and multiple-choice practice ques-
tions. Web access is easy and it is free for student use.
Text A
Students who need to rely on an oral/auditory version of
this text can find the text as a digital file that can be
downloaded through Learning Ally (formerly Record-
ing for Blind & Dyslexic) website for a minimal fee at
www.learningally.org. “Learning Ally offers Individual
Membership for eligible people with visual impairments
or dyslexia who experience difficulty in reading print
material.” Their audiobooks are also accessible for Apple
Iphone, Ipad, and Ipod Touch. Our text is one of only a
few covering life span development that are available in
this important alternative format.
or Child Dev
or Adult Development
Charlotte J. Patterson
University of Virginia
These interactive CD-ROMs include video footage of
classic and contemporary experiments, detailed viewing
guides, challenging previews, follow-up quizzes and
interactive feedback, graphics, graduated developmental
xviii Preface
charts, a variety of hands-on projects, related Web sites,
and navigation aids. The CD-ROMs are programmed in
a modular format. Their content focuses on integrating
digital media to better explain physical, cognitive, social,
and emotional development throughout childhood, ado-
lescence, and adulthood. They are compatible with both
Macintosh and Windows computers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In truth, authors play but one part in the production of
textbooks. Consider the thousands of researchers who
have dedicated themselves to the scholarly investigation
of human behavior and life-span development. Consider
the labors of countless journal editors and reviewers who
assist them in framing clear and accurately formatted
reports of their empirical findings. And consider the
enormous effort expended by the personnel of research-
grant agencies and reviewers who seek to allocate scarce
resources to the most promising studies. Indeed, a vast
number of scholars across the generations have contrib-
uted to our contemporary reservoir of knowledge about
human development.
Textbook authors simply seek to extract, from that
reservoir, the knowledge most critical for student learners
and to present it in a coherent and meaningful manner. A
number of reviewers helped us shape the manuscript into
its final form. They assessed its clarity of expression,
technical accuracy, and thoroughness of coverage. Their
help was invaluable, and we are deeply indebted to them.
For the Tenth Edition, we extend thanks to
Kathryn Markell, Anoka-Ramsey Community College
Patricia Perez, Harold Washington College
William Price, North Country Community College
Julie Ramisch, Michigan State University
Jane Russell, Kentucky Community and Technical
College, Hopkinsville
Kenneth Tercyakk, Georgetown University
Joan Thomas-Spiegel, Long Beach City College
Meeshay Williams-Wheeler, North Carolina A&T
University
In addition, we have continued to build on the foun-
dation provided by reviewers of the three previous edi-
tions. They are
Jerry J. Bigner, Colorado State University
Whitney Ann Brosi, Michigan State University
Stephen Burgess, Southwestern Oklahoma State
University
Deborah Campbell, College of the Sequoias
Robin Campbell, Brevard Community College
Deborah M. Cox, Madisonville Community College
Rhoda Cummings, University of Nevada, Reno
Dana H. Davidson, University of Hawaii
Lilli Downes, Polk Community College
Scott R. Freeman, Valencia Community College
Karen L. Freiberg, University of Maryland-
Baltimore County
William Fuller, Angelo State University
Jean Gerard, Bowling Green State University
Deborah T. Gold, Duke University Medical Center
Robert J. Griffore, Michigan State University
Patricia E. Guth, Westmoreland County Community
College
Harry W. Hoemann, Bowling Green State University
Jean Hunt, Cumberland College
Russell A. Isabella, University of Utah
Jada D. Kearns, Valencia Community College
Michael S. Kelly, Henderson State University
Joyce Splann Krothe, Indiana University
Kathleen LaVoy, Seattle University
Patsy Lawson, Volunteer State University
Robert B. Lee, Fort Valley State University
Timothy Lehmann, Valencia Community College
Elizabeth A. Lemense, Western Kentucky University
Pamela A. Meinert, Kent State University
Linda W. Morse, Mississippi State University
Joyce Munsch, Texas Tech University
Ana Maria Myers, Polk Community College
Gail Overbey, Southeast Missouri State University
Lisa Pescara-Kovach, University of Toledo
James D. Rodgers, Hawkeye Community College
Robert F
College
George Scollin, Rivier College
Elliot M. Sharpe, Maryville University
Jack P. Shilkret, Anne Arundel Community College
Laurence Simon, Kingsborough Community College
Lynda Szymanski, College of St. Catherine
Joan Thomas-Spiegel, Los Angeles Harbor College
Robert S. Weisskirch, California State University
Fullerton
Peggy Williams-Petersen, Germanna Community
College

A very special thanks to researchers, authors, and
professors of literature and creative writing at Broome
Community College, Ellen Brandt, PhD., Mary Seel,
PhD, and Christopher Origer, PhD. They contributed
their expertise to many of these chapters. We particu-
larly appreciate the up-to-date and relevant information
in the fields of sociology, women’s studies, and psychol-
ogy that they brought to this edition. We also give credit
to our colleague and friend, George Bieger, PhD, and
professor of Educational Studies at Indiana University
of Pennsylvania, who helped to update our sections on
Research Methods. We are especially grateful for the
contributions of a conscientious doctoral student in
neuropsychology, Joshua Peck, Queens College, who
helped us gather and organize information on prenatal
development, brain development, and cognitive func-
tioning across the life span. Ben Andrus, our dedicated
research assistant and information resource specialist,
was invaluable in providing us current empirical re-
search findings on topics across the entire life span. His
persistent efforts helped us secure the most current
research articles available through the nation’s interli-
brary loan system. We are also grateful to Gilda Votra
for her dedicated administrative assistance and keen
attention to detail in updating the glossary and reorga-
nizing the book’s extensive list of nearly 3,000 refer-
ences. JoAnn Barton, an extremely competent secretary
in our Liberal Arts Division, is dependable and always
came through with a smile. Our college’s Copy Center
professionals, Gary Hitchcock, Howard Nickerson,
and Sandi Springstead, contributed to our ability to meet
many deadlines and reminded us that laughter is still the
best medicine.
We are indebted to everyone at McGraw-Hill who
helped to produce this book and want to express special
thanks to the following professionals in the domain of
publishing: to Mike Sugarman, executive editor of Psy-
chology, for supporting our work and our vision to make
the tenth edition a human development text that will
benefit learners in both their academic and their personal
lives; to developmental editor Janice Wiggins-Clarke
Preface xix
who provided guidance through the initial revision; to
Aaron Downey, production manager at Matrix Produc-
tions, who kept the copyediting project on schedule and
coordinated various aspects of production; to Holly
Irish, project manager, for overseeing the project through
the production process and keeping us on schedule;
to Connie Day, a highly professional copyeditor who
improved the quality of our manuscript; to photo
researcher David Tietz who helped us manage an exten-
sive photo revision in this edition; and to permissions
editor Marty Moga, for securing the necessary permis-
sions from a wide variety of authors and sources. This
project has been a total team undertaking at all times. We
sincerely appreciate the encouragement and enthusiasm
each person brought to this undertaking and the profes-
sional competence each one exhibited in bringing the
tenth edition of Human Development to completion.
Finally, we wish to acknowledge the many contribu-
tions of our parents. They raised us, provided us with a
healthy upbringing, and encouraged and supported us—
but three have now passed on to their heavenly reward.
They had common sense, worked hard, and gave us the
foundation to be healthy parents and grandparents to our
own four children and four grandchildren. They also
taught us, by guidance and example, how to cope with
the developmental changes of our own journey through
life with faith, humor, and a positive outlook. We lovingly
dedicate this book to them.
Thomas L. Crandell, PhD
Corinne H. Crandell, MS
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
We bring an extensive blend
of academic, professional,
and personal experiences to
this text on your behalf. We
have been teaching students
from the middle school, high
school, community college,
and graduate levels in a vari-
ety of professional capacities
for more than 40 years.
During this time, we have
seen our student population
become more diverse, com-
posed of a blend of tradi-
tional and nontraditional
learners from rural, urban,
suburban, and distant cul-
tures. As our student population began to include more
adult learners and students with learning disabilities,
we prepared ourselves to understand the individual
learning needs of our students and improved our
instruction.
Thomas L. Crandell After earning a BA from King’s
College in Wilkes-Barre and an MA in counseling psy-
chology from Scranton University, Tom taught a variety
of undergraduate psychology courses at Broome Com-
munity College and worked in college admissions and
then as a college counselor for several years. At age 34, he
continued his formal education at Cornell University in
pursuit of a PhD in psychology and education. While at
Cornell, Tom received a research assistantship sponsored
by the Office of Naval Research, and he subsequently
helped to initiate and develop one of the most productive
reading research programs in the country. His experimen-
tal findings on learning styles and instructional design
have been adopted by researchers and practitioners
worldwide. He first won international recognition when
his doctoral dissertation was selected as one of the top five
Tom’s focus as a college professor and educational
psychologist has been on individual differences in learning
and atypical development in children and adults. He takes
great pride in a course on human exceptionalities that he
developed and has taught to
over 2,000 undergraduates.
His students have become
special education teachers,
nurses, psychologists, sociolo-
gists, social workers, physical
therapists, speech therapists,
occupational therapists, recre-
ation therapists, members of
the clergy, managers of non-
profit agencies, and informed
parents. Students often return
to tell him that his course
changed their entire career
plan and how much they
enjoy working with indi-
viduals in a wide array of
jobs that necessitate a broad understanding of human
development.
In addition to being a professor, Tom has been a con-
sultant in educational, business, and legal settings for the
past 40 years and has authored numerous articles on the
design of online educational materials for ease of learning
and ease of use. Many of these design strategies have been
incorporated into the tenth edition of this text. In 1996 he
earned the “Distinguished Article of the Year” award in the
Frank R. Smith Competition held by the Journal for the
echnical Communications. In 2010, Tom was
awarded the first Outstanding Educator Award from his
alma mater, King’s College in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.
Tom has also coached youth basketball and soccer. He con-
tinues to teach adult religious education and volunteers in a
. He has maintained a healthy lifestyle,
with a passion for basketball and golf, throughout his years
of professional growth and development. He especially
Corinne Haines Crandell In addition to earning a BS
from the University at Albany and an MS in counseling
and psychology from the State University of New York
at Oneonta, Corinne has completed graduate studies in
reading, special education, and learning disabilities. She
has had a variety of instructional experiences at the com-
munity college level, teaching psychology classes for
xxi
xxii About the Authors
more than 20 years, and has also been a college counselor.
She also co-authored developmental psychology study
guides, instructor’s manuals, and computerized study
guides for more than 10 years. And in 1997 she devel-
oped the first distance-learning course in developmental
psychology, which continues to be offered through the
State University of New York (SUNY) Learning Net-
Broome Community College’s human services program
at nearly 40 social service agencies. For five years she
taught in a middle school and worked with children with
learning disabilities in grades 4 through 8. Additionally,
she was coordinator of the gifted and talented program
for a private school district comprising 12 schools.
Corinne coached and judged in the regional Odyssey of
the Mind program for several years, and for five years she
was a board member at a local Association for Retarded
Citizens, now called ACHIEVE. She continues to be a
lector and teaches confirmation classes to high school
students, and she especially enjoys being a grandmother.
PA R T
THE STUDY OF HUMAN
1 DEVELOPMENT

R
CHAPTER

1 Introduction
 Critical Thinking Questions Outline
1.

2.

3.

4.

D
4 Part One The Study of Human Development
THE MAJOR CONCERNS
OF SCIENCE
I believe that the extraordinary should be pursued. But
extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.
—Dr. Carl Sagan, American astronomer, astrophysicist,
This renowned scientist’s thought captures the sense of
wonder and inquisitiveness about nature that lies behind
development. Human development consists of oppos-
ing processes of becoming someone different—while
remaining in some respects the same person over an
extended period of time.
Research is essential to understanding human devel-
opment, and there are diverse methods for obtaining
analyzable evidence. Expanding the field of study glob-
ally and disseminating valid research findings help to
improve the quality of life over an ever-increasing human
life span. As we strive to live with the highs and lows
and the gains and losses that inevitably occur over a life-
time, we hope that, as we accumulate both knowledge
and experience, we will be able to lead a more optimal life
(Scheibe, Freund, & Baltes, 2007).
Continuity and Change in Development
To live is to change. Indeed, life is never static but always
in flux. Nature has no fixed entities, only transition
and transformation. According to modern physics—
particularly quantum mechanics—the objects we nor-
mally see and feel consist of nothing more than patterns
of energy that are forever moving and changing. From
electrons to galaxies, from amoebas to humans, from
families to societies, every phenomenon exists in a state
of continual “becoming.” The fertilized egg you devel-
oped from was smaller than the period at the end of this
sentence. All of us undergo dramatic changes as we pass
from the embryonic and fetal stages through infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. We start
small, grow up, and grow old, just as countless genera-
tions of our forebears have done.
Change occurs across many dimensions—biological,
psychological, and emotional-social (Caspi & Shiner,
2006). Life-span perspectives on human development
focus on long-term sequences and patterns of change in
human behavior. Each perspective is unique in tracing
the ways people develop and change across the life span
(Scheibe et al., 2007).
Contradictory as it may seem, life also entails con-
tinuity. At age 70 we are in many ways the same per-
sons we were at 5 or 25. Many aspects of our biological
organism, our gender roles, and our thought processes
carry across different life periods. Features of life that
are relatively lasting and uninterrupted give us a sense
of identity and stability over time. As a consequence of
such continuities, most of us experience ourselves not
as just so many disjointed bits and pieces but rather as
wholes—larger, independent entities that possess a basic
oneness—and much of the change in our lives is not
accidental or haphazard.
The Study of Human Development
Scientists refer to the elements of change and constancy
over the life span as development. Development is
defined as the orderly and sequential changes that occur
with the passage of time as an organism moves from con-
ception to death. Development occurs through processes
that are biologically programmed within the organism
and processes of interaction with the environment that
transform the organism.
Human development over the life span is a process
of becoming something different, while remaining in
some respects the same. Perhaps what is uniquely human
is that we remain in an unending state of development.
Life is always an unfinished business, and death is its
only cessation.
Traditionally, life-span development has primarily
been the province of psychologists. Most commonly
the field is called developmental psychology or, if
focused primarily on children, child development or
child psychology. Psychology itself is often defined as
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Developmental psychology is the branch of psychol-
ogy that deals with how individuals change with time,
while remaining in some respects the same. The field of
life-span development has expanded to include not only
infant, child, adolescent, and adult psychology but also
biology, genetics, women’s studies, medicine, sociology,
gerontology, anthropology, and cross-cultural psychol-
ogy. A multidisciplinary approach stimulates fresh per-
spectives and advances in knowledge.
The Goals of Developmental Psychologists
People actively shape and give direction to their own
development (Riediger, Freund, & Baltes, 2005). Within
the context of developmental theory across the life span,
scientists focus on four major goals related to a contin-
uum of optimization of functioning in the early years and
compensation for losses with advancing years (Ebner,
Freund, & Baltes, 2006):
1. T
life span. Social scientists describe the paths that
young adults (ages 18 to 29) take as they move
from parental homes. What percent go to work,

cohabitation or married life, or withdraw into a
subculture or prison?
2. To explain these changes—to specify the determi-
nants of developmental change. What factors impact
a young person’s decision to leave home and estab-
lish a “new” life? How do peers, culture, econom-
ics, and religious affiliation, for example, influence
the decision to follow a path of delay, leave-taking,
or return (Arnett, 2007b)?
3. To predict developmental changes. What are the
expected consequences of delayed leave-taking
or frequent return to home on the young adult?
And what is its impact on the parent(s) and society
(Arnett, 2007b)? College graduates with high
student loans and divorced or single young adults
with children have higher return rates.
4. To be able to use their knowledge to intervene in
the course of events in order to control them. Social
scientists describe a “boomerang generation”
made up of many in their twenties and older who
leave home and later return to the support of the
parental home—leading to a new stage of life in
industrialized societies called “emerging adulthood”
(Arnett, 2007b). See more on emerging adulthood in
Chapter 14.
But even as scientists strive for knowledge and con-
trol, they must continually remind themselves of the
ethical dangers described by eminent physicist J. Robert
Oppenheimer (1955): “The acquisition of knowledge
opens up the terrifying prospects of controlling what
people do and how they feel.” We return to the matter of
ethical standards in scientific research later in this chap-
ter. Be sure to keep in mind the four scientific goals—
describing, explaining, predicting, and having the ability
to control or manage developmental changes—as you
examine the different domains and theories of human
development in this book.
Questions
A FRAMEWORK FOR STUDYING
DEVELOPMENT
If we are to organize information about human devel-
opment from a variety of perspectives, we need some
sort of framework that is both meaningful and manage-
able. Studying human development involves considering
many details simultaneously. A framework provides us
with categories for bringing together bits of information
Chapter 1 Introduction 5
that we believe are related. Categories enable us to sim-
plify and generalize large quantities of information by
clustering certain components. A framework helps us
find our way in an enormously complex and diverse
field. One way to organize information about develop-
ment is in terms of four basic categories:
• The major domains of development
• The processes of development
• The context of development
• The timing of developmental events
Let’s look at each of these categories to see how they fit
within a given framework.
The Major Domains of Development
Developmental change takes place in three fundamen-
tal domains: physical, cognitive, and emotional-social.
Think how much you have changed in the years since
you first entered school. Your body, the way you think,
and how you interact with others are aspects of “you”
that have undergone transformations and will continue
to do so.
Physical development involves changes that occur
in a person’s body, including changes in weight and
height; in the brain, heart, and other organ structures
and processes; and in skeletal, muscular, and neurological
features that affect motor skills. Consider, for instance,
the physical changes that take place at adolescence,
which together are called puberty. At puberty young
people undergo revolutionary changes in growth and
development. Adolescents catch up with adults in size
and strength. Accompanying these changes is the rapid
development of the reproductive system and attainment
of reproductive capability—the ability to conceive chil-
dren. Hormonal and brain changes are also occurring.
Historically, women have been valued for their re-
productive ability. Some cultures continue to value—
or devalue—women for their ability to produce sons as
the father’s heirs, and in some countries women are still
the “property” of the husband (Moreau & Yousafzai,
2004).
Moreover, the concepts “woman” and “man” are social
t as they grow up.
active we are, what we should weigh, what clothes we wear,
what games we play, what and how much we eat, with
whom we are allowed to socialize, what kinds of schools
we go to (if we are permitted to do so), what work we do
(solely in the home or outside of the home), and whether
we are forced into marriage and childbearing at early ages.
Until quite recently, women’s biology has largely been
described by physicians and scientists who were, for the
most part, educated, economically privileged men; these
men have had strong personal and political interests in
6 Part One The Study of Human Development
for women to play roles that are important for men’s well-
being.
At the turn of the 1900s, when American women
tried to enroll in colleges, scientists originally claimed
that women could not be educated because their brains
were too small. As that claim became indefensible, they
claimed that girls needed to devote energy to the proper
functioning of their ovaries and womb—and that if they
diverted this energy to their brains, their reproductive
organs would shrivel, they would become sterile, and the
human species would die out. Women who attempted to
develop their intellectual capacities encountered obsta-
cles and endured ridicule while paving the way for other
women. The notion that women’s reproductive organs
need nurturing did not spare the working-class, poor,
or ethnic-minority women who labored in the factories
, American
Mary Whiton Calkins, 1863–1930, Early Developmentalist
Mary Calkins attended Smith College in 1880. In spite of not
being permitted to register as a student, she tr
under the direction of William James, set up an experimental lab,
and taught the first experimental psychology course at Wellesley
College. Even though she wrote a scholarly thesis and sat for
the Ph.D. exam at Harvard and performed brilliantly, she was
denied the degree. As an early pioneer in human development,
she published a te , was elected in
1905 as the first female president of the American Psychological
Association, and in 1918 became the first woman to be elected
president of the American Philosophical Association.
women earn approximately half of all doctorates in psy-
chology, they make up about 50 percent of new students
at U.S. medical schools, and two women have recently
been leading candidates for the U.S. presidency (Sherrod,
2006). More remarkably, in Afghanistan, after more than
5,000 years of strict patriarchal oppression, women are
slowly emerging as legal citizens to exercise their human
rights to education, health care, the franchise (the right to
vote), and occupational pursuits (Armstrong, 2004).
Cognitive development involves changes that occur
in mental activity, including changes in sensation, percep-
tion, memory, thought, reasoning, and language (Baltes,
Reuter-Lorenz, & Rösler, 2006). Again consider adoles-
cence. Young people gradually acquire several substan-
tial intellectual capacities. Compared with children, for
instance, adolescents more ably think about abstract con-
cepts such as democracy, social justice, morality, and envi-
ronmental sustainability. Young people become capable
of dealing with hypothetical situations and achieve the
ability to monitor and control their own mental experi-
ences and thought processes. With advancing age, adults
may or may not maximize resources to maintain, stabi-
lize, or regain cognitive functioning (Ebner et al., 2006).
Emotional-social development includes changes in
an individual’s personality, emotions, and relationships
with others (Egeland, 2007). All societies distinguish
between individuals viewed as children and individuals
regarded as adults, and our relationships with children
are qualitatively different from the relationships we have
with adults. Adolescence is a period of social redefinition
in which young people undergo changes in their social
roles and status. Contemporary society distinguishes
between people who are “underage,” or minors, and
those who have reached the age of majority, or adults.
the military, and vote. How each of us becomes a unique
adult can be seen as the result of interaction between
the personal “self” and our social environment. As we
will see in Chapter 11, some societies recognize adoles-
cence or entry into adulthood through a special initiation
ceremony—a rite of passage.
Although we differentiate among these domains of
development, we do not want to lose sight of the uni-
tary nature of the individual. Physical, cognitive, moral,
and emotional-social factors are intertwined in every
aspect of development. Scientists are increasingly aware
that what happens in any one domain depends largely on
what happens in the others (Sroufe, 2007).
Question
 Chapter 1 Introduction 7

The Processes of Development dichotomy—nature or nurture. Rather, it is the inter-

action between heredity and environment that gives an
Development meets us at every turn. Infants are born.
individual her or his unique characteristics (Grusec &
The jacket the 2-year-old wears in the spring is outgrown
Hastings, 2007). As we interact with the world about
by winter. At puberty, youth exhibit a marked spurt in
us—as we act upon, transform, and modify the world—
size and acquire various secondary sexual characteristics.
we in turn are shaped and altered by the consequences of
Individuals commonly leave their parents’ homes and set
our actions (Kegan, 1988; Piaget, 1963; Vygotsky, 1978).
out on careers, establish families of their own, see their
We literally change ourselves through our actions.
own children leave home, retire, and so on. The concepts
As we pass through life, our biological organism is
of growth, maturation, and learning are important to our
altered by dietary practices, activity level, alcohol and
understanding of these events.
drug intake, smoking habits, illness, exposure to X rays
Growth takes place through metabolic processes
and radiation, and so on. Furthermore, as many of us
from within. One of the most noticeable features of early
enter school, finish school, seek a job, marry, settle on
development is the increase in size that occurs with age.
a career, have children, become grandparents, and retire,
The organism takes in a variety of substances, breaks
we arrive at new conceptions of self. In these and many
them down into their chemical components, and then
other ways, we are engaged in a lifelong process in which
reassembles them into new materials to sustain life. Most
we are forged and shaped as we interact with our envi-
organisms get larger as they become older. For some
ronment (Charles & Pasupathi, 2003). In brief, develop-
organisms, including humans, growth levels off as they
ment occurs throughout our lifetime—in the prenatal
approach sexual maturity. Others—many plant and fish
period, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and
forms—continue the growth process until they die.
old age.
Maturation consists of the more or less automatic
unfolding of biological potential in a set, irreversible
sequence. Both growth and maturation involve biologi- Questions
cal change. Growth is the increase in the number of an
individual’s cells, whereas maturation entails the devel-
opment of the individual’s organs and limbs in relation
to their ability to function and reflects the unfolding of
genetically prescribed, or “preprogrammed,” patterns
of behavior. Such changes are relatively independent of
environmental events, as long as environmental condi-
tions remain normal. As we will see in Chapter 4, an
infant’s motor development after birth follows a regu-
lar sequence—grasping, sitting, crawling, standing, and
walking. Similarly, at about 10 to 14 years of age, puberty
brings many changes, including ovulation in girls and
sperm production in boys, providing the potential for
reproduction.
Learning is the more or less permanent modification
in behavior that results from the individual’s experience
in the environment. Learning occurs across the entire
life span—in the family, among peers, at school, on the
job, and in many other spheres. Learning differs from
maturation in that maturation typically occurs without
any specific experience or practice. Learning, however,
depends on both growth and maturation, which underlie
a person’s readiness for certain kinds of activity, physi-
cal and mental. The ability to learn is clearly critical, for
it allows each of us to adapt to changing environmental
Initiation Ceremonies and Religious Rites of Passage
conditions. Hence, learning provides the important ele-
Beginning around age 13, Jewish children are obligated to
ment of flexibility in behavior (Baltes et al., 2006). obser
As we will emphasize in this text, the biological emony that formally marks
forces of growth and maturation should not be con- that transition. Youths say the blessing in Hebrew or recite from
trasted with the environmental forces of learning. Too the Torah as an indication that they are ready to assume the
often the nature-nurture controversy is presented as a rights and responsibilities of an adult.
8 Part One The Study of Human Development
The Context of Development
To understand human development, we must consider
the environmental context in which it occurs (Rathunde
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). In his ecological approach to
development, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) (1979,
1986, 1997) asserts that the study of developmental influ-
ences must include the person’s interaction with the envi-
ronment, the person’s changing physical and social settings,
the relationship among those settings, and how the entire
process is affected by the society in which the settings are
embedded (Ceci, 2006). (See the Further Developments
box, “Researching the Complex Effects of Immigration.”)
Bronfenbrenner examines the mutual accommoda-
tions between the developing person and these changing
contexts in terms of four levels of environmental influ-
ence: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem,
and the macrosystem (see Figure 2.5 on page 49). Con-
sider, for instance, Maria and Jami. Both are seventh-
graders who live in a large U.S. city. In many ways their
lives and surroundings seem similar. Yet they live in
rather different worlds. Keep important differences in
mind as you read their scenarios:
Maria Maria is the oldest of three children. Her family
immigrated to the United States when she was an infant.
Both of her parents work outside the home at full-time
jobs, but they are usually able to arrange their sched-
ules so that one parent is home when the children return
from school. Should the parents be delayed, the children
know they are to go to a neighbor—a grandmotherly
figure—to spend the afternoon. Maria often helps her
mother or father prepare a dinner “just like we used
to eat in Nicaragua.” The family members who do not
cook on a given evening are the ones who later clean up.
Homework is taken seriously by Maria and her parents.
The children are allowed to watch television each night,
but only after they have completed their homework.
Her parents encourage the children to speak Spanish
at home but insist that they speak English outside the
home. Maria is enthusiastic about her butterfly collec-
tion, and family members help her hunt butterflies on
family outings. She is somewhat of a loner but has one
very close friend.
Jami Jami is 12 and lives with her parents and an
older brother. Both of her parents have full-time jobs
that require them to commute more than an hour
each way. Chaos occurs on weekday mornings as the
family members prepare to leave for school and work.
Jami is on her own until her parents return home in
the evening. Jami’s parents have demanding work
schedules, and one of them is usually working on the
weekends. Her mother assumes responsibility for pre-
paring a traditional evening meal, but fast food is start-
ing to replace home-cooked meals on a regular basis.
Jami’s father does not do housework; when he is not
working, he can be found with friends at a local bar.
Although Jami realizes that getting a good education is
important, she has difficulty concentrating in school.
She spends a good deal of time with her friends, all
of whom enjoy riding the bus downtown to go to
the movies. On these occasions they “hang out” and
occasionally shoplift or smoke a little marijuana. Her
parents disapprove of her friends, so Jami keeps her
friends and her parents apart.
In Bronfenbrenner’s model, the microsystem con-
sists of the network of social relationships and the
physical settings in which a person is involved each
day. Maria’s microsystem consists of her two siblings,
mother, father, neighbor, peers, school, and so on. Like-
wise, Jami’s microsystem consists of her parents, broth-
er, friends, school, and so on. The mesosystem consists
of the interrelationships among the various settings in
which the developing person is immersed. Both Maria
and Jami come from two-parent families in which both
parents work. Yet their home environments have sub-
stantially different effects on their schooling. Maria’s
family setting is supportive of academic achievement.
Without necessarily being aware of it, Maria’s parents
are employing a principle of the Russian educator A. S.
Makarenko (1967), who was quite successful in working
with wayward adolescents in the 1920s: “The maximum
support with the maximum of challenge.” Although
Jami’s parents also stress the importance of doing well
at school, Jami is not experiencing the same gentle but
firm push that encourages Maria to move on and develop
into a capable young adult. Jami’s family has dispensed
with the amenities of family self-discipline in favor of
whatever is easiest. Moreover, Jami is heavily dependent
on peers, and such dependence is one of the strongest
predictors of problem behavior in adolescence (Tolan,
Gorman-Smith, & Henry, 2003).
An environment that is “external” to the develop-
ing person is called an exosystem. The exosystem con-
sists of social structures that directly or indirectly affect
a person’s life: school, the world of work, mass media,
government agencies, and various social networks. The
development of children like Maria and Jami is influ-
enced not only by what happens in their environments
but also by what occurs in their parents’ settings. Stress
in the workplace often carries over to the home, where
it has consequences for the parents’ marriage. Children
who feel rootless or caught in conflict at home find it
difficult to pay attention in school. Like Jami, they often
look to a group of peers with similar histories, who, hav-
ing no welcoming place to go and little to do that chal-
lenges them, seek excitement on the streets. Despite
encountering job stresses somewhat similar to those of
Jami’s parents, Maria’s parents have made a deliberate
effort to create arrangements that work against Maria’s
becoming alienated.
 Chapter 1 Introduction 9

F U R T H E R D E V E LO P M E N T S

Resea x Effects of Immigration

FIGURE 1.1 Distribution of U.S. Population by Race/Ethnicity: 2010 (by percent)

10 Part One The Study of Human Development
The macrosystem consists of the overarching cul-
tural patterns of a society that are expressed in family,
educational, economic, political, and religious institu-
tions. We have seen how the world of work contrib-
utes to alienation in Jami’s family. When we look to
the broader societal context, we note that the United
States is beginning to catch up with other industrial-
ized nations in providing child-care services and other
benefits designed to promote the well-being of families
(see Chapters 6 and 8). But only some American parents
enjoy such benefits as maternity and paternity leaves,
flex time, job-sharing arrangements, and personal leave
to care for sick children or ailing parents. Along with
most U.S. families today, the families of Maria and Jami
are experiencing the erosion of extended family, neigh-
borhood, and other institutional support systems that
in the past were central to the health and well-being of
children and their parents.
The ecological approach enables us to view the
developing person’s environment as a nested arrange-
ment of structures, each contained within the next. The
most immediate structure is the setting in which the
person currently carries out his or her daily activities;
each ensuing structure is progressively more encom-
passing, until we reach the most inclusive, or societal,
level (Shiraev & Levy, 2007). These dynamic inter-
locking structures challenge us to consider the risks
and opportunities for development at each level. For
instance, such problems as homelessness, child abuse
and neglect, school violence, and psychopathology can
be insightfully viewed as products of contextual fac-
tors that interact with individual and institutional vul-
nerabilities, particularly those of the family (Fiese &
Spagnola, 2007).
The ecological approach enables us to see people
actively immersed in a real world of everyday life. Imag-
ine how much more extensive the information gathered
would be if a researcher were allowed to record your
day-to-day experiences, rather than just interviewing
you in a clinical setting. However, this seeming advan-
tage is also the ecological approach’s major disadvan-
tage: We usually have enormous difficulty studying
people in contexts where a great many factors are oper-
ating simultaneously. Because so many factors bear on
a person, we find it impractical, indeed impossible, to
take them all into account. Only when we control a
large array of factors can we get a secure “fix” on any
one of them.
Critiquing his own model, Bronfenbrenner rec-
ognized a need to incorporate an investigation of bio-
logical, psychological, and behavioral aspects of the
individual under study. Further, he saw the need to
add the dimension of time to the model and introduced
another system that he called the chronosystem, show-
ing that there is change and constancy not only in the
individual person but in society as well. As he states,
“Not only do persons in the same age group share a life
history of common experience, but those of a given age
in different generations could have quite diverse expe-
riences, depending on the period in which they live”
(Bronfenbrenner, 2005).
Question
The Timing of Developmental Events
Time plays an important role in development. Tradi-
tionally, the passage of time has been treated as syn-
onymous with chronological age, emphasizing changes
that occur within individuals as they grow older. More
recently, social and behavioral scientists have broad-
ened their focus. They consider changes that occur over

time, not only within the person but also in the environ-
ment, and examine the dynamic relation between these
two processes. Paul Baltes (1939–2006) and Margret
Baltes (1939–1999) contributed to our understanding of
these changes by identifying three sets of influences that
mediate through the individual, acting and interacting
to produce development (Baltes & Baltes, 1998; Baltes,
Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006):
1. Normative age-graded influences have a strong
relation to chronological age. Among youth in
early adolescence, such as Maria and Jami, these
influences include the physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial changes discussed earlier. Maria and
Jami are entering puberty, a condition associated
with biological maturation. But they have also
encountered age-graded social influences, such
as the abrupt transition from a highly structured
elementary school setting to a less structured
and more complex middle school or junior high
environment.
2. Normative history-graded influences involve
historical factors. Although there is consider-
able cultural similarity among the members of
a society, each age cohort is unique because it is
exposed to a unique segment of history. An age
cohort (also called a birth cohort) is a group of
persons born in the same time interval. Because
society changes over time, the members of differ-
ent age cohorts age in different ways. Members of
each new generation enter and leave childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, and old age at a similar
point in time, so they experience certain decisive
economic, social, political, and military events at
similar junctures. As a consequence of the unique
events of the era in which they live out their
lives—for instance, the Great Depression of the
1930s, World War II, the prosperity of the 1950s,
the Vietnam War, the age of telecommunications,
and September 11, 2001, and global terrorism—
each generation fashions a somewhat unique style
of thought and life.
3. Nonnormative life events involve unique turn-
ing points at which people change some direction
in their lives. A person might suffer severe injury
in an accident or a combat situation, experience
a natural catastrophe, win millions in a lottery,
undergo a religious conversion, give birth to mul-
tiples of children at one time, secure a divorce, or
set out on a new career at midlife or later. Non-
normative influences do not impinge on everyone,
nor do they necessarily occur in easily discernible
sequences or patterns. Although these determi-
nants have significance for individual life histories,
Chapter 1 Introduction 11
the determinants are not closely associated with
either age or history.
Not surprisingly, each age cohort of U.S. youth
over the past 80 years has acquired a somewhat different
popular image, and each generation confronted an envi-
ronment different from that faced by earlier generations
(Schaie, 2007) (see Table 1.1). Awareness of a person’s age
cohort can help psychologists, social workers, and other
-
ticular needs of that individual.
History-graded influences do not operate only
in one direction. Consider age cohorts. They are
not simply acted on by social and historical forces.
Because people of different cohorts age in distinct
ways, they contribute to changes in society and alter
history’s course. As society moves through time, sta-
tuses and roles change. The flow of new generations
results in some loss to the cultural inventory, a reeval-
uation of its components, and the introduction of new
elements.
In particular, although parental generations play a
crucial part in predisposing their offspring to specific
values and behaviors, new generations are not neces-
sarily bound to replicate their elders’ views and per-
spectives. These observations call our attention to the
important part that cultural and historical factors play
in development. What is true in the United States and
other Western societies is not necessarily true in other
parts of the world. And what is true for the first decade
of the 2000s might not have been true in the 1960s or
the 1770s. Accordingly, if social and behavioral scientists
wish to determine whether their findings hold in gen-
eral for human behavior, they must look to other socie-
ties and historical periods to test their ideas. Examining
behavior from a cross-cultural perspective is a more
common approach in psychological research today
(Ka ˘ i, 2007). Technological developments in the
twenty-first century should aid researchers as they con-
tinue to explore human development from a worldwide
perspective.
Questions
12 Part One The Study of Human Development

TABLE 1.1 Generations


Nonnormative Life Events Some people experience a life
event that creates a unique turning point or challenge in their
lives. What makes these kinds of events so challenging?
PARTITIONING THE LIFE SPAN:
CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES
The Age-Old Question: Who Am I?
Because nature bestows on everyone a biological cycle
that begins with conception and continues through old
age and death, all societies must deal with the life cycle.
Age is a major dimension of social organization.
For instance, all societies use age to allow or disallow
benefits, activities, and endeavors. People are assigned
roles in a manner that bears little relation to their unique
abilities or qualities. Like one’s sex, age is a master status,
own distinct imprint on them. Within the United States,
for instance, age operates directly as a criterion for driv-
, many states have
raised the age at which this privilege is conferred from 16
to 18 years), voting (age 18), becoming president (age 35),
and receiving Social Security retirement benefits (age 62).
Age also operates indirectly as a criterion for certain roles
through its linkage with other factors. For example, age
linked with reproductive capacity limits entry into the
secondary school usually permits entry into college.
Because age is a master status, a change in chrono-
logical age accompanies most changes in role over a
person’s life span—entering school, completing school,
getting one’s first job, marrying, having children, being
promoted at work, seeing one’s youngest child marry,
becoming a grandparent, retiring, and so on. Recent gen-
erations have reversed the order of some of these mile-
stones, by having babies before marriage, for example,
or by cohabiting and perhaps never marrying at all. Age
Chapter 1 Introduction 13
is a critical dimension by which individuals locate them-
selves within society and in turn are located by others
(Settersten, Furstenberg, & Rumbaut, 2005).
Age functions as a reference point that enables peo-
ple to orient themselves in terms of what or where they
are within various social networks, such as the family,
the school, the church, and the world of work. It is one
ingredient that provides people with the answer to the
question “Who am I?” In brief, it helps people establish
their identities.
Cultural Variability
The part that social definitions play in dividing the life
cycle is highlighted when we compare the cultural prac-
tices of different societies. Culture is the social heritage
of a people—those learned patterns of thinking, feeling,
and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the
next. Upon the organic age grid, societies weave varying
social arrangements. A 14-year-old girl might be expect-
ing to be a junior high school student in one culture, a
mother of two children in another; a 45-year-old man
might be at the peak of a business career, still moving
up in a political career, or retired from a career in major
league baseball—or dead and worshipped as an ancestor
in some other society. All societies divide biological time
into socially relevant units; and although birth, puberty,
and death are biological facts of life, society gives each
its distinctive meaning and assigns each its social conse-
quences (Ka ˘ 2007).
Viewed this way, all societies are divided into age
strata—social layers based on time periods in life. Age
strata organize people in society in much the same way
that the earth’s crust is organized by stratified geologi-
cal layers. Grouping by age strata has certain similarities
to class stratification. Both involve the differentiation
and ranking of people as superior or inferior, higher or
lower. But unlike movement up or down the class lad-
der, the mobility of individuals through the age strata is
not dependent on motivational and recruitment factors.
Mobility from one age stratum to the next is largely bio-
logically determined and irreversible.
People’s behavior within various age strata is regu-
lated by social norms—expectations that specify what
constitutes appropriate and inappropriate behavior for
individuals at various periods in the life span. In some
cases, an informal consensus provides the standards by
which people judge each other’s behavior. Hence, the
notion that you ought to “act your age” pervades many
spheres of life. Within the United States, for instance, it
is thought that a child of 6 is “too young” to baby-sit
for other youngsters. By the same token, a man of 60 is
thought to be “too old” to “party.” In other cases, laws
set floors and ceilings in various institutional spheres.
For instance, there are laws regarding marriage without
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN