Human Anatomy & Physiology

Laboratory Manual, Cat Version (13th

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1 17

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ISBN 10: 0-13-463233-8 (Student edition)

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-463233-9 (Student edition)

ISBN 10: 0-13-477708-5 (Instructor’s Review Copy)

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-477708-5 (Instructor’s Review Copy)

About the Authors
Elaine N. Marieb

After receiving her Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Elaine N. Marieb joined the faculty of the Biological Science Division of
Holyoke Community College. While teaching at Holyoke Community College, where many of her students were pursuing nursing degrees, she developed a desire
to better understand the relationship between the scientific study of the human body and the clinical aspects of the nursing practice. To that end, while continuing to
teach full time, Dr. Marieb pursued her nursing education, which culminated in a Master of Science degree with a clinical specialization in gerontology from the
University of Massachusetts. It is this experience that has informed the development of the unique perspective and accessibility for which her publications are
known.

Dr. Marieb has given generously to provide opportunities for students to further their education. She funds the E. N. Marieb Science Research Awards at Mount
Holyoke College, which promotes research by undergraduate science majors, and has underwritten renovation of the biology labs in Clapp Laboratory at that
college. Dr. Marieb also contributes to the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, where she provided funding for reconstruction and instrumentation of a cutting-
edge cytology research laboratory. Recognizing the severe national shortage of nursing faculty, she underwrites the Nursing Scholars of the Future Grant Program
at the university.

In 2012 and 2017, Dr. Marieb gave generous philanthropic support to Florida Gulf Coast University as a long-term investment in education, research, and training
for healthcare and human services professionals in the local community. In honor of her contributions, the university is now home to the Elaine Nicpon Marieb
College of Health and Human Services.

Lori A. Smith
Lori A. Smith received her Ph.D. in biochemistry from the University of California at Davis. Before discovering her passion for teaching, she worked as a research
scientist and project leader in the medical diagnostics industry. In 1999, she joined the faculty at American River College in the Biology Department, where she
teaches anatomy and physiology and microbiology to students preparing for nursing or other allied health careers. Since 2005, she has coauthored Pearson’s
PhysioEx™: Laboratory Simulations in Physiology and has continued to coauthor several Pearson lab manuals. Dr. Smith has been named Instructor of the Year
by the American River College Associated Student Body, and she is a member of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS) and California Academy
of Sciences. When not teaching or writing, she enjoys spending time with her family: hiking, cycling, and kayaking.
Preface to the Instructor
The philosophy behind the revision of this manual mirrors that of all earlier editions. It reflects a still developing sensibility for the way teachers teach and students
learn, informed by years of teaching the subject and by collecting suggestions from other instructors as well as from students enrolled in multifaceted healthcare
programs. Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual was originally developed to facilitate and enrich the laboratory experience for both teachers and
students. This edition retains those same goals.

This manual, intended for students in introductory human anatomy and physiology courses, presents a wide range of laboratory experiences for students
concentrating in nursing, physical therapy, pharmacology, respiratory therapy, and exercise science, as well as biology and premedical programs. The manual’s
coverage is intentionally broad, allowing it to serve both one- and two-semester courses, and it is available in versions that contain detailed guidelines for dissecting
a cat or fetal pig laboratory specimen.

Basic Approach and Features

The generous variety of experiments in this manual provides flexibility that enables instructors to gear their laboratory approach to specific academic programs or
to their own teaching preferences. The manual remains independent of any textbook, so it contains the background discussions and terminology necessary to
perform all experiments. Such a self-contained learning aid eliminates the need for students to bring a textbook into the laboratory.

Each of the 46 exercises leads students toward a coherent understanding of the structure and function of the human body. The manual begins with anatomical
terminology and an orientation to the body, which together provide the necessary tools for studying the various body systems. The exercises that follow reflect the
dual focus of the manual—both anatomical and physiological aspects receive considerable attention. As the various organ systems of the body are introduced, the
initial exercises focus on organization, from the cellular to the organ system level. As indicated by the table of contents, the anatomical exercises are usually
followed by physiological experiments that familiarize students with various aspects of body functioning and promote the critical understanding that function follows
structure. The numerous physiological experiments for each organ system range from simple experiments that can be performed without specialized tools to more
complex experiments using laboratory equipment, computers, and instrumentation techniques.

Features

The dissection scissors icon appears at the beginning of activities that entail the dissection of isolated animal organs. In addition to the figures, isolated animal
organs, such as the sheep heart and pig kidney, are employed to study anatomy because of their exceptional similarity to human organs.

Homeostasis is continually emphasized as a requirement for optimal health. Pathological conditions are viewed as a loss of homeostasis; these discussions can be
recognized by the homeostatic imbalance logo within the descriptive material of each exercise. This holistic approach encourages an integrated understanding of the
human body. The homeostatic imbalance icon directs the student’s attention to conditions representing a loss of homeostasis.

A safety icon notifies students that specific safety precautions must be observed when using certain equipment or conducting particular lab procedures. For
example, when working with ether, students are to use a hood; and when handling body fluids such as blood, urine, or saliva, students are to wear gloves. All
exercises involving body fluids (blood, urine, saliva) incorporate current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines for handling human body
fluids. Because it is important that nursing students in particular learn how to safely handle bloodstained articles, the manual has retained the option to use human
blood in the laboratory. However, the decision to allow testing of human (student) blood or to use animal blood in the laboratory is left to the discretion of the
instructor in accordance with institutional guidelines. The CDC guidelines for handling body fluids are reinforced by the laboratory safety procedures described on
the inside front cover of this text, in Exercise 29: Blood, and in the Instructor’s Guide. You can photocopy the inside front cover and post it in the lab to help
students become well versed in laboratory safety.

Group Challenge activities are designed to enhance collaborative group learning and to challenge students to think critically, identify relationships between
anatomical structures and physiological functions, and achieve a deeper understanding of anatomy and physiology concepts.

The BIOPAC® icon in a relevant exercise materials list signals the use of the BIOPAC® Student Lab System and alerts you to the equipment needed. BIOPAC®
is used in Exercises 14, 18, 20, 21, 31, 33, 34, and 37. The instructions in the lab manual are for use with the BIOPAC® MP36/35 and MP45 data acquisition
unit. Note that some exercises are not compatible with the MP45 data acquisition unit. For those exercises, the MP45 will not be listed in the materials section. In
this edition, the lab manual instructions are for use with BSL software 4.0.1 and above for Windows 10/8.x/7 or Mac OS X10.9–10.12. Refer to the Materials
section in each exercise for the applicable software version. The Instructor Resources area of Mastering A&P provides the following additional support for
alternative data acquisitions systems, including exercises that can be distributed to students:
 BIOPAC® Instructions for the MP36 (or MP35/30) data acquisition unit using BSL software versions earlier than 4.0.1 (for Windows and Mac) for
Exercises 14, 18, 20, 21, 31, and 34

Powerlab® Instructions for Exercises 14, 21, 31, 33, 34, and 37

iWorx ® Instructions for Exercises 14, 18, 21, 31, 33, 34, and 37

Intelitool® Instructions for Exercises 14i, 21i, 31i, and 37i

Exercise Review Sheets follow each laboratory exercise and provide space for recording and interpreting experimental results and require students to
label diagrams and answer matching and short-answer questions. Selected questions can be assigned and automatically graded in Mastering A&P.

PhysioEx™ 9.1 Exercises, located in the back of the lab manual and accessible through a subscription to Mastering A&P, are easy-to-use computer
simulations that supplement or take the place of traditional wet labs safely and cost-effectively. These 12 exercises contain a total of 63 physiology
laboratory activities that allow learners to change variables and test out various hypotheses for the experiments. PhysioEx™ allows students to repeat labs
as often as they like, perform experiments without harming live animals, and conduct experiments that are difficult to perform because of time, cost, or safety
concerns.

Updated Content in This Edition of the Lab Manual

Throughout the manual, the narrative text has been streamlined and updated to make the language more understandable and to better meet the needs of today’s
students. Additional highlights include the following:

Dozens of new full-color figures and photos replace black-and-white line drawings in the Exercise Review Sheets. Selected labeling questions in the
manual can be assigned in Mastering A&P.

New Clinical Application questions have been added to the exercise Review Sheets and challenge students to apply lab concepts and critical-thinking
skills to real-world clinical scenarios.

Updated BIOPAC® procedures are included in the manual for eight lab exercises for the BIOPAC® 4.0 software upgrade. Procedures for Intelitool®,
PowerLab®, and iWorx® remain available in the Instructor Resources area of Mastering A&P.

New Mastering A&P visual previews appear on the first page of each lab exercise, highlighting a recommended pre-lab video, a related image from
Practice Anatomy Lab 3.1 (PAL 3.1), or a helpful animation.

New Mastering A&P assignment recommendations are signaled at appropriate points throughout the manual to help instructors assign related auto-
graded activities and assessments.

Extensive updates and improvements have been made to each of the 46 laboratory exercises in the manual to increase clarity and reduce ambiguity for
students. Art within the exercises, the narrative, as well as the questions and figures within the Review Sheets have been updated. For a complete list of
content updates, please refer to the Instructor’s Guide for Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual 13/e (ISBN 9780134778839 or in the
Instructor Resources area of Mastering A&P).

Highlights of Updated Content in Mastering A&P

Mastering A&P, the leading online homework, tutorial, and assessment system is designed to engage students and improve results by helping them stay on track
in the course and quickly master challenging anatomy and physiology concepts. Mastering A&P assignments support interactive features in the lab manual,
including pre-lab video coaching activities; bone, muscle, and dissection videos; Dynamic Study Modules; Get Ready for A&P; plus a variety of Art Labeling
questions, Clinical Application questions, and more. Highlights for this edition include the following:

8 new Pre-Lab Video Coaching Activities in Mastering A&P (for a total of 18) focus on key concepts in the lab activity and walk students through
important procedures. New pre-lab video titles include Preparing and Observing a Wet Mount, Examining a Long Bone, Initiating Pupillary Reflexes,
Palpating Superficial Pulse Points, Auscultating Heart Sounds, and more.

New Cat and Fetal Pig Dissection Video Coaching Activities help students prepare for dissection by previewing key anatomical structures. Each video
includes one to two comparisons to human structures.

IMPROVED! Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™ 3.1) is now fully accessible on all mobile devices, including smartphones, tablets, and laptops. PAL
is an indispensable virtual anatomy study and practice tool that gives students 24/7 access to the most widely used lab specimens, including human cadaver;
anatomical models from leading manufacturers such as 3B Scientific, SOMSO, Denoyer- Geppert, Frey Scientific/Nystrom, Altay Scientific, and Ward’s;
histology; cat; and fetal pig. PAL 3.1 is easy to use and includes built-in audio pronunciations, rotatable bones, and simulated fill-in-the-blank lab practical
exams.

New Customizable Practice Anatomy Lab (PAL) Flashcards enable students to create a personalized, mobile-friendly deck of flashcards and quizzes
using images from PAL 3.1. Students can generate flashcards using only the structures that their instructor emphasizes in lecture or lab.

New Building Vocabulary Coaching Activities are a fun way for students to learn word roots and A&P terminology while building and practicing
important language skills.

Expanded Dynamic Study Modules help students study effectively on their own by continuously assessing their activity and performance in real time.
Students complete a set of questions and indicate their level of confidence in their answer. Questions repeat until the student can answer them all correctly
and confidently. These are available as graded assignments prior to class and are accessible on smartphones, tablets, and computers.
 The Lab Manual Mastering A&P course now offers over 3000 Dynamic Study Module questions, shared with Marieb/Hoehn Human Anatomy &
Physiology, 11th Edition.

Instructors can now remove questions from Dynamic Study Modules to better fit their course.

Expanded Drag-and-Drop Art Labeling Questions allow students to assess their knowledge of terms and structures in the lab manual. Selected
exercise Review Sheet labeling activities in the manual are now assignable.

Please refer to the preceding pages for additional information about Mastering A&P and other resources for instructors and students.
Acknowledgments
Continued thanks to our colleagues and friends at Pearson who collaborated with us on this edition, especially Editor-in-Chief Serina Beauparlant, Acquisitions
Editor Lauren Harp, Editorial Assistant Dapinder Dosanjh, and Rich Content Media Producers Kimberly Twardochleb and Lauren Chen. We also thank the
Pearson Sales and Marketing team for their work in supporting instructors and students, especially Senior A&P Specialist Derek Perrigo and Director of Product
Marketing Allison Rona.

Special thanks go out to Amanda Kaufmann for her leadership and expertise in producing the 18 pre-lab videos that support this edition, and to Mike Mullins of
BIOPAC®, who helped us update the instructions for consistency with the upgraded software.

We’re also grateful to Michele Mangelli and her superb production team, who continue to cross every hurdle with uncommon grace and skill, including Janet Vail,
production coordinator; David Novak, art and photo coordinator; Kristin Piljay, photo researcher; Gary Hespenheide, interior and cover designer; and Sally
Peyrefitte, copyeditor.

Last but not least, we wish to extend our sincere thanks to the many A&P students who have circulated through our lab classrooms and have used this lab manual
over the years—you continue to inspire us every day! As always, we welcome your feedback and suggestions for future editions.

Elaine N. Marieb & Lori A. Smith

Thirteenth Edition Reviewers

We wish to thank the following reviewers, who provided thoughtful feedback and helped us make informed decisions for this edition of both the lab manual and
Mastering A&P resources:

Matthew Abbott, Des Moines Area Community College

Lynne Anderson, Meridian Community College

Penny Antley, University of Louisiana, Lafayette

Marianne Baricevic, Raritan Valley Community College

Christopher W. Brooks, Central Piedmont Community College

Jocelyn Cash, Central Piedmont Community College

Christopher D’Arcy, Cayuga Community College

Mary E. Dawson, Kingsborough Community College

Karen Eastman, Chattanooga State Community College

Jamal Fakhoury, College of Central Florida

Lisa Flick, Monroe Community College

Michele Finn, Monroe Community College

Juanita Forrester, Chattahoochee Technical College

Larry Frolich, Miami Dade College

Michelle Gaston, Northern Virginia Community College, Alexandria

Tejendra Gill, University of Houston

Abigail M. Goosie, Walters State Community College

Karen Gordon, Rowan Cabarrus Community College

Jennifer Hatchel, College of Coastal Georgia

Clare Hays, Metropolitan State University

Nathanael Heyman, California Baptist University

Samuel Hirt, Auburn University

Alexander Ibe, Weatherford College

Shahdi Jalilvand, Tarrant County College–Southeast

Marian Leal, Sacred Heart University

Geoffrey Lee, Milwaukee Area Technical College

Tara Leszczewiz, College of Dupage

Mary Katherine Lockwood, University of New Hampshire

Francisco J. Martinez, Hunter College of CUNY

Bruce Maring, Daytona State College

Geri Mayer, Florida Atlantic University

Tiffany B. McFalls-Smith, Elizabethtown Community & Technical College

Melinda A. Miller, Pearl River Community College

Todd Miller, Hunter College of CUNY

Susan Mitchell, Onondaga Community College

Erin Morrey, Georgia Perimeter College

Jill O’Malley, Erie Community College

Suzanne Oppenheimer, College of Western Idaho

Lori Paul, University of Missouri - St. Louis

Stacy Pugh-Towe, Crowder College

Suzanne Pundt, The University of Texas at Tyler

Jackie Reynolds, Richland College

Anthony Rizzo, Polk State College

Jo Rogers, University of Cincinnati

James Royston, Pearl River Community College

Connie E. Rye, East Mississippi Community College

Mark Schmidt, Clark State Community College

Jennifer Showalter, Waubonsee Community College

Teresa Stegall-Faulk, Middle Tennessee State University

Melissa Ann Storm, University of South Carolina–Upstate

Bonnie J. Tarricone, Ivy Tech Community College

Raymond Thompson, University of South Carolina

Anna Tiffany Tindall-McKee, East Mississippi Community College

Allen Tratt, Cayuga Community College

Khursheed Wankadiya, Central Piedmont Community College

Diane L. Wood, Southeast Missouri State University

Contents

A Pre-Lab video is available in Mastering A&Ρ™ for selected activities.

1. The Human Body: An Orientation

1. 1 The Language of Anatomy 1

1. 1 Locating Body Regions 3

2. 2 Practicing Using Correct Anatomical Terminology 4

3. 3 Observing Sectioned Specimens 6

4. 4 Identifying Organs in the Abdominopelvic Cavity 9

5. 5 Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions 10

1. Review Sheet 11

2. 2 Organ Systems Overview 15

1. 1 Observing External Structures 17

2. 2 Examining the Oral Cavity 17

3. 3 Opening the Ventral Body Cavity 17

4. 4 Examining the Ventral Body Cavity 18

5. 5 Examining the Human Torso Model 22

1. Review Sheet 23

2. The Microscope and its Uses

1. 3 The Microscope 25

1. 1 Identifying the Parts of a Microscope 26

2. 2 Viewing Objects Through the Microscope 27

3. 3 Estimating the Diameter of the Microscope Field 30

4. 4 Perceiving Depth 31

5. 5 Preparing and Observing a Wet Mount 31

1. Review Sheet 33

3. The Cell

1. 4 The Cell: Anatomy and Division 37

1. 1 Identifying Parts of a Cell 38

2. 2 Identifying Components of a Plasma Membrane 39

3. 3 Locating Organelles 40

4. 4 Examining the Cell Model 40

5. 5 Observing Various Cell Structures 41

6. 6 Identifying the Mitotic Stages 43

7. 7 “Chenille Stick” Mitosis 43

1. Review Sheet 47

2. 5 The Cell: Transport Mechanisms and Cell Permeability 51

 1. 1 Observing Diffusion of Dye Through Agar Gel 53

2. 2 Observing Diffusion of Dye Through Water 54

3. 3 Investigating Diffusion and Osmosis Through Nonliving Membranes 54

4. 4 Observing Osmometer Results 56

5. 5 Investigating Diffusion and Osmosis Through Living Membranes 56

6. 6 Observing the Process of Filtration 59

7. 7 Observing Phagocytosis 60

1. Review Sheet 61

4. Histology: Basic Tissues of the Body

1. 6 Classification of Tissues 65

1. 1 Examining Epithelial Tissue Under the Microscope 67

2. 2 Examining Connective Tissue Under the Microscope 73

3. 3 Examining Nervous Tissue Under the Microscope 79

4. 4 Examining Muscle Tissue Under the Microscope 80

1. Review Sheet 83

5. The Integumentary System

1. 7 The Integumentary System 89

1. 1 Locating Structures on a Skin Model 90

2. 2 Identifying Nail Structures 93

3. 3 Comparing Hairy and Relatively Hair-Free Skin Microscopically 94

4. 4 Differentiating Sebaceous and Sweat Glands Microscopically 96

5. 5 Plotting the Distribution of Sweat Glands 96

6. 6 Taking and Identifying Inked Fingerprints 97

1. Review Sheet 99

6. The Skeletal System

1. 8 Overview of the Skeleton: Classification and Structure of Bones and Cartilages 103

1. 1 Examining a Long Bone 107

2. 2 Examining the Effects of Heat and Hydrochloric Acid on Bones 108

3. 3 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone 109

4. 4 Examining the Osteogenic Epiphyseal Plate 110

1. Review Sheet 111

2. 9 The Axial Skeleton 115

1. 1 Identifying the Bones of the Skull 116

2. Group Challenge Odd Bone Out 125

3. 2 Palpating Skull Markings 126

4. 3 Examining Spinal Curvatures 127

5. 4 Examining Vertebral Structure 131

6. 5 Examining the Relationship Between Ribs and Vertebrae 133

 7. 6 Examining a Fetal Skull 134

1. Review Sheet 135

3. 10 The Appendicular Skeleton 143

1. 1 Examining and Identifying Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton 143

2. 2 Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Pectoral Girdle and the Upper Limb 146

3. 3 Observing Pelvic Articulations 149

4. 4 Comparing Male and Female Pelves 151

5. 5 Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb 155

6. 6 Constructing a Skeleton 156

1. Review Sheet 157

4. 11 Articulations and Body Movements 165

1. 1 Identifying Fibrous Joints 166

2. 2 Identifying Cartilaginous Joints 166

3. 3 Examining Synovial Joint Structure 168

4. 4 Demonstrating the Importance of Friction-Reducing Structures 168

5. 5 Demonstrating Movements of Synovial Joints 170

6. 6 Demonstrating Actions at the Hip Joint 173

7. 7 Demonstrating Actions at the Knee Joint 173

8. 8 Demonstrating Actions at the Shoulder Joint 175

9. 9 Examining the Action at the TMJ 176

1. Review Sheet 179

7. The Muscular System

1. 12 Microscopic Anatomy and Organization of Skeletal Muscle 183

1. 1 Examining Skeletal Muscle Cell Anatomy 186

2. 2 Observing the Histological Structure of a Skeletal Muscle 186

3. 3 Studying the Structure of a Neuromuscular Junction 188

1. Review Sheet 189

2. 13 Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System 193

1. 1 Identifying Head and Neck Muscles 195

2. 2 Identifying Muscles of the Trunk 195

3. 3 Identifying Muscles of the Upper Limb 209

4. 4 Identifying Muscles of the Lower Limb 214

5. 5 Review of Human Musculature 218

6. 6 Making a Muscle Painting 220

1. Review Sheet 223

3. 14 Skeletal Muscle Physiology: Frogs and Human Subjects 231

1. 1 Observing Muscle Fiber Contraction 232

2. 2 Inducing Contraction in the Frog Gastrocnemius Muscle 234

3. 3 Demonstrating Muscle Fatigue in Humans 239

 4. BIOPAC® 4 Electromyography in a Human Subject Using BIOPAC® 240

1. Review Sheet 247

8. The Nervous System

1. 15 Histology of Nervous Tissue 251

1. 1 Identifying Parts of a Neuron 254

2. 2 Studying the Microscopic Structure of Selected Neurons 256

3. 3 Examining the Microscopic Structure of a Nerve 258

1. Review Sheet 259

2. 16 Neurophysiology of Nerve Impulses: Frog Subjects 263

Instructors may download two additional lab activities: Inhibiting the Nerve and Visualizing the Compound Action Potential with an Oscilloscope.
Instructors, please go to Mastering A&Ρ™ > Instructor Resources > Additional Resources > Additional Exercises

1. 1 Stimulating the Nerve 266

1. Review Sheet 267

3. 17 Gross Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Nerves 269

1. 1 Identifying External Brain Structures 271

2. 2 Identifying Internal Brain Structures 273

3. 3 Identifying and Testing the Cranial Nerves 278

4. Group Challenge Odd (Cranial) Nerve Out 286

1. Review Sheet 287

4. 18 Electroencephalography 293

1. 1 Observing Brain Wave Patterns Using an Oscilloscope or Physiograph 294

2. BIOPAC® 2 Electroencephalography Using BIOPAC® 295

1. Review Sheet 299

5. 19 The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 301

1. 1 Identifying Structures of the Spinal Cord 302

2. 2 Identifying Spinal Cord Tracts 305

3. 3 Identifying the Major Nerve Plexuses and Peripheral Nerves 312

1. Review Sheet 313

6. 20 The Autonomic Nervous System 317

1. 1 Locating the Sympathetic Trunk 318

2. 2 Comparing Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Effects 320

3. BIOPAC® 3 Exploring the Galvanic Skin Response (Electrodermal Activity) Within a Polygraph Using BIOPAC® 320

1. Review Sheet 327

7. 21 Human Reflex Physiology 329

1. 1 Initiating Stretch Reflexes 331

2. 2 Initiating the Crossed-Extensor Reflex 333

3. 3 Initiating the Plantar Reflex 333

4. 4 Initiating the Corneal Reflex 334

5. 5 Initiating the Gag Reflex 334

 6. 6 Initiating Pupillary Reflexes 334

7. 7 Initiating the Ciliospinal Reflex 335

8. 8 Initiating the Salivary Reflex 335

9. 9 Testing Reaction Time for Intrinsic and Learned Reflexes 336

10. BIOPAC® 10 Measuring Reaction Time Using BIOPAC® 337

1. Review Sheet 339

8. 22 General Sensation 343

1. 1 Studying the Structure of Selected Sensory Receptors 345

2. 2 Determining the Two-Point Threshold 346

3. 3 Testing Tactile Localization 347

4. 4 Demonstrating Adaptation of Touch Receptors 347

5. 5 Demonstrating Adaptation of Temperature Receptors 347

6. 6 Demonstrating the Phenomenon of Referred Pain 348

1. Review Sheet 349

9. 23 Special Senses: Anatomy of the Visual System 351

1. 1 Identifying Accessory Eye Structures 353

2. 2 Identifying Internal Structures of the Eye 353

3. 3 Studying the Microscopic Anatomy of the Retina 354

4. 4 Predicting the Effects of Visual Pathway Lesions 358

1. Review Sheet 359

10. 24 Special Senses: Visual Tests and Experiments 363

1. 1 Demonstrating the Blind Spot 364

2. 2 Determining Near Point of Vision 365

3. 3 Testing Visual Acuity 366

4. 4 Testing for Astigmatism 366

5. 5 Testing for Color Blindness 367

6. 6 Testing for Depth Perception 367

7. 7 Demonstrating Reflex Activity of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Eye Muscles 368

8. 8 Conducting an Ophthalmoscopic Examination 369

1. Review Sheet 371

11. 25 Special Senses: Hearing and Equilibrium 373

1. 1 Identifying Structures of the Ear 374

2. 2 Examining the Ear with an Otoscope (Optional) 376

3. 3 Examining the Microscopic Structure of the Cochlea 377

4. 4 Conducting Laboratory Tests of Hearing 378

5. 5 Audiometry Testing 380

6. 6 Examining the Microscopic Structure of the Crista Ampullaris 381

7. 7 Conducting Laboratory Tests on Equilibrium 382

1. Review Sheet 385

 12. 26 Special Senses: Olfaction and Taste 389

1. 1 Microscopic Examination of the Olfactory Epithelium 391

2. 2 Microscopic Examination of Taste Buds 392

3. 3 Stimulating Taste Buds 392

4. 4 Examining the Combined Effects of Smell, Texture, and Temperature on Taste 392

5. 5 Assessing the Importance of Taste and Olfaction in Odor Identification 394

6. 6 Demonstrating Olfactory Adaptation 394

1. Review Sheet 395

9. The Endocrine System

1. 27 Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Glands 397

1. 1 Identifying the Endocrine Organs 398

2. 2 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Endocrine Glands 402

3. Group Challenge Odd Hormone Out 404

1. Review Sheet 405

2. 28 Endocrine Wet Labs and Human Metabolism 409

1. 1 Determining the Effect of Pituitary Hormones on the Ovary 410

2. 2 Observing the Effects of Hyperinsulinism 411

3. Group Challenge Thyroid Hormone Case Studies 412

1. Review Sheet 413

10. The Circulatory System

1. 29 Blood 415

1. 1 Determining the Physical Characteristics of Plasma 418

2. 2 Examining the Formed Elements of Blood Microscopically 418

3. 3 Conducting a Differential WBC Count 421

4. 4 Determining the Hematocrit 422

5. 5 Determining Hemoglobin Concentration 424

6. 6 Determining Coagulation Time 425

7. 7 Typing for ABO and Rh Blood Groups 426

8. 8 Observing Demonstration Slides 428

9. 9 Measuring Plasma Cholesterol Concentration 428

1. Review Sheet 429

2. 30 Anatomy of the Heart 435

1. 1 Using the Heart Model to Study Heart Anatomy 438

2. 2 Tracing the Path of Blood Through the Heart 439

3. 3 Using the Heart Model to Study Cardiac Circulation 440

4. 4 Examining Cardiac Muscle Tissue Anatomy 441

1. Review Sheet 445

3. 31 Conduction System of the Heart and Electrocardiography 449

 1. 1A Recording ECGs Using a Standard ECG Apparatus 453

2. BIOPAC® 1B Electrocardiography Using BIOPAC® 454

1. Review Sheet 459

4. 32 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 461

1. 1 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Arteries and Veins 463

2. 2 Locating Arteries on an Anatomical Chart or Model 470

3. 3 Identifying the Systemic Veins 474

4. 4 Identifying Vessels of the Pulmonary Circulation 475

5. Group Challenge Fix the Blood Trace 476

6. 5 Tracing the Pathway of Fetal Blood Flow 476

7. 6 Tracing the Hepatic Portal Circulation 478

1. Review Sheet 479

5. 33 Human Cardiovascular Physiology: Blood Pressure and Pulse Determinations 485

1. 1 Auscultating Heart Sounds 488

2. 2 Palpating Superficial Pulse Points 489

3. BIOPAC® 3 Measuring Pulse Using BIOPAC® 490

4. 4 Taking an Apical Pulse 492

5. 5 Using a Sphygmomanometer to Measure Arterial Blood Pressure Indirectly 492

6. 6 Estimating Venous Pressure 493

7. 7 Observing the Effect of Various Factors on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate 494

8. 8 Examining the Effect of Local Chemical and Physical Factors on Skin Color 496

1. Review Sheet 499

6. 34 Frog Cardiovascular Physiology 505

1. 1 Investigating the Automaticity and Rhythmicity of Heart Muscle 506

2. BIOPAC® 2 Recording Baseline Frog Heart Activity 508

3. 3 Investigating the Refractory Period of Cardiac Muscle Using the Physiograph 511

4. BIOPAC® 4 Assessing Physical and Chemical Modifiers of Heart Rate 511

5. 5 Investigating the Effect of Various Factors on the Microcirculation 513

1. Review Sheet 515

7. 35 The Lymphatic System and Immune Response 519

1. 1 Identifying the Organs of the Lymphatic System 521

2. 2 Studying the Microscopic Anatomy of a Lymph Node, the Spleen, and a Tonsil 522

3. Group Challenge Compare and Contrast Lymphoid Organs and Tissues 524

4. 3 Using the Ouchterlony Technique to Identify Antigens 525

1. Review Sheet 527

11. The Respiratory System

1. 36 Anatomy of the Respiratory System 531

 1. 1 Identifying Respiratory System Organs 537

2. 2 Demonstrating Lung Inflation in a Sheep Pluck 537

3. 3 Examining Prepared Slides of Trachea and Lung Tissue 537

1. Review Sheet 539

2. 37 Respiratory System Physiology 543

1. 1 Operating the Model Lung 544

2. 2 Auscultating Respiratory Sounds 546

3. 3 Measuring Respiratory Volumes Using Spirometers 547

4. 4 Measuring the FVC and FEV1 553

5. BIOPAC® 5 Measuring Respiratory Volumes Using BIOPAC® 553

6. 6 Visualizing Respiratory Variations 557

7. 7 Demonstrating the Reaction Between Carbon Dioxide (in Exhaled Air) and Water 559

8. 8 Observing the Operation of Standard Buffers 560

9. 9 Exploring the Operation of the Carbonic Acid–Bicarbonate Buffer System 560

1. Review Sheet 561

12. The Digestive System

1. 38 Anatomy of the Digestive System 567

1. 1 Identifying Alimentary Canal Organs 569

2. 2 Studying the Histologic Structure of the Stomach and the Esophagus-Stomach Junction 573

3. 3 Observing the Histologic Structure of the Small Intestine 576

4. 4 Examining the Histologic Structure of the Large Intestine 578

5. 5 Identifying Types of Teeth 579

6. 6 Studying Microscopic Tooth Anatomy 580

7. 7 Examining Salivary Gland Tissue 580

8. 8 Examining the Histology of the Liver 581

1. Review Sheet 583

2. 39 Digestive System Processes: Chemical and Physical 589

1. 1 Assessing Starch Digestion by Salivary Amylase 590

2. 2 Assessing Protein Digestion by Trypsin 593

3. 3 Demonstrating the Emulsification Action of Bile and Assessing Fat Digestion by Lipase 594

4. 4 Reporting Results and Conclusions 595

5. Group Challenge Odd Enzyme Out 595

6. 5 Observing Movements and Sounds of the Digestive System 596

7. 6 Viewing Segmental and Peristaltic Movements 597

1. Review Sheet 599

13. The Urinary System

1. 40 Anatomy of the Urinary System 603

1. 1 Identifying Urinary System Organs 605

 2. 2 Studying Nephron Structure 608

3. 3 Studying Bladder Structure 611

4. Group Challenge Urinary System Sequencing 612

1. Review Sheet 613

2. 41 Urinalysis 617

1. 1 Analyzing Urine Samples 619

2. 2 Analyzing Urine Sediment Microscopically (Optional) 622

1. Review Sheet 623

14. The Reproductive System, Development, and Heredity

1. 42 Anatomy of the Reproductive System 625

1. 1 Identifying Male Reproductive Organs 626

2. 2 Penis 629

3. 3 Seminal Gland 630

4. 4 Epididymis 630

5. 5 Identifying Female Reproductive Organs 630

6. 6 Wall of the Uterus 633

7. 7 Uterine Tube 633

1. Review Sheet 635

2. 43 Physiology of Reproduction: Gametogenesis and the Female Cycles 641

1. 1 Identifying Meiotic Phases and Structures 643

2. 2 Examining Events of Spermatogenesis 644

3. 3 Examining Meiotic Events Microscopically 645

4. 4 Examining Oogenesis in the Ovary 646

5. 5 Comparing and Contrasting Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis 646

6. 6 Observing Histological Changes in the Endometrium During the Menstrual Cycle 648

1. Review Sheet 651

3. 44 Survey of Embryonic Development 655

1. 1 Microscopic Study of Sea Urchin Development 656

2. 2 Examining the Stages of Human Development 656

3. 3 Identifying Fetal Structures 659

4. 4 Studying Placental Structure 660

1. Review Sheet 661

4. 45 Principles of Heredity 665

1. 1 Working Out Crosses Involving Dominant and Recessive Genes 667

2. 2 Working Out Crosses Involving Incomplete Dominance 667

3. 3 Working Out Crosses Involving Sex-Linked Inheritance 668

4. 4 Exploring Probability 669

5. 5 Using Blood Type to Explore Phenotypes and Genotypes 670

6. 6 Using Agarose Gel Electrophoresis to Identify Normal Hemoglobin, Sickle Cell Anemia, and Sickle Cell Trait 670
 1. Review Sheet 673

15. Surface Anatomy

1. 46 Surface Anatomy Roundup 677

1. 1 Palpating Landmarks of the Head 678

2. 2 Palpating Landmarks of the Neck 680

3. 3 Palpating Landmarks of the Trunk 682

4. 4 Palpating Landmarks of the Abdomen 684

5. 5 Palpating Landmarks of the Upper Limb 686

6. 6 Palpating Landmarks of the Lower Limb 689

1. Review Sheet 693

16. Cat Dissection Exercises

1. 1 Dissection and Identification of Cat Muscles 695

2. 2 Dissection of Cat Spinal Nerves 713

3. 3 Identification of Selected Endocrine Organs of the Cat 719

4. 4 Dissection of the Blood Vessels of the Cat 723

5. 5 The Main Lymphatic Ducts of the Cat 733

6. 6 Dissection of the Respiratory System of the Cat 735

7. 7 Dissection of the Digestive System of the Cat 739

8. 8 Dissection of the Urinary System of the Cat 745

9. 9 Dissection of the Reproductive System of the Cat 749

17. Physioex™ 9.1 Computer Simulations

1. 1 Cell Transport Mechanisms and Permeability PEx-3

2. 2 Skeletal Muscle Physiology PEx-17

3. 3 Neurophysiology of Nerve Impulses PEx-35

4. 4 Endocrine System Physiology PEx-59

5. 5 Cardiovascular Dynamics PEx-75

6. 6 Cardiovascular Physiology PEx-93

7. 7 Respiratory System Mechanics PEx-105

8. 8 Chemical and Physical Processes of Digestion PEx-119

9. 9 Renal System Physiology PEx-131

10. 10 Acid-Base Balance PEx-149

11. 11 Blood Analysis PEx-161

12. 12 Serological Testing PEx-177

1. Credits C-1

2. Index I-1
The Human Body: An Orientation
Exercise 1 The Language of Anatomy

Le arning O utcome s

Describe the anatomical position, and explain its importance.

Use proper anatomical terminology to describe body regions, orientation and direction, and body planes.

Name the body cavities, and indicate the important organs in each.

Name and describe the serous membranes of the ventral body cavities.

Identify the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions on a torso model or image.

Pre -Lab Q uiz

1. Circle True or False. In anatomical position, the body is lying down.

2. Circle the correct underlined term. With regard to surface anatomy, abdominal / axial refers to the structures along the center line of the body.

3. The term superficial refers to a structure that is:

1. attached near the trunk of the body

2. toward or at the body surface

3. toward the head

4. toward the midline

4. The ________ plane runs longitudinally and divides the body into right and left sides.

1. frontal

2. sagittal

3. transverse

4. ventral

5. Circle the correct underlined terms. The dorsal body cavity can be divided into the cranial / thoracic cavity, which contains the brain, and the sural /
vertebral cavity, which contains the spinal cord.

Go to Mastering A&P™ > Study Area to improve your performance in A&P Lab.
1.1-1 Full Alternative Text

Instructors may assign new Building Vocabulary coaching activities, Pre-Lab Quiz questions, Art Labeling activities, and more using the Mastering A&P™ Item
Library.

Mate rials

Human torso model (dissectible)

Human skeleton

Demonstration: sectioned and labeled kidneys (three separate kidneys uncut or cut so that [a] entire, [b] transverse sectional, and [c] longitudinal sectional
views are visible)

Gelatin-spaghetti molds

Scalpel

A student new to any science is often overwhelmed at first by the terminology used in that subject. The study of anatomy is no exception. But without specialized
terminology, confusion is inevitable. For example, what do over, on top of, above, and behind mean in reference to the human body? Anatomists have an
accepted set of reference terms that are universally understood. These allow body structures to be located and identified precisely with a minimum of words.

This exercise presents some of the most important anatomical terminology used to describe the body and introduces you to basic concepts of gross anatomy, the
study of body structures visible to the naked eye.
Anatomical Position
When anatomists or doctors refer to specific areas of the human body, the picture they keep in mind is a universally accepted standard position called the anatomical
position. In the anatomical position, the human body is erect, with the feet only slightly apart, head and toes pointed forward, and arms hanging at the sides with palms
facing forward (Figure 1.1a). It is also important to remember that “left” and “right” refer to the sides of the individual, not the observer.

Figure 1.1 Anatomical position and regional terms.

Heels are raised to illustrate the plantar surface of the foot, which is actually on the inferior surface of the body.

Figure 1.1 Full Alternative Text

□ Assume the anatomical position. The hands are held unnaturally forward rather than hanging with palms toward the thighs.

Check the box when you have completed this task.

Regional Anatomy
The body is divided into two main regions, the axial and appendicular regions. The axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk; it runs along the vertical axis
of the body. The appendicular region includes the limbs, which are also called the appendages or extremities. The body is also divided up into smaller regions
within those two main divisions. Table 1.1 summarizes the body regions that are illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Table 1.1 Regions of the Human Body (Figure 1.1)

Table 1.1 Full Alternative Text

Activity 1 Locating Body Regions

Locate the anterior and posterior body regions on yourself, your lab partner, and a human torso model.
Directional Terms
Study the terms below, referring to Figure 1.2 for a visual aid. Notice that certain terms have different meanings, depending on whether they refer to a four-legged animal
(quadruped) or to a human (biped).

Figure 1.2 Directional terms.

(a) With reference to a human. (b) With reference to a four-legged animal.

Figure 1.2 Full Alternative Text

Superior/inferior (above/below): These terms refer to placement of a structure along the long axis of the body. The nose, for example, is superior to the mouth, and the
abdomen is inferior to the chest.

Anterior/posterior (front/back): In humans, the most anterior structures are those that are most forward—the face, chest, and abdomen. Posterior structures are those
toward the backside of the body. For instance, the spine is posterior to the heart.

Medial/lateral (toward the midline/away from the midline or median plane): The sternum (breastbone) is medial to the ribs; the ear is lateral to the nose.

The terms of position just described assume the person is in the anatomical position. The next four term pairs are more absolute. They apply in any body position, and they
consistently have the same meaning in all vertebrate animals.

Cephalad (cranial)/caudal (toward the head/toward the tail): In humans, these terms are used interchangeably with superior and inferior, but in four-legged animals
they are synonymous with anterior and posterior, respectively.

Ventral/dorsal (belly side/backside): These terms are used chiefly in discussing the comparative anatomy of animals, assuming the animal is standing. In humans, the terms
ventral and dorsal are used interchangeably with the terms anterior and posterior, but in four-legged animals, ventral and dorsal are synonymous with inferior and
superior, respectively.

Proximal/distal (nearer the trunk or attached end/farther from the trunk or point of attachment): These terms are used primarily to locate various areas of the body
limbs. For example, the fingers are distal to the elbow; the knee is proximal to the toes. However, these terms may also be used to indicate regions (closer to or farther from
the head) of internal tubular organs.

Superficial (external)/deep (internal) (toward or at the body surface/away from the body surface): For example, the skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles, and
the lungs are deep to the rib cage.

Activity 2 Practicing Using Correct Anatomical Terminology

Use a human torso model, a human skeleton, or your own body to practice using the regional and directional terminology.
1. The popliteal region is . (anterior or posterior)

2. The acromial region is to the otic region. (medial or lateral)

3. The femoral region is to the tarsal region. (proximal or distal)

4. The bones are to the skin. (superficial or deep)

Body Planes and Sections
The body is three-dimensional, and in order to observe its internal structures, it is often necessary to make a section, or cut. When the section is made through the body wall or through an organ, it is made along an imaginary surface or line called a plane.
A section is named for the plane along which it is cut. Anatomists commonly refer to three planes (Figure 1.3), or sections, that lie at right angles to one another.

Figure 1.3 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.
Note the transverse section is an inferior view.

Figure 1.3 Full Alternative Text

Sagittal plane: A sagittal plane runs longitudinally and divides the body into right and left parts. If it divides the body into equal parts, right down the midline of the body, it is called a median, or midsagittal, plane.

Frontal plane: Sometimes called a coronal plane, the frontal plane is a longitudinal plane that divides the body (or an organ) into anterior and posterior parts.

Transverse plane: A transverse plane runs horizontally, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts. When organs are sectioned along the transverse plane, the sections are commonly called cross sections.

On microscope slides, the abbreviation for a longitudinal section (sagittal or frontal) is l.s. Cross sections are abbreviated x.s. or c.s.

A median or frontal plane section of any nonspherical object, be it a banana or a body organ, provides quite a different view from a cross section (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Objects can look odd when viewed in section.

This banana has been sectioned in three different planes (a–c), and only in one of these planes (b) is it easily recognized as a banana. If one cannot recognize a sectioned organ, it is possible to reconstruct its shape from a series of successive
cuts, as from the three serial sections in (c).
Figure 1.4 Full Alternative Text

Activity 3 Observing Sectioned Specimens

1. Go to the demonstration area and observe the transversely and longitudinally cut organ specimens (kidneys).

2. After completing instruction 1, obtain a gelatin-spaghetti mold and a scalpel, and take them to your laboratory bench. (Essentially, this is just cooked spaghetti added to warm gelatin, which is then allowed to gel.)

3. Cut through the gelatin-spaghetti mold along any plane, and examine the cut surfaces. You should see spaghetti strands that have been cut transversely (x.s.) and some cut longitudinally (a median section).

4. Draw the appearance of each of these spaghetti sections below, and verify the accuracy of your section identifications with your instructor.
Body Cavities
The axial region of the body has two large cavities that provide different degrees of protection to the organs within them (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.

Figure 1.5 Full Alternative Text

Dorsal Body Cavity

The dorsal body cavity can be subdivided into the cranial cavity, which lies within the rigid skull and encases the brain, and the vertebral (or spinal) cavity, which runs
through the bony vertebral column to enclose the delicate spinal cord.

Ventral Body Cavity

Like the dorsal cavity, the ventral body cavity is subdivided. The superior thoracic cavity is separated from the rest of the ventral cavity by the dome-shaped diaphragm.
The heart and lungs, located in the thoracic cavity, are protected by the bony rib cage. The cavity inferior to the diaphragm is referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity.
Although there is no further physical separation of the ventral cavity, some describe the abdominopelvic cavity as two areas: a superior abdominal cavity, the area that
houses the stomach, intestines, liver, and other organs, and an inferior pelvic cavity, the region that is partially enclosed by the bony pelvis and contains the reproductive
organs, bladder, and rectum.

Serous Membranes of the Ventral Body Cavity

The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered with a very thin, double-layered membrane called the serosa, or serous
membrane. The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is referred to as the parietal serosa, and it is continuous with a similar membrane, the visceral serosa,
covering the external surface of the organs within the cavity. These membranes produce a thin lubricating fluid that allows the visceral organs to slide over one another or to
rub against the body wall with minimal friction. Serous membranes also compartmentalize the various organs to prevent infection in one organ from spreading to others.

The specific names of the serous membranes depend on the structures they surround. The serosa lining the abdominal cavity and covering its organs is the peritoneum, the
serosa enclosing the lungs is the pleura, and the serosa around the heart is the pericardium (Figure 1.6). A fist pushed into a limp balloon demonstrates the relationship
between the visceral and parietal serosae (Figure 1.6d).

Figure 1.6 Serous membranes of the ventral body cavities.

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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN