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VOLUME 22 NUMBER 1 January 2023
Table of Contents
“Mending Bridges”: English Teachers Teaching for Social Cohesion.............................................................................. 1
Vincent Nojaja, Leila Kajee
Challenges of Implementing the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) for Special Needs Children with Learning
Disabilities: Systematic Literature Review (SLR).............................................................................................................. 15
Syar Meeze Mohd Rashid, Mei Ti Wong
Impact of a Positive Classroom Climate on Sixth Graders’ Motivation to Learn Mathematics at Northern Israel’s
Arab Minority Schools ......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Nabil Assadi
Special Education Teacher’s Application of Entrepreneurial Elements in Teaching and Facilitation ....................... 55
Syar Meeze Mohd Rashid, Norfatimah A. Ghani
Integrative Principals’ Leadership Behaviour Approach to Improve Student Academic Outcomes in Ethiopian
Secondary Schools ................................................................................................................................................................ 72
RJ (Nico) Botha, Seyoum Gari Aleme
Students’ Perceptions of Biology Teachers’ Enacted Pedagogical Content Knowledge at Selected Secondary
Schools in Lusaka Province of Zambia .............................................................................................................................. 94
Thumah Mapulanga, Gilbert Nshogoza, Ameyaw Yaw
Postgraduate Science Students’ Impressions and Experiences of Online Pedagogical Practices: Implications for
Technology-Enhanced Pedagogy ..................................................................................................................................... 112
Sam Ramaila, Lydia Mavuru
The Impact of KaniMani Storytelling Mobile Application (KM-SMA) on Tamil Students’ Speaking Skills and
Motivation in Learning Tamil ........................................................................................................................................... 129
Khasturi Ramalingam, Yeo Kee Jiar
Contribution of Academia Colleague as a Clinical Model to the Professional Development of Pre-Service

Teachers ............................................................................................................................................................................... 143
Seham Hamza, Nabil Assadi, Tareq Murad, Muhammad Ibdah
Effects of Interactive Mathematics Software on Grade-5 Learners’ Performance ...................................................... 166

Innocente Uwineza, Alphonse Uworwabayeho, Kenya Yokoyama
The Effectiveness of Online Learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Malaysia .................................................. 191
Nurhanani Romli, Mohd Faiz Mohamed Yusof, Yap Tsvey Peng, Nurul Hila Zainuddin
Flipped Classroom in a Digital Learning Space: Its Effect on the Students’ Attitude Toward Mathematics ......... 210
Anton A. Romero, Edarlyn D. Angeles
Exploring Foreign Teachers’ Perceptions of Communication with Students in Online Learning in China: A Case
Study..................................................................................................................................................................................... 228
Jing Guo, Adelina Asmawi
Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on Accounting Students’ Capability to Use Technology ........................................ 247
Mujeeb Saif Mohsen Al-Absy
Implementing the Engage, Study, Activate Approach Using Technological Tools in Higher Education .............. 268
Paola Cabrera-Solano, Cesar Ochoa-Cueva, Luz Castillo-Cuesta
Examining the Relationship Between Components of the MUSIC Model of Motivation and Student Achievement
in Computer Programming ............................................................................................................................................... 283
Ali Alshammari
Typology of History Teachers in 21st-Century Learning (Grounded Theory Study in Senior High School in
Indonesia) ............................................................................................................................................................................ 302
Ema Agustina, Didin Saripudin, Leli Yulifar, Encep Supriatna
Portrait of Education in Indonesia: Learning from PISA Results 2015 to Present ...................................................... 321
Esti Ismawati, Hersulastuti ., Indiyah Prana Amertawengrum, Kun Andyan Anindita
Investigating EFL Instructors’ Perceptions of using Blackboard in TEFL at IAU Preparatory Year ....................... 341
Sami Mubireek, Montasser Mahmoud, Abdul Aziz Ali El-deen, Ahmed Moumene, Ahmed Younis
Emerging Assessment Practices Cooperating Teachers Shared with Preservice English Teachers in the
Philippines ........................................................................................................................................................................... 361
Cailvin D. Reyes
Relationship between Parents’ Beliefs in Early Mathematics and Learning Environment Provision at Home ..... 377
Kong Hui Ling Kong, Suziyani Mohamed
Students’ Preferences Regarding the Techniques of Oral Corrective Feedback in a Tertiary Institution ............... 393
Bunyarat Duklim
Embedding Sustainable Development Goals to Support Curriculum Merdeka Using Projects in Biotechnology 406
Aris Rudi Purnomo, Bambang Yulianto, Muhamad Arif Mahdiannur, Hasan Subekti
1

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 1-14, January 2023
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.22.1.1
Received Aug 17, 2022; Revised Oct 31, 2022; Accepted Jan 10, 2023
“Mending Bridges”: English Teachers Teaching

for Social Cohesion
Vincent Nojaja and Leila Kajee
University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Abstract. This article explores English Home and First Additional

Language (English HL/FAL) teachers’ insights into social cohesion and
what their understandings imply for teaching the language in diverse
secondary schools in South Africa. Twenty-seven years into democracy,
South African society remains beset with social challenges, such as
increasing inequalities, poverty, and violence indicating intolerance and
a general decline of moral fibre in society. Guided by the theory of social
justice in education and supported by the notion that critical pedagogy
has the potential to transform society, this qualitative case study explored
English teachers’ perceptions of a cohesive society, and the way they
teach for such a society. This study explored whether their theoretical
understanding of the concept improves teachers’ positioning of education
in diverse secondary schools, to achieve the broader objectives outlined
in the national curriculum, and successfully foster social change in post-
apartheid South African society. Conducted through the method a
qualitative exploratory case study, data were elicited through semi-
structured interviews and lesson observations of seven English HL/FAL
teachers from three diverse secondary schools in Merafong City, in the
Gauteng Province, in South Africa. Using content analysis to analyse
data, this study found that teachers perceived a cohesive society as one of
solidarity, respect, peace, humanity, and equal treatment. Interestingly,
some teachers could not clearly link the concept with formal education,
or in fact, English teaching, something which indicated that their
pedagogic knowledge is limited, thus impeding the process of improving
social cohesion in society.
Keywords: English Education; Social Justice; Social Cohesion
1. Introduction
Twenty-seven years into democracy, South African society remains beset with
social challenges, which date back to the gross misdemeanours of the apartheid
era. The country is considered one of the most unequal, intolerant, unstable and
violent societies in the world (Sayed & Badroodien, 2016). Racism, increasing
unemployment rates and poverty continue to divide South African society to an
extent that endangers people’s lives (Cloete, 2014), as the rise of unemployment
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International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
2
and inequality perpetuate crime and riots that are always harmful to people’s
lives (Meiring, Kannemeyer & Potgieter, 2018; Ratele, 2015). Impoverished people
venture their social-related frustrations and anger on those vulnerable in society.
Such behaviours and instances indicate that social cohesion in South Africa has
not yet been achieved, and the society’s moral fibre is declining despite the
strategies put in place to improve the spheres that are aimed at bringing about
social transformation. Although the education sector gets the biggest amount
from the government’s budget allocation in order to provide quality education
that effectively address recent social issues such as inequality and fragmentation
(Sayed, Badroodien, Omar, Ndabaga, Novelli, Durrani, Barrett, Balie, Salmon,
Bizimana, Ntahomvukiye and Utomi, 2018), the post-apartheid South African
society remains overwhelmed by the vestiges of colonialism and apartheid.
The main aim of this paper is to examine teachers’ understandings of a cohesive

society and how this may have empowered and enabled them to teach for the
broader outcomes of the curriculum, including the improvement of social
cohesion in the conflict-affected communities. Given the potential role of formal
education in changing people’s lives and the structure of society at large, this
paper is rooted in the tenets of social justice, which accounts for equitable
provision of quality education that develops learners’ intellectual and ethical
skills. The efficacy of social justice in education is also linked with teacher-
competence given their role as key agents of social change. Therefore, teachers
need to possess a great appreciation of socio-cultural and socio-economic
differences, and of the impact this diversity may have on the success of teaching
and learning practices. In short, teachers in diverse educational institutions of
education need to be critical pedagogues.
2. Theoretical framework: Social justice and social cohesion

Social cohesion, as an element of social justice, is a concept which fosters unity,
peace and tolerance by encouraging a sense of belonging and participation in
society (Fonseca, Lukosh & Brazier, 2019; De Kock, Sayed & Badroodien, 2018),
while social justice is the theory through which to develop the envisaged society.
In a general sense, social justice is an instrument for developing a social structure
(Rawls, 1999). As a theory, it assumes that “all people, irrespective of belief or
societal position, are entitled to be treated according to the values of human rights,
human dignity and equality” (Van Deventer, Van der Westhuizen & Potgieter,
2015, p. 1). Social justice is a crucial impetus for promoting humanity, peace,
tolerance, and unity. In other words, a conflict-affected society has the potential
to improve social cohesion by enacting social justice in institutions of public
importance such as schools. Adams, Bell, Goodman and Joshi (2016) add that the
theory is a social-oriented tool for reshaping society. For education that is aimed
at improving social cohesions and cohesion, recognition of socio-cultural and
socio-economic inequalities is essential as this has the potential to remediate
injustices and learning barriers in South Africa’s education. Thus, this paper
argues in favour of Rawls’ (1999) postulation that social justice is the primary
course towards achieving a harmonious society, as it entails the regulation of
social principles and fair treatment and distribution of social resources.
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Being the fundamental principle of just social systems in society, social justice is
grounded in honesty and impartiality insofar as the distribution of social
resources is concerned. Rawls (1999, p. 3) highlights the principle of distributive
justice as truth and fairness: “A theory however elegant and economical must be
rejected or revised if it is untrue; likewise, laws and institutions no matter how
efficient and well-arranged must be reformed or abolished if they are unjust.”
This means that the concept encourages accurate, reliable and transparent
processes for fair and just social systems and practices. Fair and just practices are
the most important social principles guiding the individuals’ actions and
allocation of social resources (Rawls, 1999).
A crucial aspect of social justice in education is enabling educational policies and

practices to serve learners equally. For this reason, it is an instrument through
which to examine, formulate, enact and monitor in order to ensure equitable
distribution of the natural resources meant to improve society (Nieto, 2000). The
theory constitutes “analyzing school policies and practices – the curriculum,
textbooks and materials, instructional strategies, tracking, recruitment and hiring
of staff, and parent involvement strategies – that devalue the identities of some
students while valuing those of others” (Nieto, 2000, p. 183). This calls for teachers
to be critical of curriculum content and pedagogies that they use to facilitate
learning practices. This also entails examining the purpose of the content that is
taught and the effectiveness of the pedagogies in enabling learners’ equitable
access into the curriculum. Therefore, fair and equitable teaching and learning
can be achieved in South Africa’s education if justice in education is effectively
applied. In fact, this can possibly improve the schooling system and accelerate
social cohesion, as according to Sayed and Badroodien (2016), social
transformation is developed through quality and equitable education.
Social justice is rooted in three fundamental social bands, namely conducive place,
fair practice or action, and unbiased principles. These social bands are
intertwined. As Rawls says [F]or even though justice has a certain priority, being the
most important virtue of institutions, it is still true that, other things equal, one
conception of justice is preferable to another when its broader consequences are more
desirable.” (Rawls, 1999, p. 6).
Considering social justice according to the previous bands, this paper contends
that education has the potential to improve social cohesion and teachers are key
agents in the process. The school environment and classroom practices help
prepare young people to take up adult roles in society. Any form of inequitable
treatment may hinder the process, and hence, it can exacerbate social challenges
such as inequalities, poverty and divisions. When learners are given proper
support and appropriate resources, they develop better critical skills, which
enable them to live responsibly (Bickmore, 2006). Besides, school is the place in
which social differences are contested, negotiated and addressed (De Kock et al.,
2018). Therefore, social justice is imperative to the context of South African
education system as it offers a scope of thoughts for effective means to improve
culture of teaching and learning, so that social change and cohesion can be
realised. South Africa’s education is still marked with inequalities (Badat &
Sayed, 2014; Spaull, 2013), thereby impeding the potential progress in advancing
social change.
4
There are many reasons affirming the importance of social justice and the
principle of equal distribution of resources in post-apartheid South African
education institutions. Firstly, the principle of equitable distribution of resources
in education implies the distribution of more teaching and learning instruments
to those with less or previously disadvantaged (Nieuwenhuis, 2010). The process
ensures that the education institutions are able to provide equitable quality
education to the community. The author argues that social justice in educational
institutions therefore provides equitable learning opportunities, and provides
each learner with opportunities to become independent citizens in a democratic
society. In other words, social justice mitigates learners’ background
circumstances as learning barriers. Social justice helps learners “[to] reach high
levels of learning and prepare them all for active and full participation in a
democracy” (Villegas, 2007, p. 372).
Secondly, the concept of social justice in education corresponds with Freire’s

(1970) notion of education. Paolo Freire (1970) maintains that the main objective
of formal education is to liberate people and transform communities by
addressing inequalities. This suggests two positions with regard to the South
Africa’s cause of improving social cohesion. On the one hand, the challenge of
increasing inequalities – which are by means of race (Khambule & Siswana, 2017),
socioeconomic status (Segalo, 2015), geographic location (Nkambule, 2012) and
gender (Bhorat & Van der Westhuizen, 2012) – in post-apartheid South Africa
indicate that the country’s education system is not well positioned for effective
enhancement of social cohesion. On the other hand, the county lacks full
commitment and effective implementation to improve learning and teaching
conditions contributing to the decline of the education system in the country. Full
commitment and effective implementation mean delivering on the promise and
constant monitoring circumstances.
Lastly, Cappy (2016) attests that social justice (specifically, equitable distribution)
in South African education is significant in her discussion of the country’s
education during apartheid. The education system was structured to divide rather
than to unite society. “Resources were allocated unequally, with white schools
receiving the greatest resources and (B)lack schools the fewest” (Cappy, 2016, p.
124). This means that inequitable distribution of teaching and learning resources
at the time was meant to perpetuate inequalities between Black and white groups
(Fiske & Ladd, 2004 in Cappy, 2016). In other words, resources play an essential
role in education and societal structures. Effective practice of social justice will
elevate social cohesion through equal and equitable education, and address crises
in education. When the education system is unequal, the idea of a cohesive society
is relegated to public speeches and policies and remains unfulfilled in practice.
Rather, the education system might aggravate social fragmentation, as learners in
poor-resourced schools tend to perform poorly and fail to enter higher education
institutions (Sayed et al., 2018; Becker et al., 2015). Thus, Novelli and Sayed (2016)
conclude that one of the consequences of the situation is extreme social ills,
including poverty, inequalities, and divisions.
5
3. Research design
This study follows the interpretive paradigm, a central research perspective that
informs the methods of the research. The research adopts a qualitative case study
as a technique to investigate English teachers’ understandings of a socially just
cohesive society. Using non-probability sampling, which enables researchers to
choose the participants from whom they can learn more about the situation
(Kothari, 2004), 7 English HL/FAL teachers from three public secondary schools
in Merafong city, in the Gauteng province, were selected to participate. While the
original sample was eight teachers, one participant later recused herself from the
study. Non-probability sampling was relevant to this qualitative case study as it
helped to select the best group of the participants that would offer data which
could provide responses to the research. Three participants were from School A,
2 from School B, and 2 from School C.
All individual participants were observed twice to examine how they engage with
learners in their English lessons, and a semi-structured interview with each
teacher was conducted to elicit data. Observations help collect ‘live’ data, while
interviews gather information based on participant’s perceptions (Ary et al.,
2010).
Data in this study were analysed using content analysis. Creswell’s (2014) steps
proved helpful:
• Organising and preparing data for analysis, the process which entails
transcribing the interviews, scanning of material, and typing up field notes.
• Reading through the collected data to get an overview of the information
before reflecting on the overall meaning. This stage allowed for the primary
researcher to write notes about their general thoughts in margins.
• Analysing data using a coding process. The coding process comprises “taking
text data or pictures gathered during data collection, segmenting sentences …
and labelling those categories with a term, often based in the actual language
of the participants (Creswell, 2014).
Reliability and trustworthiness were guaranteed by means of triangulation and

member checking, as well as drawing on multiple data sources. The process
provided the teachers with opportunities to challenge and rectify responses that
may have been misrepresented, thus ensuring validity and authenticity.
To ensure that this research was ethical, permission from all the relevant
stakeholders and organisations was requested and granted prior to data
collection. These involved written consent granting permission to work with
schools from the School Governing Body, teachers, and the principal of each site.
Consent to participate in this study was also requested from the teachers.
Furthermore, confidentiality was assured using pseudonyms, encouragement of
voluntary participation, and inclusion of the researcher’s contact information in
all the letters of consent. Finally, audio recordings and transcripts have not been
publicly exposed or availed, and they will remain confidential.
6
4. Data description and analysis

To establish English teachers’ understandings of a socially just cohesive society,
the primary researcher coded and categorised data from the interviews and
observations into themes, focussing on the teachers’ theory and praxis. The
themes reported on in this paper are: English teachers’ understandings of a
socially just cohesive society; English teachers’ classroom teachings for a socially
just cohesive society; and limited pedagogic knowledge.
4.1 English teachers’ understanding of a socially just cohesive society

The teachers’ views of a cohesive society aligned with literature in the field of
social cohesion, inter alia, individuals’ attitudes, equality, inclusion, and
participation (Addeo, Diana, Bottoni & Esposito, 2017; Fenger, 2012). Most
teachers related the concept to the social condition and structure, but with varying
purposes.
“[It is] a society that does not discriminate but rather works towards
integrating everyone in society regardless of difference[s]. A society that
acknowledges differences and works towards merging society.” (Interview
with Mrs Thabethe).
“A socially just cohesive society is where there is equality, a society where

people are free to express themselves as they see fit… exclusion and
marginalisation, creates a sense of inequality, and promotes lack of trust
and unity among all the members of society.” (Interview with Ms
Makhosi).
“A socially just cohesive society is a society that allows and respects

different views and, more importantly, free discourse whereby people
listen to each other even when at odds with one another. This importance
is amplified when it comes to marginalized group who have to be given a
platform to voice out their grievances so previous injustices can be
rectified.” (Interview with Mr Daniels).
According to these three respondents, some of the features that determine a

cohesive society are equity and freedom of expression. For Mrs Thabethe and Mr
Daniels that includes acknowledging the fact that society is made up of diverse
individuals whose views and abilities should be respected. Mrs Thabethe and Mr
Daniels seem to associate a cohesive society with how individuals are treated in
the community, given their views that a cohesive society is “a society that does
not discriminate” but which “allows and respects” individual differences. This
means that they equate a cohesive society to a social structure that is devoid of
inequalities and discrimination, and where individuals are treated fairly.
Ms Makhosi concurs with Mrs Thabethe’s and Mr Daniels’ sentiments pertaining

to a cohesive society. She highlights the importance of equality and freedom of
expression in society. She feels that “exclusion and marginalisation” of other
people result in negative social dimensions such as “inequality” which she
believes “promotes lack of trust and unity” in society. Like other teachers (such
as Mr Daniels), who highlighted the purpose of fair treatment as a possible means
7
to redress social injustices without providing clarity, Ms Makhosi could not

expound on the idea of enacting equitable treatment in society. Yet, she mentions
the consequences of unfair treatment. This implies two positions relating to
teachers’ notions of equal treatment, given the small sample whose views are not
generalisable. On the one hand, it could be indicative of English teachers’ lack of
knowledge insofar as the lack of impartial treatment in society is concerned. On
the other hand, it could mean that teachers do not take the idea of treating learners
equally in the classroom seriously. In essence, these teachers appear preoccupied
with the outcomes rather than the processes of equal treatment in the South
African education system.
Despite the teachers’ superficial understanding of enacting equal treatment in

society, their perceptions of a socially just cohesive society indicate that they
understand the outcomes of inequitable treatment and/or inequalities in society.
In general, the teachers understand that unfair treatment and inequalities in
society jeopardise social cohesion by triggering social instabilities that lead to
social fragmentations rather than social solidarity and harmony. This is consistent
with Berger-Schmitt’s (2002) views about social cohesion in Addeo and
colleagues’ (2017) study that identifies inequalities as one of the broad social
elements that need to be addressed if society wants to improve the status quo of
social cohesion. According to Addeo et al. (2017), social cohesion improves when
the levels of inequality in society diminish.
4.2 English teachers’ classroom teachings for a socially just cohesive society
Below is an interview extract with Mrs Dibe demonstrating what it means to
English teachers to teach for a cohesive society.
Researcher: What does teaching for a socially just cohesive society mean to you?
Mrs Dibe: I think it is teaching in such a manner that a teacher instils values, which
are going to make learners uplift unity in the societies where they come
from … it is a teaching through instilling values of unity to the learners,
and also teaching them skills of surviving in their societies...
Researcher: Can you just give me one or two examples of those values, just to be
specific? Thank you.
Mrs Dibe: Learners should be taught that it is very-very important to respect other
human beings … if you are a respectful person you are not self-centred,
you also think of other people. If we see the rape cases, the murders of
women in nowadays, it simply shows us that there is lack of that…
(Interview with Mrs Dibe).
This excerpt highlights that Mrs Dibe believes that teaching for a cohesive society
underpins two ideas, namely, equipping learners with values that encourage
unity, and equipping learners with skills that will help them survive in society.
She strongly believes that providing learners with these values is essential because
it encourages them to appreciate the significance of unity in society. Mrs Dibe
believes that building a cohesive society begins with providing young people with
social principles and other necessary skills that will help them live a successful
life. This can possibly nurture a harmonious society, given her confidence that
such teaching “will actually reduce” crime in South Africa.
8
Her colleague, Mrs Thabethe, acknowledges the importance of teaching for a

cohesive society. She recognises that such teaching can improve inequalities
which have been in existence for decades in South Africa. She also emphasises
that more knowledge is crucial in addressing social challenges, something she
feels is missing in the country’s education system. She articulated:
“Teaching for social cohesion can help mend the bridges that equality
throughout the years has burnt. The inequality in society still exists
because education teaches specific individuals for specific roles without
affording them all the tools and allowing them to make their own decisions
regarding where they would like to fall on the economic ladder.”
(Interview with Mrs Thabethe).
Mrs Thabethe sees the significance of teaching for a cohesive society but believes
that the education system fails to achieve this purpose. However, the Curriculum
and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) in which the general aims of the
country’s curriculum are based, provides for the provision of a wide range of
knowledge. For instance, learners should be provided “with the knowledge, skills
and values necessary for self-fulfilment, and meaningful participation in society
as citizens of a free country” (Department of Basic Education (DoBE), 2011, p. 4).
Mrs Thabethe considers the current education system narrow to promote social
cohesion. This could possibly be because her knowledge of the CAPS provisions
is limited, or that she is unable to position education to provide learners with
broad and necessary skills. This is a challenge in need of urgent attention for
teachers and the curriculum to realise the objectives of education in South Africa.
Education should be well balanced to prepare society for the labour market; to
effectively develop people to think and apply their knowledge critically; to help
young people become active citizens in modern and democratic society, and to
realise individuals’ personal growth (Council of Europe, 2015).
When asked about how they teach for a cohesive society, participants differed in
ideas and strategies. One of them explained:
“My favourite topic when teaching English is poetry, and poetry helps me
to say things like apartheid was wrong, and as a white teacher the children
are often surprised that I would say something like this … So, I very often
use things like that, a little bit of humour to try and include my kids in
my social sphere of my life… and I think that helps them to see that we
can all be part of one-big society…” (Interview with Mrs Morntana).
This extract depicts Mrs Morntana’s teaching techniques aimed to promote a

cohesive society. She enjoys teaching poetry since it relates to authentic social
issues, such as apartheid, which is a still responsible for social ills perpetuated in
post-apartheid South African society (Davis & Steyn, 2012). As a white woman,
she believes that poetry presents her with opportunities to condemn apartheid.
Mrs Morntana applies her theoretical knowledge of a socially cohesive society in
the classroom. Her teaching-learning approach draws on Boler’s (1999) pedagogy
of discomfort, aligning her lessons as she does with authentic and sensitive social
issues which provoke a sense of discomfort. Through this pedagogy, Boler (1999)
recognises how what we know, and feel are intertwined beyond our classrooms,
shaping who we are. By delivering the lesson along the lines of a pedagogy of
9
discomfort, Mrs Morntana enables her teaching strategy to “bring students and
learners to develop a value of system that takes justice, democratic values,
freedom, and the suffering of others seriously” (Davis & Steyn, 2012, p. 30). For
her, she teaches in this way to help learners understand the inaccuracies of
political propaganda. It makes other young people recognise that life is about
being able to strive for justice, freedom, and unity. Indeed, “one gains a new sense
of interconnection with others” (Boler, 1999, p. 199).
Mr Daniels believes:
“Teaching for a socially just cohesive society means moulding learners to
be future leaders who see the importance of coming back to the community
and do something that will change their lives and the lives of other people
in a positive way; something that will leave a legacy in the community.
Most importantly, it also means to instil a hard-working mentality and a
drive for success in my learner’s spirits and if I have failed on the latter
then I have failed as an educator.” (Interview with Mr Daniels).
A different notion of teaching for a cohesive society is expressed by Mrs Dibe who
claims to treat learners fairly by ensuring that in her class they receive equal
treatment.
“I teach by treating learners fairly, and I do not teach them like they are
unequal beings in the class. They should be treated in an equal manner,
and the teacher should be fair at all times … So, teachers mustn’t practice
favouritism, all the learners should be treated as equal beings in the
class...” (Interview with Mrs Dibe).
Mrs Dibe describes how she teaches to promote a cohesive society. Her choice of
praxis, of “treating learners fairly” and not seeing them as “unequal beings in the
class”, resonates with Philip, Tsedu and Zwane’s (2014) ideas of both fairness and
social cohesion in society, as well as the notions of social justice in the terrain of
education. “A sense of unfairness can give rise to social conflict and a lack of
social cohesion … Lack of social cohesion as a result of inequality also lowers
social trust, which makes it difficult for different interest groups to work together
for a common social goal” (Philip et al., 2014, p. 17). Practising fairness and equity
in the classroom serves the purpose of addressing issues of deteriorating social
trust and unity, and therefore encourages social cohesion. Non-discriminatory
teaching supports broad endeavours meant to transform broader society
(Cochran-Smith, Shakman, Jong, Terrell, Barnatt & McQuillan, 2009). This is
indicative of Mrs Dibe’s awareness that teaching and learning play a key role in
influencing learners’ social conscience, and the impact it has in society at large. In
this instance, her pedagogy is likely to ignite learners’ sense of harmony.
Although most teachers in this study possessed knowledge of a cohesive society,

and what it means to teach for such a society, they seemed to lack clarity on how
to teach in this paradigm. None of the teachers could expand on their pedagogy
sufficiently. For example, Mrs Mortana’s pedagogy denounces the apartheid
regime, and Mrs Thabethe seeks to address inequalities. A pedagogy aimed to
promote a cohesive society requires a broader sense of teaching, which entails
various learning objectives, “including thinking critically, connecting knowledge
10
to real-world problems and situations, challenging received knowledge,

understanding multiple perspectives, debating diverse viewpoints, unpacking
underlying assumptions, and engaging productively in cross-cultural discussion”
(Cochran-Smith, Gleeson & Mitchell, 2010, p. 37). For teaching-learning
instruction to realise these goals, teachers need to use a pedagogy that exposes
learners to a wide range of knowledge opportunities, such as the development of
essential basic skills, expansion of deep insight, attitudes and values crucial for
participation in a democratic society.
4.3 Limited pedagogic knowledge: some observations

Teachers’ knowledge of pedagogic application is sometimes limited, thereby
depriving learners of critical thinking and robust discussions around social issues.
For example, in one of the English lessons that was observed, Mrs Thabethe was
teaching Grade 10s John Donne’s “Death be not proud”. Her pedagogic style
emulated banking education (Freire, 1970). At the beginning of the lesson learners
were required to recollect what was discussed in the classroom in a previous
lesson. Learners in this instance repeated what they were taught, with Mrs
Thabethe prohibiting them from providing their own views by saying, “No…
Don’t guess”. This could have a negative impact on the learners’ education, by
discouraging them. It can discourage learners from engaging in dialogue that
requires their views. What is noticeable in Mrs Thabethe’s lesson is that, in the
analysis of the poem, when learners could have critically engaged with the poem,
they were deprived of the opportunity to actively participate.
[1] Mrs Thabethe: Alright. I have done line number one, akere [right]? I have said
to you in line number one we have got a figure of speech which
we say is an apostrophe. (Explains what and why it is an
apostrophe in line one).
[2] Class: Ooh!
[3] Mrs Thabethe: (Reads line 2 and explains) So, here. The speaker is saying that
‘Death’ you must not be proud, meaning that he is saying ‘Death’
must get rid of his pride, the pride that he carries. Then, he
explains to us why he says ‘Death’ is proud. He says ‘Death’ you
are proud because a lot of people have called you ‘Mighty’, a lot
of people have said that you are ‘dreadful’, but you are not. Are
we together?
[4] Few learners: Yes!
[5] Mrs Thabethe: (Reads line 3 and explains) So, here, he continues again to say
there are people that think that you can overthrow them.
Remember, when we speak of death, we say your life has ended.
So, we assume that it stops when death comes in, meaning that
you don’t have life anymore. Are we together?
[6] Learners: Yes!
[7] Mrs Thabethe: But, here, he says you are not what those people make you to think
that you are. And, then, you are incapable of overthrowing. Are
we together?
[8] Class: (Softly) Yes.
11
[9] Mrs Thabethe: (Reads line 4 and explains) So, now, he is telling ‘Death’ that you
cannot kill me, meaning that my life cannot end when you get to
it. Are we together?
[10] Class: (Softly) Yes.
[11] Mrs Thabethe: Hale thotse lea ntshabisa [You are scaring me when you are
quiet].
[12] Class: (Laughs)… (Lesson observation extract 2, 08 October 2020).
In this extract, the poem is being analysed by Mrs Thabethe. The teacher is
reading, evaluating and explaining the meaning of the poem to learners. Her role
and that of the learners in this lesson clearly shows that the lesson lacks any form
of critical engagement. She reads and explains the poem without discussing it
with the class, or without giving learners the opportunity to express their
thoughts or contribute to the deconstruction of the poem. This can be seen in
turns 3, 5, 7 and 9, which point to the fact that learners receive content in the
method relative to a rote learning. This is once again reminiscent of Freire’s
banking education, as referred to earlier. This means that the teacher deposits
content into the children’s minds, and they receive it without being critically
engaged. The only time Mrs Thabethe engages learners in the lesson is when she
wants to know whether or not they understand, as she repeatedly asks “Are we
together” to which they chorus “Yes” or “no”. As a result, learners are
disengaged. They do not really understand anything, the question is rhetorical.
This is evident in turns 8 and 10 when they expressed their response with a soft
“Yes”, an emergence that bothered Mrs Thabethe to the extent that she told them
their silence was scaring her.
This contradicts what Mrs Thabethe claims to do when teaching for a cohesive
society in her interview:
“I allow for learners to investigate and see life through the eyes of others,
through giving open ended questions, speech and transactional writing
topics. This helps learners realise that the world as they know it is not all
there is to know.” (Interview with Mrs Thabethe).
Her assertion presupposes a vibrant lesson characterised by active participation

of the learners in which the teacher seeks to promote critical thinking by asking
unrestricted questions to give learners opportunity to explore the content. It is
also evident in her articulation that she understands the importance of allowing
learners to examine the content on their own to understand “through the eyes of
others”. In this instance, Mrs Thabethe seems to value learners’ thinking
capabilities, and their critical engagement. Perhaps, this equates to a dialogue-
based teaching-learning pedagogy, which correlates with critical pedagogy in
which “the thoughts, language use, and everyday lives of the illiterates” are
appreciated, and “[the] students are cognitively animated to reflect instead of
waiting for the educator to explain for them and to them what things mean and
what to believe” (Shor, Marjanovic-Shane, Matusov & Cresswell, 2017, p. 9).
Although Mrs Thabethe understands the significance of learners’ critical
engagement in the lesson, she does not put this into practice. Rather, her lesson
seems to undermine the value of empowering learners to be critical thinkers. Her
12
lesson appears to promote rote learning through the following aspects of banking
education, which, according to Freire (1970, p. 73), do not liberate society, namely:
• the teacher teaches and the students are taught;
• the teacher knows everything, and the students know nothing;
• the teacher thinks and students are thought about; and
• the teacher talks and the students listen–meekly.
For the development of critical thinking among learners, the teacher must provide
learners with moments to actively participate in discussions and to engage
dialogically rather than encouraging passivity (Murawski, 2014).
5. Conclusion
This paper has engaged in discussion around English teachers’ understandings of
a cohesive society. Essentially, the study found that teachers have knowledge of a
cohesive society. However, despite their theoretical understanding of a cohesive
society, their practice suggests inconsistency between their understandings and
their praxis. The teachers’ praxis did not always align with effective actions
towards social transformation. The English lessons that were observed, presented
failed opportunities for critical learner engagement. The teachers also appear to
lack vital pedagogic knowledge. Learners were often left listening or responding
chorally, rather than engaging with the teacher. This suggests, although not
generalisable, that teaching and learning practices in this study sorely lack
development towards social justice and cohesion, as is presented in curriculum
policy documents. A limitation of the research was the limited number of
participants, an occurrence as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, during which
the research was conducted.
These observations bear major implications for further research. Such research
could involve revisiting and critically analysing policy documents such as the
curriculum policies to establish what is prescribed for teachers to implement in
the classroom. If teachers are not abiding by curriculum policies, it is important to
recognise reasons for this occurrence. This could be because of time constraints in
classrooms, or that curriculum documents are presenting already overburdened
teachers with more than which they can cope. It could also be that teachers,
although they say they understand concepts such as social justice and cohesion,
are unable to implement such in their lessons. Another major setback could be the
lack of teacher pedagogic knowledge which might require regular upgrading.
Together with pedagogic content knowledge lies the teacher’s ideological stance.
If the curriculum stipulates core overarching issues such as social justice,
transformation and social cohesion, these will not be taken to the classroom if they
lie in opposition to teacher beliefs.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 15-34, January 2023
Received Sep 9, 2022; Revised Nov 19, 2022; Accepted Dec 15, 2023
Challenges of Implementing the Individualized

Education Plan (IEP) for Special Needs Children
with Learning Disabilities:
Systematic Literature Review (SLR)
Syar Meeze Mohd Rashid and Mei Ti Wong
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract. This study identified teacher challenges in the implementation

of the individualized education plan (IEP) for special educational
needs (SEN) children with learning disabilities (LD). A systematic
literature review (SLR) was conducted to identify and synthesize the
literature on this topic. Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria and were
included in the analysis. Most of the findings indicated that teachers face
challenges in all three aspects of competency challenges, that is
knowledge, skill, and attitude challenges. Lack of knowledge on criterion-
referenced tests (f = 3; 42%) can be considered as the biggest knowledge
challenge faced by teachers. The biggest skill challenge was also found in
the evaluation process, with teachers being less efficient in carrying out
the evaluation process (f = 4; 57%). In terms of attitude challenges, the
lack of motivation (f = 4; 66%) in implementing the IEP for LD children is
the most common challenge encountered by teachers. Therefore, the
results of the analysis and research carried out can serve as a guide and
reference for educators, the Ministry of Education (MOE), and future
researchers in an effort to solve teachers’ competency challenges in the
IEP implementation process. However, additional high-quality research
or an empirical study should be conducted to verify the validity of the
conceptual framework formed by conducting a survey study in Malaysia.
Keywords: challenges; IEP implementation; learning disabilities;

systematic literature review (SLR); teachers
1. Introduction
The field of special education is one of the important branches of education
(Lindqvist et al., 2020). Special education in Malaysia has grown rapidly since the
1920s, when the need for education for students with special educational needs
(SEN) was recognized among Malaysians (Ghani & Ahmad, 2011). According to
the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025 (Malaysia. Ministry of Education
[MOE], 2012), the development of special education is aligned with the motto
©Authors
16
“Education for All (EFA)”. Therefore, the MOE provides opportunities and rights
for all children to receive a quality education regardless of their intelligence level
or social background (Hana et al., 2022). In Malaysia, special education is divided
into three categories: learning disability (LD), hearing impaired, and visually
impaired. Based on the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025, there are three
school systems that can be accessed by children with SEN: special education
schools, the Special Education Integration Program (SEIP), and an inclusive
education program that is provided at various stages, such as preschool, primary
school, and secondary school.
According to the MOE (Malaysia, 2021), as many as 2586 schools implement the
SEIP for the welfare of SEN children with LD. Therefore, LD students can be
considered as the majority group in the special education system in Malaysia. Burr
et al. (2015) specifically defined LD as “a neurological condition that interferes
with an individual’s ability to store, process, or produce information” (p. 3).
Therefore, LD can affect a student’s ability to read, write, speak, spell, do math
computation, or reason and cause them to underperform in one or more of these
skills. In addition, it can affect their attention, memory, coordination, social skills,
and emotional maturity.
Most schools around the world have used the individualized education plan (IEP)
as one of the most significant and main educational strategies in education that
includes children with SEN (Elder et al., 2018; Timothy & Agbenyega, 2018). At
the same time, Akcin (2022) also reported that a minority of teachers in their study,
that is only 133 (13.3%) out of 1409, thought that the IEP was unnecessary. As
such, this study can prove that the majority of teachers are aware of the
importance and needs of the IEP for LD children. The IEP is a type of written
document specifically designed to validate the results of decisions about
educational needs and service programs that are required by children with SEN
through the discussion among members of a multidisciplinary group (Tran et al.,
2018; Walther-Thomas et al., 2000). Through the implementation of an IEP,
children with SEN can benefit from the special education system and planned
interventions or support (Kauffman et al., 2018). Groh (2021) also stated that the
IEP can serve as a nucleus in providing free and appropriate public education
(FAPE). This is because there is no other document that can function more
comprehensively in ensuring the effectiveness of an educational program in terms
of design, implementation, monitoring, and compliance with the established
legislation when compared to the IEP (Rotter, 2014).
The importance of the IEP in the special education system is also evidenced by the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Under IDEA, programs and
services required by children with SEN will be determined through the IEP
(Siegel, 2020). All IEP implementation processes are protected by the existence of
this IDEA legislation. This means that the act can dictate the path or procedure for
implementing this IEP service for children with disabilities from birth through 21
years of age. Moreover, IDEA can also ensure the right of SEN children to receive
FAPE in the most “least restrictive” environment.
17
In addition, teachers and parents play an important role in influencing the

development of children with SEN (Matheis et al., 2017; Subotnik et al., 2011).
According to Fu et al. (2018), teachers can be considered as the key to success in
IEP implementation. This is because as an educator, special education teachers
should plan an IEP based on needs as well as implement the IEP in the daily life
of children with SEN, especially during school hours. Fu et al. (2018) also stated
that the teacher’s perspective on the IEP implementation process greatly affects
the quality of the constructed IEP. This statement is in line with Bae’s study (2018),
which proved that the quality of teachers at the school level can have a major
impact on student performance. This is because, as educators, teachers have
placed high hopes on developing an IEP based on the needs of children with SEN
by implementing routinely planned interventions in the classroom.
Through a review of research on the effectiveness of IEP implementation for LD

children, we found that several studies conducted during the first decade of the
21st century reported difficulties in using IEPs in schools. For example, studies
conducted by Andreasson et al. (2013) and Giota and Emanuelsson (2011) have
shown that the IEP has become a fairly common practice in schools. However,
both studies found that the IEP is not implemented on a quarter of SEN children
in the schools. Meanwhile, Kritzer (2011) also reported that the difficulty of
implementing the IEP in China is due to a special education system that is not
consistent between schools, cities, and states, respectively.
Since the IEP is very important to every LD child, the challenges in the IEP
implementation process should be identified early so that various efforts can be
made in overcoming the challenges encountered. Teachers face various IEP
implementation challenges in practicing the IEP for all children with SEN in the
school. These challenges include lack of separate and adequate time for
preparation of an IEP, not knowing how to prepare an IEP, and lack of a variety
of materials in IEP implementation (Akcin, 2022). With this background, this
systematic literature review (SLR) is conducted with the aim of analyzing articles
related to the challenges of IEP implementation for SEN children with LD. The
analysis was carried out to identify the most common competency challenges that
educators face in the IEP implementation process. Through the main results
established, a conceptual framework can be developed based on the conducted
analysis. At the same time, the results of the analysis and research carried out can
be used as a guide and reference for educators, the MOE, and future researchers
in an effort to solve problems or challenges in IEP implementation faced by
teachers, whether special education or mainstream teachers, so that LD children
can truly benefit from the IEP implementation process.
2. Methodology
This study was conducted using the SLR method. The goal with conducting an
SLR is to identify all empirical evidence that meets established article selection
criteria in answering a particular research question or hypothesis (Moher et al.,
2009). This is because the SLR requires use of explicit and systematic methods
when searching and reviewing evidence and thus allows analysis of information.
In this study, the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-
18
analyses (PRISMA) flowchart was also used in the process of selecting articles that
are relevant to the research question presented (Moher et al., 2010, 2015; Page et
al., 2021). The four stages of article selection based on the PRISMA flowchart
include identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion of articles in the
conducted SLR study (Page et al., 2021). Therefore, this SLR study included five
key aspects for the articles obtained: search strategy, selection criteria, selection
process, data collection, and data analysis.
2.1 Article Search Strategy

Two leading databases, namely Google Scholar and Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC), were consulted and used in the article search process
for the SLR conducted. According to Joklitschke et al. (2018), the most important
aspect in the article search process is the search term or keyword used. Two sets
of keywords were used in this study. The first set consisted of keywords related
to IEP, such as “Individualized Education Plan (IEP)”, “IEP process”, and “IEP
implementation”. The second set was themed around educators’ challenges using
the keywords “teachers’ challenges” and “teachers’ barriers”. Both sets of
keywords were combined with a Boolean search (AND, OR) in the article search
process. Using the keywords, the articles displayed on the database were related
to the challenges faced by teachers in the IEP implementation process for LD
children.
2.2 Article Selection Criteria

According to Xiao and Watson (2019), survey research which involves the
comparison of a group of literature sources needs a clear and robust process for
establishing criteria in article selection. Therefore, this study set certain criteria to
facilitate the literature search process. The four specified selection criteria for
accepting or rejecting articles included year of publication, language, type of
reference material, and study field of journal articles, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Article acceptance and rejection criteria

Criterion Acceptance Rejection
Year of Publication of journal Publication before 2018.
publication articles within the last five
years (2018 to 2022).
Language English. Malay, Indonesian, Chinese, and other
languages.
Type of Journal articles. Theses, proceedings, conference
reference papers, and books.
material
Field of The field of special Any fields apart from the field of special
journal article education services for SEN education or the field of special
study students with LD in the education services for SEN students
school context. with LD in the school context.
In terms of the criteria for the year of publication, only articles published within
the last five years were accepted, that is from 2018 to 2022. Selection of articles
limited to the last five years can be considered as a period of search topics that are
still hotly discussed and include current affairs or issues. Second, regarding the
19
language of the articles, only articles in English were selected from the two
popular databases and included in this study. Third, in terms of the criterion for
selecting the type of reference material, only journal articles were used in this
study. Theses, proceedings, conference papers, and books were excluded as
sources in this study. This is because journal articles can be considered as
reference materials that have complete and detailed reporting. Since LD students
are the majority group in the special education system, this study only accepted
articles in the field of special education services for SEN students with LD in the
school context only.
2.3 Article Selection Process

The article selection process for the SLR was conducted in July 2022. Figure 1
shows the flowchart of the article selection process adapted from the PRISMA
flowchart (Tawfik et al., 2019).
Figure 1: Flowchart of article selection process
As seen in Figure 1, this study included four main stages in the article selection
process. At the identification stage, 15,597 articles were identified using the two
databases. The next step involved screening the articles using the acceptance
criteria listed in Table 1 before the articles were included in the eligibility stage for
a more thorough and detailed screening.
20
At the eligibility stage, there were four additional criteria for article exclusion
before the article was included in the SLR study. These were: articles without full
text (n = 30), study titles that did not fit the context of the study (n = 20), identical
articles from the two databases (n = 9), and articles that did not meet the criteria
for acceptance of the study and that were in the form of a review (n = 19). On the
other hand, four additional acceptance criteria included: articles that have full
text; articles with titles that fit the context of the study; articles that are not
duplicated; and articles that meet the acceptance criteria of the study, such as
articles that have empirical data and are not in the form of reviews.
After reviewing and examining the 90 journal articles that we downloaded, only
12 were identified for use. This means that all 12 articles successfully met all the
selection criteria and were included in the SLR.
2.4 Data Collection and Data Analysis

The data collection process was carried out using the 12 journal articles obtained
from the two databases, namely Google Scholar and ERIC. Table 2 shows the 12
articles, along with the publication year, country, and purpose of the study. All
the selected articles met the acceptance and rejection criteria that were set. Data
were collected for each article by abstracting the title, name of author(s), year,
study purpose, and teacher challenges in implementing the IEP into a table built
using Microsoft Excel 2019 software. Meanwhile, data analysis was carried out by
using a table and by categorizing the teacher challenges found in each article. The
results of the data analysis are also presented in the form of tables.
According to Kumar (2011), an SLR study also aims to develop a conceptual

framework based on the findings of previous studies. This is because the
conceptual framework that was built can be used as a reference that can contribute
to the literature section of the study in the future. Therefore, the results of the data
analysis of this SLR study concerning the challenges of teachers in implementing
the IEP for LD children that were most often found in literature were used in
developing a conceptual framework.
21
Table 2: List of reviewed research articles

Author and Country
Journal
No. year of Study title Study purpose
name
publication
1 Fu et al. China A social–cultural analysis of the IEP practice in International To identify the perspective of special
(2018) special education schools in China Journal of education teachers about the use of the IEP
Developmenta and how they implement the IEP.
l Disabilities
2 Ruble et al. United Special education teachers’ perceptions and Journal of To identify internal and external factors
(2018) States intentions toward data collection Early related to special education teachers’
Intervention views on the data collection process in the
IEP implementation process by using the
theory of planned behavior (TPB).
3 Al-Shammari Kuwait Special education teachers’ knowledge and International To identify the level of knowledge and
and Hornby experience of IEPs in the education of students Journal of experience of special education teachers in
(2019) with special educational needs Disability, Kuwaiti primary schools who implement
Development inclusive education in the process of
and Education preparing IEP reports and implementing
and evaluating the IEP.
4 Baglama et Turkey Special education teachers’ attitudes towards Near East To identify the attitudes of special
al. developing individualized education programs University education teachers working in special
(2019) and challenges in this process Online education centers in the Turkish Republic
Journal of of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) as well as the
Education challenges faced in the IEP
(NEUJE) implementation process.
5 Senay and Turkey Evaluating parent participation in individualized Journal of To identify the opinions of parents and
Konuk education programs by opinions of parents and Education and special education teachers in the
(2019) teachers Training involvement of parents in the IEP
Studies implementation process.
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
22
6 Karaca et al. Turkey An investigation of the Turkish preservice Journal of To identify the attitudes of trainee teachers
(2020) teachers’ attitudes towards individualized Education and in Turkish universities about the IEP
education program development process Practice implementation process.
7 Almoghyrah Saudi The challenges of implementing individualised International To identify the challenges of teachers in
(2021) Arabia education plans with children with Down Journal of implementing the IEP for Down syndrome
syndrome at mainstream schools in Riyadh, Saudi Disability, children who study in mainstream classes
Arabia: Teachers’ perspectives Development in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
and Education
8 Hott et al. North Lessons learned from a descriptive review of rural The Journal of To evaluate the level of academic
(2021) America individualized education programs Special performance and functionality during the
Education IEP report, IEP goals as well as the IEP
implementation monitoring process
through examining 133 sets of IEP reports
from seven schools in the rural areas of
eastern North America.
9 Akcin Turkey Identification of the processes of preparing Educational To identify the problems or challenges
(2022) individualized education programs (IEP) by Research and faced by special education teachers in the
special education teachers, and of problems Reviews process of preparing IEPs.
encountered therein
10 Goodwin et United Examining the quality of individualized Communicatio To identify the quality of IEP goals set for
al. States education plan (IEP) goals for children with n Disorders children with traumatic brain injury (TBI).
(2022) traumatic brain injury (TBI) Quarterly
11 Kozikoğlu Turkey Teachers’ attitudes and the challenges they Participatory To identify the attitudes and challenges of
and experience concerning individualized education Educational teachers in the IEP implementation
Albayrak program (IEP): A mixed method study Research process.
(2022) (PER)
12 Shao et al. China Investigation and research on the current Adult and To identify the phenomenon of IEP
(2022) situation of IEP formulation and implementation Higher implementation in schools.
in Guangxi special education schools Education
23
3. Findings
The SLR revealed that the challenges identified in all reviewed research articles
can be divided into three groups of teacher competency challenges in the IEP
implementation process, namely the challenges of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes.
3.1 Teacher Knowledge Challenges

Three aspects of teachers’ challenges with knowledge were identified in the
reviewed studies (Table 3). These are criterion-referenced tests, IEP concept, and
ability level of LD children.
Table 3 : List of reviewed articles according to aspects of teacher knowledge

challenges
Aspects of teacher knowledge challenges
Reviewed
Criterion-
study IEP concept Ability level of LD children
referenced tests
Akcin (2022) X
Almoghyrah
X
(2021)
Al-Shammari
and Hornby X
(2019)
Fu et al. (2018) X
Hott et al.
X
(2021)
Kozikoğlu and
X
Albayrak (2022)
Shao et al.
X
(2022)
Frequency (f) 3 2 2
Percentage (%) 42 29 29
Four of the reviewed studies reported that teachers, especially special education
teachers, lacked knowledge on how to collect data towards LD children’s
development process. These teachers also lacked awareness about the importance
of using criterion-referenced tests in collecting information (Akcin, 2022;
Al-Shammari & Hornby, 2019; Fu et al., 2018; Hott et al., 2021). As seen in Table 3,
lack of knowledge about criterion-referenced tests (f = 3; 42%) can be considered
the biggest knowledge challenge faced by teachers.
Regarding the aspect of IEP concept, studies by Fu et al. (2018) and Kozikoğlu and
Albayrak (2022) showed that many teachers (f = 2; 29%) still do not understand
the concept of IEP, thus affecting the IEP implementation process. The
phenomenon of insufficient understanding of the IEP concept is directly linked to
teachers’ lack of knowledge about the support materials that are available for IEP
learning and the activities that can be carried out to facilitate the IEP
implementation process (Kozikoğlu & Albayrak, 2022).
For the last aspect, ability level of LD children, two articles addressed this
challenge (Almoghyrah, 2021; Shao et al., 2022). Teachers will also directly
©Authors
24
experience the challenge of lack of knowledge about the special education services
required by an SEN child. However, Al-Shammari and Hornby (2019) found that
there are also special education teachers (i.e., non-Kuwaiti special education
teachers) who have a high level of knowledge, especially in the process of
preparing IEP reports. Goodwin et al. (2022) also reported that teachers were
knowledgeable in providing measurable IEP goals for SEN children with TBI.
3.2 Teacher Skills Challenges

Six of the reviewed articles reported that teachers are facing skill challenges in the
IEP implementation process (Table 4). The three aspects involved here were IEP
report preparation, collaboration, and evaluation process.
Table 4: List of reviewed articles according to aspects of teacher skill challenges
Aspects of teacher skill challenges
Reviewed study Evaluation
IEP report preparation Collaboration
process
Akcin (2022) X
Al-Shammari and
X
Hornby (2019)
Hott et al. (2021) X X
Kozikoğlu and
X
Albayrak (2022)
Shao et al. (2022) X
Senay and Konuk
X
(2019)
Frequency (f) 1 2 4
Regarding the process of preparing the IEP report, one study showed that teachers
can be considered to lack the ability to prepare a complete report (f = 1; 14%),
especially in terms of the level of achievement and functionality of SEN children
(Hott et al., 2021).
Considering the IEP implementation process, two articles showed that teachers
still lacked the skills to collaborate with parents (f = 2; 29%), hence the IEP carried
out being less effective (Senay & Konuk, 2019; Shao et al., 2022).
Furthermore, teachers have also been assumed to experience big challenges in the
IEP evaluation process (f = 4; 57%). This is because teachers still lack skills in terms
of monitoring to identify the effectiveness of the IEP conducted, such as not being
skilled in using criterion-referenced tests and being less efficient in identifying the
level of development of SEN children after the IEP intervention has been carried
out (Akcin, 2022; Al-Shammari & Hornby, 2019; Hott et al., 2021; Kozikoğlu &
Albayrak, 2022). However, the study of Shao et al. (2022) also found that special
education teachers can be considered capable of coordinating IEP interventions
by following the SEN children’s ability level throughout the IEP implementation
process.
25
3.3 Teacher Attitude Challenges

Four of the reviewed articles were related to the challenges of teachers’ negative
attitudes towards the IEP implementation process (Table 5). The relevant aspects
identified here were lack of motivation, negative attitude towards collaboration,
and lack of confidence.
Table 5: List of reviewed articles according to aspects of teacher attitude challenges

Aspects of teacher attitude challenges
Negative attitude
Reviewed article Lack of
towards Lack of confidence
motivation
collaboration
Akcin (2022) X X
Baglama et al.
X
(2019)
Shao et al. (2022) X
Fu et al. (2018) X X
Frequency (f) 4 1 1
Table 5 shows that among the biggest challenges of teacher attitudes was lack of
motivation (f = 4; 66%) (Akcin, 2022; Baglama et al., 2019; Fu et al., 2018; Shao et
al., 2022). It was also found that teachers have a negative attitude towards
collaboration (f = 1; 17%) (Akcin, 2022) and lack of confidence (f = 1; 17%) (Fu
et al., 2018) to implement the IEP.
However, three of the reviewed articles contradicted the findings of teacher

negative attitudes towards the IEP implementation process. The three studies
found that teachers showed a positive attitude towards all stages in the IEP
implementation processes (Karaca et al., 2020; Kozikoğlu & Albayrak, 2022; Ruble
et al., 2018).
3.4 Conceptual Framework

Teacher challenges in the IEP implementation process as identified in the
reviewed articles can be grouped into three main themes, namely challenges of
teachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, respectively. We designed a conceptual
framework (Figure 2) of teacher challenges in the three phases of the IEP
implementation process for LD children, namely the preparation,
implementation, and evaluation phases.
Figure 2: Conceptual framework of the study
26
Teacher competency has been used as a determinant of the challenge of

implementing the IEP in schools. Among the factors that are taken into account to
identify teacher challenges are knowledge level, skill level, and attitude. The
components of teacher competency considered in determining the challenges
teachers face in the IEP implementation process are consistent with Spencer and
Spencer’s (1993) Iceberg Competency Model. Referring to Spencer and Spencer’s
Competency Model, there are seven categories of competencies which can be
divided into two groups. The first group includes the competencies above the
water level, which comprises knowledge and skills. The second group includes
the competencies below the water level, that is values, social roles, self-image,
traits, and motives. The five components below the water level have been
combined to make up one of the teacher competency components, that is in terms
of attitude. Using this conceptual framework as a guide, we can clearly identify
the challenges teachers face in implementing the IEP in terms of teacher
competency, that is their level of knowledge, skill level, and attitude.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this SLR study was to identify the most common challenges faced
by teachers in the IEP implementation process for LD children. At the same time,
the findings of this study were used to develop a conceptual framework based on
the challenges of teachers most often found in past empirical studies. Twelve
research articles were included in the SLR based on the acceptance criteria that
were set.
The IEP was first introduced in the United States by the Education for All All
Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (Sacks & Halder, 2017). However, the IEP has
grown considerably so that most countries in the world are willing to implement
it in their education systems. This is because the elements in the IEP are very
appropriate and meet the needs of children with LD. Moreover, the special
education system in Malaysia has also grown rapidly since 1990. According to
Jelas and Mohd Ali (2012), a pre-service special education teacher training
program was started through the collaboration of three universities in England in
1993. In October 1995, the Department of Special Education (now known as the
Special Education Division or Bahagian Pendidikan Khas [BPK]) was established
to coordinate the responsibilities of various stakeholders for the success of
Malaysia’s special education system (Lee & Low, 2014). In implementing the
special education curriculum, as per the Education (Special Education)
Regulations (Malaysia. R. 3[4], 1997), teachers may modify the teaching or
learning methods or techniques, the sequence of and time for activities, the
subjects, and the teaching and learning resources in order to achieve the objectives
and aims of special education. Collaboration can be seen as an essential element
in effective IEP implementation (Groh, 2021). According to Al-Natour et al. (2015),
effective collaboration requires effort, perseverance, training, and a willingness to
share responsibility among the team members when making decisions. The
special education teacher can clearly be considered the most significant individual
in developing and building positive relationships with all the stakeholders so that
the IEP can be implemented effectively.
27
Kozikoğlu and Albayrak (2022) found that the knowledge of teachers, whether
special education or mainstream teachers, is very significant in each stage of IEP
implementation, that is the report preparation, implementation, and evaluation
stages. Kozikoğlu and Albayrak (2022) discussed the elements that are related to
the knowledge level of special education teachers in the IEP implementation
process. These include having information about the IEP implementation process,
knowing the support materials that can be used to learn the proses of IEP
implementation, and knowing how to obtain support materials. Other elements
involve knowing one’s own responsibility in implementing the IEP, knowing how
to identify the current performance level of LD children, knowing how to
determine annual goals, as well as knowing the activities that can be
implemented. Kozikoğlu and Albayrak (2022) also found that teachers have
insufficient knowledge about the IEP concept. Directly, teachers also lack
knowledge of activities or materials that can be used in enriching the IEP
implementation process. The lack of understanding of the IEP concept is also
reflected in teachers’ differing views on the definition of IEP (Fu et al., 2018).
The challenge of teachers’ knowledge in the process of implementing the IEP

cannot be seen only in terms of understanding the concept of IEP but also in terms
of identifying the ability level of Down syndrome (DS) children (Almoghyrah,
2021; Shao et al., 2022). Results from Almoghyrah’s study (2021) showed that
teachers did not show a high awareness of the characteristics of DS children. This
unawareness attitude can cause teachers to not take into account DS children’s
attitude factor in the process of preparing the IEP report. This phenomenon has
directly affected the IEP implementation process because the IEP goals provided
are not in line with the knowledge level of SEN children. In addition, Shao et al.
(2022) stated that the reason for less relevant IEP goals is because special
education teachers still lack a basic understanding of the actual ability and
knowledge level of SEN children. The phenomenon of mismatch between SEN
children’s needs and IEP support services or interventions is common in special
education systems (Musyoka & Clark, 2017). Bateman (2011) likened a difficult-
to-measure IEP target to “if you don’t know where you are going, you may not
get there” (p. 106). Therefore, Goodwin et al. (2022) strongly encouraged IEP
stakeholders, especially teachers, to set IEP goals that are relevant to SEN
children’s needs, namely goals that are not only measurable but also of high
quality.
One of the biggest knowledge challenges for teachers is the lack of knowledge
about data collection, especially in terms of the use of criterion-referenced tests. A
study by Hott et al. (2021) found that the majority of the IEP goals provided
include several important goals, such as improving functionality in terms of
behavior and academic skills of LD children. However, the main source indicating
IEP goal measurement is too dependent on teacher opinions and observations, not
providing any quantitative measurements that can prove the effectiveness of an
intervention (Hott et al., 2021). This phenomenon is caused by insufficient
knowledge of teachers in developing a criterion-referenced test in making a
detailed assessment (Akcin, 2022; Al-Shammari & Hornby, 2019). The findings of
this SLR study are consistent with those of previous studies. These have shown
28
that the content and implementation steps of support services or interventions are
often described in IEP reports, but that the measurement steps are not described
properly (Raty et al., 2018; Ruble et al., 2018; Sanches-Ferreira et al., 2013).
In addition, teachers not only need to be knowledgeable about the types of

assessment instruments that can be used but also skilled in using those assessment
instruments in the right context. For example, they need the ability to collect and
interpret data based on the instruments used (McLeskey et al., 2017). In terms of
IEP reporting, we found that teachers struggled to plan and create IEP reports
according to individual differences between LD children. Next, regarding IEP
implementation, Groh (2021) stated that for LD children to be successful, a
positive collaborative relationship should be established between teachers and LD
children’s families. In Senay and Konuk’s (2019) study, more than half (76%) the
parents were unaware of the purpose of IEP implementation, and some parents
misunderstood IEP as a kind of diagnostic report. A similar phenomenon was also
found in the study of Shao et al. (2022), showing that only 14.29% of parents are
actively involved in the IEP implementation process. Furthermore, Kozikoğlu and
Albayrak (2022) found that the lack of effective communication, sharing, and
collaboration among all stakeholders of the IEP team can make it difficult for
special education teachers throughout the IEP implementation process. Clearly,
the teacher can be seen as the most important agent in building a positive working
relationship with all members of the IEP team for the IEP to be effectively
implemented.
The most common skill challenge faced by teachers is in the assessment process.
Service quality refers to how the special education services provided to SEN
children determine the success of these children (Groh, 2021). The evaluation
process therefore plays a significant role in determining how an IEP has been
implemented. However, Akcin (2022) found that as many as 61% of teachers
indicated that their biggest challenge in the IEP implementation process was
developing measurement tools, especially developing criterion-referenced tests in
determining the development of SEN children. The same findings were made by
Al-Shammari and Hornby (2019) and Kozikoğlu and Albayrak (2022), who
reported that teachers showed a relatively low level of skill in the assessment
process. Monitoring and evaluation procedures that are not clear and not objective
will hinder the IEP implementation process (Hott et al., 2021).
Since emotional factors are the driving force of the learning process (Kasap &
Peterson, 2018; Kasap, 2021), teachers need to adopt a positive attitude towards
the IEP implementation process to implement the IEP effectively. According to
Vaz et al. (2015), one of the factors that can influence the attitude practiced by a
teacher is self-efficacy in educating SEN children. Self-efficacy can be related to
the degree to which a teacher feels that they are able to educate SEN children
effectively (Vaz et al., 2015). Among the biggest challenges of teacher attitudes is
the lack of motivation or enthusiasm to implement the IEP for LD children (Akcin,
2022; Baglama et al., 2019; Fu et al., 2018; Shao et al., 2022). This is due to the
implementation process of the IEP, which involves various administrative tasks
that can directly increase the workload of teachers (Akcin, 2022; Fu et al., 2018;
29
Shao et al., 2022). Hannah et al. (2019) also found that a shortage of qualified
teachers in special education systems makes it difficult to implement programs
related to special education. At the same time, Baglama et al. (2019) showed that
in-service training duration of teachers on IEP implementation can influence their
attitudes towards IEP. Their study showed that teachers who underwent longer
service training displayed more positive attitudes and were more motivated to
implement the IEP. The atmosphere of a teacher’s work environment and the
length of time for which they receive in-service training on IEP can thus clearly
influence their attitudes towards the IEP implementation process.
Furthermore, Akcin (2022) also reported that most teachers have a negative view
of collaboration in the IEP implementation process. This is because SEN children’s
parents who have too high and unrealistic expectations for their children’s
development have directly increased the pressure on teachers when discussing all
the IEP implementation processes. In this regard, teachers always show fear of
collaborative activities, especially when having discussions with parents. Not
only that, the study of Fu et al. (2018) showed the challenge of teacher attitudes in
terms of lack of confidence. Teachers are often considered to lack confidence in
implementing the IEP goals for each LD child in the classroom context. This is due
to teachers still lacking confidence to manage and educate each LD child in a
different way in the same classroom (Fu et al., 2018).
However, not all findings from the 12 reviewed articles indicated that teachers
face challenges in all three aspects of competency challenges. For example, Al-
Shammari and Hornby (2019) found that special education teachers have different
levels of knowledge and experience, and that some teachers consider themselves
to have good skills in implementing the IEP. In addition, some teachers feel less
competent to implement the IEP. Therefore, after examining various studies that
have been carried out, it was determined that the challenges of teachers in the
process of implementing the IEP need to be identified so that various
improvement efforts can be carried out to ensure that high-quality IEP services
are provided to LD children.
5. Limitations of the Study

This study had several limitations. First, even though the SLR conducted could
reduce biased selection, there is still a high probability that other databases
contain articles that meet the selection criteria. This is because, in this SLR study,
articles from only two databases were involved.
The second limitation is the use of keywords or a small data set, which led to some
articles not being included in this SLR study. This situation occurs because there
are articles that discuss the challenges of teachers in the IEP implementation
process but are labeled using different names or keywords.
The third limitation is that only full-text articles were selected for review. Articles
that are similar but did not have the full text were thus excluded. Some databases
require payment for full-text articles, which thus led to the exclusion of several
articles related to SLR research.
30
To strengthen this SLR study, the procedures of the study can be improved. In
this regard, an empirical study should be conducted to verify the validity of the
conceptual framework formed by conducting a survey study in Malaysia.
Moreover, systematic and organized research and examination also needs to be
conducted to examine whether the challenges identified are the greatest
challenges for teachers in implementing the IEP or whether there are yet other
challenges that have not been explored. This is because if there are other
challenges, the conceptual framework developed needs to be modified or refined
based on the latest research findings. The improvements made can thus allow for
more robust and reliable research findings in the future.
6. Conclusion
This SLR study sought to identify the most common competency challenges faced
by educators in the IEP implementation process and to develop a conceptual
framework based on the conducted analysis. This study was conducted by using
articles from two leading databases, namely ERIC and Google Scholar. Based on
the screening conducted, a total of 12 articles that meet all the criteria were
identified. The results of the analysis showed that the phenomenon of insufficient
knowledge in criterion-referenced tests is the biggest knowledge challenge faced
by teachers. In terms of skill challenges, the biggest challenge experienced by
teachers is doing the assessment process. Insufficient knowledge and skill in the
evaluation process will result in difficulty measuring the effectiveness of an
intervention or the development of an LD student. In terms of attitude challenges,
teachers were found to lack motivation in implementing the IEP for LD children.
However, several articles showed totally opposite results, namely that teachers
have sufficient knowledge and skills and are positive in implementing the IEP. As
such, to strengthen the research conducted, researchers need to use more general
keywords so that all categories of articles related to the study to be conducted can
be included in the study.
Acknowledgement
We thank the FPEND Futuristic Learning Special Research Fund GG-2021-010 for
the support.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 35-54, January 2023
Received Sep 23, 2022; Revised Dec 26, 2022; Accepted Jan 12, 2023
Impact of a Positive Classroom Climate on Sixth

Graders’ Motivation to Learn Mathematics at
Northern Israel’s Arab Minority Schools
Nabil Assadi
Sakhnin Academic College for Teacher Education, ISRAEL
Abstract. This study aimed to investigate the impact of a positive

classroom climate on sixth graders’ motivation to learn mathematics in
Northern Israel’s Arab minority schools. The study sample consisted of
50 students of the Sixth Grade in the primary stage in two Arab minority
towns in Israel’s northern region. The central research hypothesis
touched on how much the classroom climate affects students’ motivation
to learn mathematics from the point of view of sixth graders in Northern
Israel. The research incorporated the descriptive analytical approach that
describes the phenomenon as in reality, and expresses it quantitatively
and qualitatively. Based on the results of the research, the research
hypothesis was realized, which indicates that a healthy, supportive, and
compassionate classroom climate positively affects students’ motivation
to learn mathematics. The research points to the importance of an
effective classroom climate in the educational process and in students’
motivation to learn. The paper contributes to the academic community by
asserting that a positive atmosphere in the classroom seems to lead to
better interaction between students and a more comprehensive
possibility of expression, and has the potential to reduce the level of
violence between them.
Keywords: educational process; mathematics teaching and learning;

motivation to learn mathematics; positive classroom climate; Sixth Grade
students
1. Introduction
The significance of this study lies in its examination of the topic of classroom
climate and its importance in providing appropriate elements that reinforce
students’ stance and development during the educational process. Teaching and
learning are higher mental and cognitive processes, but they also include
emotional, affective, and sentimental aspects that are greatly influenced by the
atmosphere in the classroom. The classroom climate could be an environment that
is characterized by safety, comfort, and unlimited support, which in turn leads to
improvement in the academic achievement of students. Yet, it could be a highly
©Authors
36
tense environment that negatively affects the educational process and the
students’ behavioral and psychological aspects. It is the classroom climate that
influences the learning process of each student, and indirectly the way they adapt
socially and academically.
Positive climate components and methodology are numerous yet interdependent.

The basic components of a positive classroom environment intersect continuously
and comprehensively throughout the educational process. Certain major
components constitute a positive climate. These include a proper physical
atmosphere; availability of and access to tools and pedagogies; a comfortable and
caring space where students spend the duration of their scholastic day; and a safe,
supportive, and inclusive environment where the sense of hostility and
aggression is absent.
The classroom climate shapes the students’ learning environment and deeply
influences the psychological and social processes that occur between the teacher
and the students, on one hand, and between the students themselves, on the other
hand. That is, it is a perceptual and subjective concept, which is defined not as an
objective picture of reality but as a set of perceptions of all people involved in the
educational process. This self-awareness is a critical factor in the design of the
teaching process and for the student’s skills (Freire, 2020).
The classroom climate is defined as an intellectual, social, emotional, and physical

environment in which students learn. It is determined by a range of interactions
between different factors, such as teacher-student relationships, student-student
relationships, student composition, stereotypes, diversity of views, and more.
This definition is supported by previous definitions that also address structural
aspects of classroom organization, teaching methods, discipline, gender, and age.
The factors of the nationality, society, and religion to which teachers and students
belong are also included.
According to Mega et al. (2014), all human behavior in general and the behavior
of students in particular involve an emotional and cognitive element, both of
which affect the behavior of students during the learning process, and their
thinking and development. Perception guides the students in their actions, while
emotion is the basis of energy and the driving force of cognitive activity. These
two components – emotion and perception – work in parallel and maintain a
relationship of mutual influence.
In a study conducted by Zuković and Stojadinović (2021), they indicated that a

constructive classroom climate contributes to the student’s positive self-esteem. It
provides confidence, cultivates personal responsibility, refines the student’s
character, increases the desire to participate, and influences academic
achievement. In this respect, an effective classroom climate enhances the
importance of the educational process and the significance of learning, as it aims
to place attention on the different aspects of the student’s character by working
on the introduction of educational strategies that enhance the student’s attitudes
at large.
37
The research problem of the study stems from the following main question: How
much does the classroom climate affect students’ motivation to learn in the subject
of mathematics from the point of view of sixth graders in Northern Israel? In
connection with the previous works, the urgency of the study problem is evident
within the connection of this work to other works in the field. In the same respect,
the paramount role of the teacher in the educational process emerges and in the
development of an effective classroom climate. The role of the educator is to work
on providing mechanisms and tools that foster an effective classroom climate, in
addition to the use of teaching tools that contribute to the development of the
students’ skills and acquired knowledge (Adu & Olatundun, 2007).
2. Literature Review
2.1 The Concept of “Classroom Climate”
There are numerous terms in the literature that attempt to describe the
psychosocial conditions within the classroom climate. Dörnyei and Muir (2019)
described it as “the classroom climate”, “the classroom atmosphere”, and “the
social climate in the classroom”. Another common approach also tackles the
relationship between the teachers themselves and their impact on the learning-
teaching process. The multiplicity of methods sometimes makes it challenging to
compare the results that appear in different studies; however, there is consensus
that a positive classroom climate has a positive impact on both the social and
academic growth and development of the students (Rapti, 2013). The social
environment, which is evaluated in numerous ways, has a great predictive
capacity in relation to academic achievement, and together, all types of climates
separately create a unique study climate that affects students on personal, social,
and academic levels (Cortés Pascual et al., 2019).
2.2 Motivation to Learn

Most current theories about motivation are based on the concept of
motivationalism. These theories deal with factors that promote or impede
understanding the mechanistic environment as a result of behavior to achieve
these results. According to Bronson and Bronson (2001), the self-directed theory
carries another important distinction between the type of intentional or
preventive behaviors and distinguishes between two types of deliberate
regulation. Self-direction, control, and motivational activities are so self-directed
that engaging in them is entirely voluntary and is seen as arising out of and
reflecting the individual self; conversely, actions are controlled when they are
forced by certain personal drives. A self-directed regulation stems from the
individual’s own will, capacity, and motivation to achieve and/or accomplish a
particular objective. The motivational counterpart, on the other hand, is normally
the fallout of a particular external force that influences the individual.
When the behavior is self-directed, the process of regulation is a choice; but when
controlled, the process of regulation is obedience. The dimension is also described
in guided responses that extend from self-directed to controlled using the concept
of “perceived causal focus”. When behavior is self-directed, a person realizes that
the concentration of causality is within the self; whereas when the behavior is
controlled, the perceived concentration of causality is outside the self. The
important point of this distinction is that both self-directed and controlled
38
behaviors are motivational or deliberate, but their organizational processes are

quite different (Raidal & Volet, 2009).
Nicol and Macfarlane‐Dick (2006) argued that the term “stimulus” refers to the
desire to invest time and effort in a particular activity, even when it involves
difficulties, high prices, and failures. By this definition, motivation is an internal
psychological entity, and its strength can still be assessed in different ways. For
example, through verbal conversations and reports, or by following behavioral
expressions, such as investing effort and time in the relevant activity, presence
and accuracy, perseverance and effort despite difficulty or failure, responding to
challenges and fulfilling commitments.
Takahashi (2018) distinguished between two types of motivation. Internal

motivation for learning occurs due to the determination of the intrinsic value of
the activity. An activity is an essential means of enabling another that provides
benefit or pleasure, or the activity has an ethical value whose justification is clear,
where the feelings observed are lack of conflict, relative peace, and satisfaction.
External motivation occurs due to fear of punishment or out of hope for
materialistic reward, or to obtain privileges.
2.3 Factors Influencing the Classroom Climate

Abdullah (2019) pointed out that there are many factors that work on the impact
of the establishment of an educational climate. The most important of these factors
is the school culture that influences the establishment of the educational climate.
There are numerous educational institutions that fail to address the personality
traits of the teacher and students alike and do not pay attention to the
development of the abilities and skills that they enjoy, which reflects negatively
on the educational process.
Reyes et al. (2012) also pointed out that there are numerous factors that negatively
affect the development of the classroom climate in the educational process. The
most important of these is the teacher’s inability to maintain a healthy relationship
with the students, as a healthy relationship and effective classroom interaction
between teachers and students are among the most important factors that develop
the ability to create an effective classroom climate and a constructive educational
environment.
Wang and Degol (2016) summarized the factors that negatively influence the
creation of an effective classroom climate. Physical environmental factors are the
most important, which relates to the lack of educational and technological tools
and means. Other factors are lack of information about the importance of
interaction in the educational process and strict laws that prevent teachers and
students from participating effectively in the ongoing educational process.
Furthermore, the large number of students per classroom is also a factor, leading
to over-crowdedness in the classroom, and therefore students do not feel
comfortable within the classroom environment. Lastly, there is the teacher’s
inability to deal with students according to their abilities, challenges, and personal
39
variations, and therefore the students do not sense a positive educational

atmosphere.
2.4 Types of Classroom Climate

Godfrey and Grayman (2014) tackled the notion of “critical consciousness and
civic development among youth”, based on which they propped the active
participation of teachers in the decision-making process as a team, thus giving a
sense of belonging. The principal’s consideration of teachers’ opinions and
students’ participation in decision-making is a distinctive feature of an open
classroom climate. According to Godfrey and Grayman (2014), the open climate
induces joint thinking, and therefore teachers and students feel involved in the
decision-making process, which will lead to the promotion of a positive climate
in the school.
Sandahl (2016) distinguished between two types of classroom climate – learning

climate and social climate. Both types of climate relate to the behavior, attitudes,
and perceptions of faculty and students regarding the educational process at
large, and the relationships between the people who are engaged in it. The
learning climate and the social atmosphere surround most of the student’s
experiences and generate the factors that directly affect them.
2.5 Role of the Classroom Climate in Influencing Students’ Motivation to Learn

According to López et al. (2018), the classroom climate is one of the most vital
elements that impacts the development of the educational process. The classroom
climate affects the psychological aspects of the student. This is because it enhances
the possibility of developing a sense within the student’s personality that they are
the focus of the learning process, and that they are the most important element in
the educational process at large. The classroom climate affects numerous other
aspects in a student’s personality, the most important of which are the
educational, mental, and social aspects. A positive classroom climate aims to
develop constructive interactions between teachers and students; thus, students
begin to develop a positive feeling towards their teachers. This also helps in
developing the student’s ability to take responsibility for the educational process
on their own, as it supports the possibility of active and effective participation in
the educational process at large (Darling-Hammond & Cook-Harvey, 2018).
La Salle et al. (2016) found that there is a positive link between classroom climate
and motivation to learn, as the classroom climate has a significant impact on the
involved students on personal, social, and academic levels. Berkowitz (2022)
concluded that a positive classroom climate contributes to positive results. At the
personal level, it leads to self-esteem and the development of the student’s self-
identity, a sense of personal security, a sense of belonging, active involvement,
and, ultimately, success. At the social level, it has been shown that students
function better within a cooperative environment. This contributes to the
development of a democratic personality and leads to open-mindedness. At the
educational level, the cooperative environment has also been found to contribute
to increased motivation to learn, higher academic achievement, and even
developing the willpower to stand out among other students. A positive
classroom climate is a vital factor that serves as a means for effective learning. It
40
is thus important to nurture it and invest a lot of time in its creation and
incorporation (Zedan, 2010).
Akkanat and Gökdere (2018) investigated the importance of the social climate
within the classroom, showing that it influences the learning process, where the
social climate is one of the most influential factors in the student’s success.
Sometimes a student is afraid of rejection from their peers and might therefore be
convinced that academic success will ensure them a higher rank in the school’s
hierarchy. When there is a healthy educational atmosphere in the classroom,
students could very easily sense it and even participate in this atmosphere and
thus progress towards success. This atmosphere is of utmost priority to most
students, because they possess an innate desire to sense belonging and
significance in the group. The class sets a standard and rules that affect the
student’s success, and the agent leading the class in this particular approach is the
class teacher.
In their study, Gustafsson and Nilsen (2016) also identified identical general
model components in the classroom climate, which can be presented according to
three factors: student, teacher, and interactions between them. Two categories
were identified for both student and teacher in the study. The interaction factor
includes one category, which deals with communication between students
themselves and between them and the teacher. Therefore, students perceive the
concept of “classroom climate” as a concept related to the orientation of learning
and feelings towards it, the involvement and participation of students, effective
teaching, the teacher-student relationship, teacher-student interaction, and
student-student interaction. The study also identified the components of the
general model of classroom atmosphere, as shown in Figure 1.
Classroom climate
Teacher-student Teacher
interaction
Student
Promoting Promoting
Between the Between the emotion- the cognitive
students teachers and attitude dimension -
themselves students Learners’ dimension effective
Attendance
feelings and to students teaching
and engage-
ment with intentions
the lesson towards the
lesson
Figure 1: Components of the General Model of the Classroom Atmosphere

(Gustafsson & Nilsen, 2016)
41
The importance of the classroom climate can thus be summarized in influencing

the learning process, especially in the teaching of mathematics. Here, teachers
have a major responsibility to carry out the learning activity by finding the correct
teaching methods, and working on the development and progression of the
educational process for students, where the student is the focus of the process at
large.
2.6. The Teacher’s Role in the Creation of the Classroom Climate

According to a study by Wilson-Fleming and Wilson-Younger (2012), the teacher
is considered the basis of the educational process (the student being the focus of
the same process), as the teacher has an indispensable role in working on the
development of the student’s abilities in terms of addressing the promotion of
their special aspects. Teachers have an affective role in contributing to the
development of the student’s educational abilities. They indeed possess the
capacity to formulate a positive classroom climate through (Wilson-Fleming &
Wilson-Younger, 2012), firstly, working on the selection of educational strategies
that enhance student attitudes during the educational process, in addition to
paying attention to the psychological aspect of students and to the development
of positive behavior throughout learning. Secondly, they pay attention to the
interactive aspect of students by increasing the interaction between teachers and
students during the learning process. Third, teachers develop the existing
teaching themes and trends through reliance on collaborative or research teaching
methods. Furthermore, they actively and effectively engage students in decision-
making, critical-thinking, and solution-finding activities. Lastly, teachers place
more attention on modern educational games and software, as these could help
to get students out of the circle of boredom and monotony.
Dulay and Karadağ (2017) also conducted a study where the effect of climate on
student achievement was examined in the study’s meta-analysis. A total of 237
previous studies were collected for the literature review, out of which 90 were
included in the meta-analysis. The 90 research studies were compiled to obtain a
sample size of 148,504 subjects. The results of the random effect model showed
that climate had a medium-level positive effect on student achievement.
3. Definitions Pertinent to the Work

3.1 Motivation
Based on the general context of Dulay and Karadağ (2017), motivation could be
defined as a person’s desire to invest time and energy in a particular activity, even
if that activity is complex and difficult. Here, the student’s ability and self-efficacy
are expected to assist them to deal with negative emotions, emotional distresses,
and complexities such as the pressure exerted by a peer group or school subject’s
difficulty.
According to Akkanat and Gökdere (2018), a set of internal and external

circumstances directs an individual towards rebalance, when they are disturbed,
in order to achieve their needs and/or goals. In the same context, and based on
insight into the study of Copur-Gencturk (2015), motivation could be defined as a
physiological state – where if a goal is not achieved, an internal psyche moves the
individual to carry out a certain behavior to achieve it.
42
In this study, motivation to learn can be defined as a trait that stimulates an

individual to do or not do a particular task or activity in association with the
attitudes, perspectives, beliefs, and values of that individual. It is defined
procedurally as the score students obtain on the measure of motivation towards
learning mathematics.
3.2 Classroom Climate

The classroom climate is defined as an intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
environment in which students learn. It is determined by a range of interactions
between different factors, such as teacher-student relationships, student-student
relationships, student composition, stereotypes, diversity of views, and more.
4. Methodology
In light of the nature of the study, and the data to be obtained, the descriptive
analytical approach was incorporated. This approach describes the study
phenomenon as in reality, and expresses it quantitatively and qualitatively, to
reach an understanding of the phenomenon, in addition to reaching conclusions
and generalizations that help in the development of the studied reality. This study
relied on the questionnaire as the main instrument for collecting data relevant to
the study problem.
Twelve weeks after the intervention was performed, the five factors listed in the
questionnaire at the end of the procedure were compared with the case initially
measured. The results of the study showed that in two factors, there was a
significant difference, and the factors of friction and competitiveness decreased
between the experimental groups. In other words, and as emphasized by Evertson
and Weinstein (2006), the intervention procedure contributed to reducing
competitiveness and friction in the experimental group and thus improving the
overall stratigraphic climate. These findings were supported by reports of
students who participated in the initiative and teachers who accompanied the
class before and after the process.
4.1 Study Population

The study population consisted of all the Sixth Grade pupils in the primary stage
in the towns of Bir al-Maksour and Kafr Kana in Northern Israel. In all, there were
182 Sixth Grade pupils in the towns at the time of study.
4.2 Study Sample

The actual study sample consisted of 50 Sixth Grade students in the primary stage
in the towns of Bir Al-Maksour and Kafr Kana, with the sample being 27.5% of
the study population. This percentage helped in obtaining a high degree of
accuracy. Students were selected from six classes in primary schools in both
towns. The demographic variables of respondents were analyzed and are
displayed in Table 1.
43
Table 1: Distribution of respondents’ demographic variables

Variable level n Percentage (%)
Parents’ relationship Married 40 80%
status Divorced 10 20%
Low 8 16%
Economic status Medium 30 60%
High 12 24%
High school diploma 25 50%
Father’s education Vocational education 11 22%
Academic education 14 28%
High school diploma 18 36%
Mother’s education Vocational education 18 36%
Academic education 14 28%
Yes 34 68%
Mother employed
No 16 32%
4.3 Research Instrument

In this study, the questionnaire instrument was used to identify the extent to
which the classroom climate affects student motivation to learn mathematics from
the point of view of Sixth Grade students. The questionnaire in its final form
consisted of two parts. The first was on the classroom climate, which consisted of
nine domains (as appears in Table 2), while the second was motivation to learn
mathematics, which consisted of five domains (as appears in Table 3). The
questionnaire was constructed in proportion to this study and in line with its
theoretical framework, and through consulting specialists in the field. The prior
considerations enabled me to determine the parts of the questionnaire and its
domains that were set in their final form.
4.4 Credibility of the Research Instrument

The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed in two different ways. The first
method involved the honesty of the arbitrators (the apparent honesty of the
questionnaire). The scale was presented to five arbitrators, who were supervisors
of mathematics and mathematics teachers in the northern region of the country.
This was done to verify the appropriateness of the scale for what it was prepared
for and the integrity of the wording, consistency, coherence, and cohesion of the
paragraphs, and that each of these belonged to the field in which they were
developed. After reviewing the notes of the arbitrators, the paragraphs that were
not agreed upon were deleted, and the paragraphs that were unanimously agreed
upon by more than 70% of the arbitrators were added in their final form, as shown
in the study.
The second method involved internal consistency. The validity of the

questionnaire was verified using the Statistical Package for the Social Science
(SPSS) program by calculating the Pearson correlation coefficient between the
degree of each paragraph of the questionnaire and the total score of the domain
to which it belonged. Table 2 shows the Pearson correlation coefficients between
each paragraph of the questionnaire with its counterparts, and the total degree of
the questionnaire.
44
Table 2: Correlation coefficients between each paragraph of the questionnaire and the
overall score of the domain to which it belongs
Classroom climate Motivation to learn mathematics
Correlation Correlation
Paragraph Paragraph
coefficient coefficient
1 .705** 1 .751**
2 .728** 2 .797**
3 .809** 3 .619**
4 .727** 4 .756**
5 .751** 5 .845**
6 .748** --- ---
7 .565** --- ---
8 .814** --- ---
9 .828** --- ---
** Statistically significant at significance level α ≤ .01
Table 2 shows that there were positive and statistically significant correlation
coefficients, which indicates the validity of the internal consistency between each
paragraph of the questionnaire, and the overall score of the domain to which it
belongs.
Table 3 shows the Pearson correlation coefficients of the domains of the

questionnaire between each other, and the total degree of resolution of the
questionnaire.
Table 3: Correlation coefficients between each of the resolution domains with each
other, and the total degree of resolution
Components Motivation to learn Overall score
mathematics
Classroom climate .619** .849**
Motivation to learn .797**
mathematics
** Statistically significant at significance level α ≤ .01
Table 3 shows that there were positive and statistically significant correlation
coefficients between each of the resolution domains and the total resolution score,
indicating the validity of the internal consistency between the resolution domains
and the total resolution score.
4.5 Stability of the Research Instrument

The stability of the research instrument was verified via the internal consistency
coefficient by calculating the coefficient equation. It reached .854 for the total
domain (Table 4). The values of the stability coefficients for the two domains of
the questionnaire are shown in Table 4.
45
Table 4: Stability coefficients of the domains and the total degree of the questionnaire
according to the Cronbach alpha coefficient equation
Number of Stability
Domain
paragraphs coefficient
Classroom climate 9 0.893
Motivation to learn in the subject of mathematics 5 0.725
Degree of total stability 14 0.854
As shown in Table 4, the classroom climate domain obtained a stability coefficient

of 0.893, which is higher than the coefficient obtained for the domain of
motivation to learn mathematics (0.725). Conversely, the value of the total stability
coefficient was 0.845, which is an educationally acceptable stability coefficient for
the purposes of the current study.
4.6 Procedures
In the first stage, the topic was selected, and then the theoretical materials
prepared and research methodology planned. This included the research
instrument, description of the study population, and analysis of the data. In the
second stage, the questionnaires were administered to the respondents after the
necessary permissions had been granted. The third stage involved analyzing the
questionnaire, discussing the results, reaching conclusions and making
recommendations.
4.7 Statistical Treatments

To process the data, I used SPSS software with the following statistical treatments:
means and standard deviations, Pearson’s correlation coefficient, and Spearman’s
correlation coefficient.
4.8 Research Problem and Question

During the field visits to follow up on the students’ performance, it was noted that
the learning of mathematics topics among Sixth Grade students in the northern
region of the country was not the same as it is in other schools. The teacher of this
class pointed out that the motivation of students to learn mathematics topics was
low, and this is what prompted me to search for some variables that may be
associated with motivation to learn mathematics. I expected that the classroom
climate has an impact on that, and thus the problem of the study lies in answering
the following question:
• How much does the classroom climate affect students’ motivation to learn
in the subject of mathematics from the point of view of sixth graders in
Northern Israel?
4.9 Study Hypothesis

The current study attempted to validate the following hypothesis:
• There is a positive correlation between a positive classroom climate and
students’ motivation to learn mathematics.
46
4.10 Objectives of the Study

The study aimed to:
1. Examine the importance of a positive, healthy, compassionate, and supportive
classroom climate.
2. Examine the impact of the classroom climate on students’ motivation to learn.
3. Examine the teacher’s role in creating a positive, healthy, compassionate, and
supportive classroom climate.
4.11 Significance of the Study

The study topic, and in which way it may support achieving the study objectives,
was chosen because an effective educational climate is one of the most vital
elements that contributes to increasing students’ desire to learn and succeed. An
effective educational or classroom climate aims to develop students’ attitude
towards learning and to offer them the possibility to function within an interactive
atmosphere, and thus it is reflected in their motivation to learn and succeed.
5. Study Limits
Spatial boundaries: The study was limited to Sixth Grade student in the primary
stage in two Arab minority towns in Israel’s northern region.
Time limits: This study was conducted between September and December 2021,
during the scholastic year.
Objective limits: The study was limited to the subject of classroom climate in
connection to students’ motivation to learn mathematics.
Human boundaries: The study was limited to Sixth Grade students at the primary
level.
External limits: Lockdown, social distancing, and hybrid teaching were all
procedures that the Israeli Government put in effect from the very first days of
the Covid-19 pandemic. These procedures did in fact alter students’ perception of
the classroom at large, as for the first time in their scholastic years they received a
good portion of their education outside its walls.
6. Results
To answer the research question, means and standard deviations were extracted
from the data. Table 5 presents the means and standard deviations of the first
questionnaire domain – classroom climate.
Table 5: Means and standard deviations of the domain classroom climate

Standard
Domain N Mean
deviation
A general positive feeling towards school 50 3.93 0.76
Relationship between students and their classmates 50 3.68 0.63
The school’s efforts to encourage social and civic
50 3.82 0.68
participation
The school’s efforts to promote tolerance towards
50 3.61 0.84
the other and the different
47
A sense of protection at school 50 2.51 0.53

The school’s efforts to encourage a sense of
50 3.18 0.99
protection
Proximity and care between students and teachers 50 3.04 1.08
Ability, curiosity, and interest in learning 50 2.99 1.2
Quality practice in teaching, learning, and
50 3.38 0.46
evaluation
Table 5 shows that the mean scores ranged between 2.51 and 3.93. The highest
was for the field of “a general positive feeling towards school”, with a high score.
The lowest was for “a sense of protection at school”, with a relatively low score
and close to the answer in an average manner, meaning that the majority of
respondents did not have a sense of protection at school. That is, the majority of
respondents were not motivated to learn mathematics because of the
“relationship with the school”. In addition, for the variable “ability and curiosity”,
the result moderately agree (M = 2.99, SD = 1.2) was observed.
Table 6 depicts the means and standard deviations of the domain motivation for
learning mathematics.
Table 6: Means and standard deviations of the domain motivation for learning
mathematics
Standard
Domain N Mean
deviation
Internal motivation 50 3.31 0.55
Relationship with the school 50 2.60 0.43
Perception of independence 50 3.59 0.70
Perception of the teacher’s attitude 50 3.04 0.59
Importance given to evaluation 50 3.16 0.42
Table 6 shows that most variables were close in average to the answer the
respondents chose from scale 1 (never) to 5 (very significantly), except for one
variable, namely “relationship with the school”, where the mean was relatively
low (M = 2.6, SD = 0.43) and close to the answer (moderately agree). That is, the
majority of respondents were not motivated to learn mathematics due to reasons
that could be linked to the relationship with the school. Table 6 shows that the
averages ranged between 2.60 and 3.59. The highest of was for the field of
“perception of autonomy”, with a high degree, and the lowest was for the field of
“relationship with the school”, with a relatively low score and close to the answer
in an average manner. That is, the majority of students were not motivated to
learn mathematics because of the “relationship with the school”.
An analysis was carried out to examine the hypothesis according to the Spearman
correlation coefficient: There is a positive correlation between a positive classroom
climate and students’ motivation to learn mathematics. Table 7 presents the
correlation coefficients between the variables of the domains.
48
Table 7: Pearson’s correlation coefficient between the domain variables
Relationship with
Importance given
learn mathematics
Perception of the
teacher's attitude
independence
Motivation to
Perception of
to evaluation
motivation
Classroom climate
the school
Internal
A positive general feeling towards
.889*** .698*** .720*** .732*** .716***
school
Relationships between students, their
.651*** .718*** .890*** .822*** .898***
friends, and the class
The school’s efforts to encourage social
.839*** .878*** .852*** .828*** .857***
and civic participation
The school’s efforts to promote tolerance
.746*** .900*** .858*** .881*** .868***
towards the other and the different
A sense of protection at school -.229 -.411 -.517* -.519* .464
The school’s efforts to encourage a sense
.815*** .798*** .715*** .752*** .733***
of protection
Proximity and care between students
.626*** .856*** .913*** .904*** .903***
and teachers
Ability, curiosity, and interest in
.872*** .736*** .717*** .697*** .706***
learning
Quality practice in teaching, learning,
.732*** .928*** .948*** .870*** .943***
and evaluation
*** p < .00, ** p < .01, * p < .05
Table 7 shows that there was a very strong correlation between the variables,
except for one variable, “a sense of protection at school.” It has been concluded
that there is no relationship between this variable and the “internal motivation”
and “school attitudes” variables. Indeed, a significant negative relationship was
found between “perception of independence” and “sense of protection at the
school” (r = -.517, p = .05). This shows that as the sense of school protection
increases, the sense of independence notably declines. A moderately negative
correlation was found between the sense of protection at school and perception of
the teacher’s attitude (r = .519, p = .05), which shows that as the sense of protection
at the school increases, the perception of the teacher’s attitude in the school
declines. To paint a more vivid picture, another analysis of the averages of
variables was carried out to create two main domains, “classroom climate” and
“learning motivation”. Table 8 describes the mean and standard deviation scores
of these two variables, while Table 9 describes the Spearman correlation
coefficient between the two.
Table 8: Mean and standard deviation scores of the two main domains
N Mean Standard deviation
Classroom climate 50 3.35 0.68
Learning motivation 50 3.14 0.51
49
Table 9: Spearman correlation coefficient between the two main domains

Motivation to learn
Classroom climate .922***
*** p < .00, ** p < .01, * p < .05
As seen in Table 9, it appears that there was a strong correlation between the
classroom climate and students’ motivation to learn mathematics (r = .922,
p = .00), which confirms that the study hypothesis has been realized.
7. Discussion
Sandahl (2016) indicated that the classroom climate is generally related to
students’ perceptions of their school, their behavior within the classroom, their
attitude towards learning, and the activities offered within the school walls. The
school should strive to provide an ideal classroom climate that allows students to
achieve worthy academic achievements, taking into account their emotional and
social needs. In connection to the findings of Reyes et al. (2012), a school with an
optimal educational climate is an educational institution that allows its attendees
to reach their full educational potential; develops their ability to endure stressful
situations; increases creativity; and reiterates the values of tolerance, cooperation,
interpersonal communication, and the ability to learn and progress optimally. All
these factors should be high on the school’s agenda, while meeting the basic needs
of the students and staff.
According to the research hypothesis, and in line with the results of the study by
Cortés Pascual et al. (2019), the classroom climate has a great impact on the
motivation to learn at large. The research hypothesis stipulated that there is a
positive relationship between a positive classroom climate and the motivation to
learn mathematics. Accordingly, the results of the questionnaire indicated that the
classroom climate has a great impact on raising the level of positive relationships
between teachers and students, in addition to creating a consensual feeling among
the students that the school is a safe place. This finding is also supported by the
findings reached by Raidal and Volet (2009) on the same domain.
In line with the findings of Dörnyei and Muir )2019), this study also found that
the classroom climate generates a general positive feeling by enhancing the
school’s efforts to encourage social and civic participation, in addition to the
school’s efforts to promote tolerance towards the other and the different. An
effective classroom climate contributes to the development of students’ ability to
show curiosity and interest in the educational and decision-making processes in
a simultaneous fashion. This conclusion has been confirmed in the findings of
other scholars (Godfrey & Grayman, 2014; Zuković & Stojadinović, 2021).
Abdullah (2019) examined the relationships between the factors of classroom

climate as perceived by students within the ambit of various backgrounds, such
as gender, grade, achievement, and area of residence. The study included Fourth,
Fifth, and Sixth Grade students from Arab primary schools that belonged to
different geographical regions and backgrounds. A questionnaire was
incorporated to examine five factors: satisfaction and pleasure, teacher-student
50
relationship, stress and gender inequality, student-student relationship, and

competitiveness. This instrument, that is the main data collection approach in this
study, was also incorporated into numerous previous studies on the same domain
(Davis & Warner, 2018; Raidal & Volet, 2009).
Pertaining to gender as an influential variable, Godfrey and Grayman (2014)

found that the level of satisfaction, pleasure, and relationship between students
themselves was higher among girls than among boys. Within the same study, the
level of stress and gender inequality was found to be higher among boys. The
results of this study showed that teacher-student relationships were better among
students who learned in the front-end way than among students who learned in
a collaborative way. However, the level of competitiveness among students who
learned in a collaborative way was higher than the level of competitiveness
among those learning at the front. This is also in line with the findings of Akkanat
and Gökdere (2018), whose focus was on gifted students in particular.
Another intervention study which supports and reiterates the findings of this
study is the one conducted by Zedan (2010). The study investigated the classroom
climate where students were allowed to actively and effectively participate in the
decision-making process while studying mathematics. The students were
consulted on the manner and level of their upcoming test, that is the content and
difficulty level of the test. The researchers reported that a specific intervention
program focusing solely on social rather than academic aspects was activated.
This environment influences the students’ behavior, and within such context, the
classroom climate could be defined as the attitudes and perceptions of students
working in the classroom and the intertwined relationship between them. The
definition of classroom climate by Zedan (2010) is relevant to the discussion at this
stage, as it reiterates the vitality of non-physical factors that constitute the
classroom environment at large.
With similar procedures and approaches to the ones adopted in this study, the
study of Abdullah (2019) touched on the fact that the school as an institution has
a great impact in influencing the educational process, and on the effectiveness of
the academic and social functions attributed to it. In this domain, the institution
has an impact through working on the students’ educational, social, behavioral,
and sentimental development.
The current study drew closer attention to the development of the classroom
climate as a central educational concept. This is also reiterated by the findings of
Copur-Gencturk (2015), who argued that there should be no situation where a
student feels sad, threatened, or neglected.
According to Davis and Warner (2018), and in connection to the findings and the
final results of the current study, it can be indicated that within the classroom,
social processes are created that are influenced by the characteristics of the
physical environment, students, teachers, and other organizational
characteristics. All these have implications for the unique characteristics of the
51
classroom, namely norms, attitudes towards learning, performance of tasks,

democracy, mutual aid, cooperation, cohesion, and communication patterns.
In connection to the findings of this study, Darling-Hammond and Cook-Harvey

(2018) showed that a positive classroom climate was associated with a low level
of violence in the classroom. The positive atmosphere in the classroom seems to
lead to better interaction between students and a more comprehensive possibility
of expression, and has the potential to reduce the level of violence between them.
No gender differences were found in classroom perception, but teacher support
was found to be more important among girls.
Besides comparing findings and facts in the field, solutions to answer problem
statements in research are also vital for the research to actually contribute to the
academic community. The current article provides insights and in-depth, first-
hand expertise by practically investigating the notion of classroom climate and its
role in the provision of feasible and viable elements that reinforce students’ stance
and development during the educational process. Here, we shift the emphasis
from the teacher as a facilitator, the students as the center of the process, and the
curriculum as the means to the climate and environment as comprehensive system
in which all these factors can exist and function effectively.
A profound interpretation of the research results will lead to the conclusion that
the physical environment where the educational process occurs is not only a key
factor but also a major influence that could make or break the process. It has
already been established that a negative classroom climate, one characterized by
fierce competitiveness, hostility, and alienation, leads to anxiety among students
and may delay their emotional development. This is in contrast to a positive
classroom climate, where students’ strengths and mutual support are
emphasized, leading to the development of personal responsibility, participation,
sense of belonging, and self-esteem.
An important aspect that pertains to the results of this study is that numerous
variables actually emerged during and throughout the research process. One
prominent feature that was observed was that the majority of the respondents
were not motivated to learn mathematics due to reasons that could be linked to
the relationship with the school. Based on this, it could be inferred that
mathematics as a school subject did not constitute a problem to the respondents.
Indeed, what they perceived as a problem was the physical environment in which
they were actively exposed to the subject.
8. Limitations
This study used the questionnaire instrument, whose credibility and validity were
thoroughly confirmed, after which the responses of the study sample to the
instrument were addressed and construed.
9. Conclusion
Based on the instrument used to achieve the research objectives, and on the
subsequent findings, it may be concluded that the classroom climate is a concept
52
that represents the organizational and social environments in addition to the

physical environment that encapsulate the learning process. As such, it is vital to
recognize that the environment has an impact on human behavior, and that
environmental change can lead to the improvement of an individual’s feelings.
Within the school environment, students are directly exposed and subjected to
experiences that affect their identity, belief system, personal skills, and
psychological aspects. In the same respect, this study concludes that the classroom
climate is the optimal influence of the interactions occurring intuitively within the
educational process.
The study contributes greatly to the scientific and educational communities by

creating a bridge between a material aspect (classroom environment) and a
psychological depth (motivation). The study also contributes to a modern
educational mindset that draws more attention to the students’ comprehensive
status and regards them as the center of the learning-teaching processes at large.
An important conclusion in the same respect is the fine yet potent link between
the general school climate and students’ tendencies and desirability towards a
particular subject of the curriculum. It may be concluded that a healthy school
environment that is safe and supportive could indeed change students’
perception of school subjects that have long been deemed complicated and
challenging, such as mathematics.
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55

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 55-71, January 2023
Special Education Teacher’s Application of

Entrepreneurial Elements in Teaching and
Facilitation
Syar Meeze Mohd Rashid
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Selangor, Malaysia
Norfatimah A. Ghani*
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract. The application of entrepreneurial elements across the

curriculum should be implemented as early as year one of schooling.
Thus, this study aims to examine the application of elements of
entrepreneurial knowledge and skills in teaching and facilitating Special
Education teachers. This study employed an online questionnaire
distributed via Google Forms. A total of 32 Special Education teachers
were selected to answer the questionnaire. Data were analysed using
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 26 to
obtain frequency, percentage and mean. Findings demonstrated that the
entrepreneurial knowledge of Special Education teachers was at a high
level with a mean value of 4.33. In addition, the entrepreneurial skills of
Special Education teachers were at a high level with a mean value of 4.34.
The findings indicate that Special Education teachers have high
entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, besides applying entrepreneurial
elements in teaching and facilitation. Special Education teachers indeed
play an important role in applying entrepreneurial elements and
fostering an entrepreneurial culture among Students with Special Needs
(SSN). From this study, it is hoped that the application of entrepreneurial
elements in the teaching and facilitation of Special Education teachers can
increase the ability of SSN. The implications of this study suggest that
teachers with entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, as well as high
commitment, can convey entrepreneurial elements well and
comprehensively to SSN.
Keywords: entrepreneurship; teaching; facilitation; students with special

needs
*
Corresponding author: Norfatimah A.Ghani, P111209@siswa.ukm.edu.my
©Authors
56
1. Introduction
The integration of entrepreneurial elements into the education system is the main
focus in the development of human resources in the country (Stam & Van de Ven,
2021) for allowing students to adopt an entrepreneurial attitude, practice a way of
thinking towards producing an idea, acquire basic skills and knowledge in the
business context, produce products based on technological and vocational skills,
as well as have moral behaviour with high ethical values through topics of
relevant subjects learned in class.
Several countries in the world such as China, Germany and Finland have
implemented entrepreneurship in their education systems and yielded positive
results from the implementation of entrepreneurship policies in education,
especially from the aspect of helping to improve marketability and
entrepreneurship among students (Voda & Florea, 2019). Many countries form
policies and formulate programs to increase entrepreneurial participation among
the people, including Malaysia. In Malaysia, the role of educational institutions in
achieving this goal continues to be strengthened, which is in line with the ability
of the education sector to act as a driving force for the formation of a competitive
advanced society (Huda et al., 2016). Studies have shown that entrepreneurial
elements can give a positive impact on national economic growth driven by
innovation (van Vuuren & Alemayehu, 2018). The Curriculum Development
Division of the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MMoE) has prepared vocational
education planning, particularly on Specific Vocational Skills for the Special
Secondary School Standard Curriculum in 2017. Various vocational fields were
introduced and selected by the Special Integration Education Program for
students with moderate functionality. Among the fields offered under Specific
Vocational Skills include the basics of bread making and pastry making.
In the meantime, SSN are seen by the Ministry of Education (MoE) as an important
asset to the country that can also contribute to the country's economic
development. Therefore, the Ministry of Education and Culture has opened the
way by providing vocational education programs to help SSN to be more
competent, besides supporting the field of Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (TVET) as a suitable field for SSN to engage in and take advantage
of today's work needs or explore the field of entrepreneurship (Buang & M.M,
2019). The Special Education Program at the initial stage of TVET has been
developed and exposed as a means to master life skills to simply face the needs of
life (Hannah Aqilah Amran et al., 2019). Students with disabilities have been
excluded from the mainstream secondary school curriculum; hence, they need to
be allowed to learn skills in service courses that will prepare them for the
workplace and community.
The application of entrepreneurial elements in the teaching and facilitation of

Special Education teachers needs to be fully utilised to create a generation of
entrepreneurs in the future. The objective of applying elements across the
entrepreneurship curriculum in teaching and facilitation is for students to practice
behaviour directed towards entrepreneurship. Teachers need to be
57
knowledgeable, skilled and creative, apart from having a high interest and
attitude in the teaching and facilitation processes (Derapa & Mohamed, 2018).
Therefore, as a strategy to prepare SSN to face future challenges, SSN will be
provided with the necessary skills and knowledge through the implementation of
the Standard Curriculum for Special Education Middle Schools, making it easier
for them to enter the career market especially after finishing school. This is in line
with the policy of Standard Curriculum for Special Education Middle Schools,
which introduces skill subjects to SSN. Through the skills learned, entrepreneurial
values are fostered/cultivated in SSN by Special Education teachers during
teaching and facilitation. The role of the family in helping teachers guide students
with practical skills training at home is also important to maintain the continuity
of skills as learned at school so that the students can master these skills well and
quickly.
The application of entrepreneurial elements explicitly across the curriculum

involves teaching and facilitation activities based on the content and learning
standards of the discipline's curriculum. The application of entrepreneurial
elements across the curriculum is conceptualised as the formation of people who
cultivate the behaviour of being a successful entrepreneur from year one of
schooling.
The majority of research undertaken abroad focused on entrepreneurship in

higher education institutions, while school education received little attention
(Boldureanu et al., 2020). In Malaysia, preliminary surveys revealed that teachers
do not apply entrepreneurial values to students, besides lacking effective
knowledge and skills (Rafidah & Mohd Safiee, 2016). This causes students'
understanding of entrepreneurship to be less than satisfactory, when in fact
students need to be cultivated with entrepreneurial elements to generate interest
and continue the learning process. The application of student entrepreneurship
skills in extracurricular activities at school is at a moderate level. This finding
suggests that students have not yet mastered entrepreneurial skills at the school
level (Muhamad Akhsan & Othman, 2019).
The ability of educators to provide input is very important in cultivating

entrepreneurship among high school students since the teacher is a critical factor
in determining the success of the acculturation process. Nevertheless, problems
arise when teachers do not have a full understanding of the purpose, content,
implementation methods, skills and knowledge of entrepreneurship before
sharing with students (Ungku & Muhammad, 2020). This matter is also supported
by Muhamad and Othman (2019) who stated that deficiencies occur when there
are a few teachers who claimed to have received inadequate specific training or
skills to enable them to teach entrepreneurship. Teachers are required to teach
creatively but are not given guidance on how to do it.
Furthermore, incompetent teachers cause students to become disinterested in the

field of entrepreneurship (Muhamad & Othman, 2019). The issue of learning that
is only focused inside the classroom involving teachers and students alone does
not help in providing knowledge to today’s students, especially when it comes to
58
entrepreneurship lessons. This point is also supported by Rafidah and Mohd

Safiee (2016) mentioning that teachers consider the element of entrepreneurship
as unimportant, thus acting carelessly and taking it for granted. Indeed, the
teacher's responsibility in applying entrepreneurial elements when conducting
teaching and facilitation is in line with the current education system; a key
variable in determining the success or failure of a change. Therefore, this study
was conducted to examine the application of entrepreneurial elements in the
teaching and facilitation of Special Education teachers.
1.2 Research Objectives

The objectives of this study are:
1. Identifying the level of application of entrepreneurial knowledge elements in
the teaching and facilitation of Special Education teachers.
2. Measuring the level of application of elements of entrepreneurial skills in
teaching and facilitation of Special Education teachers.
2.1 Elements of Entrepreneurial Knowledge
Teachers are important individuals who play a major role in creating a meaningful
learning environment and further contribute to the success of quality teaching and
student learning. Knowledge is an important aspect of an individual's life to carry
out daily responsibilities (Rahman et al., 2018). Teachers are also no exception in
their efforts to teach and impart knowledge to students (Agus, 2021). Previous
studies have shown that quality teaching is an important factor affecting a
student's achievement (Fung et al., 2017; Shirvani, 2015). This is in line with the
MoE's aspiration to produce knowledgeable and skilled teachers in
entrepreneurship based on the needs of the country. To implement more effective
teaching, teachers need to have adequate knowledge (Agus, 2021).
Knowledge is a dominant aspect of a teacher in teaching and facilitation (Chian &

Mohamed, 2021). Knowledge is used to provide an explanation of a subject and
achieve a goal. Teacher knowledge is also related to teacher attitude, according to
the results of a study by Elizabeth K. Thomas and Seema P. Uthaman (2019).
However, the level of knowledge of teachers in entrepreneurship is still moderate
(Nirmala & Mohd Hanafi, 2021). Teachers’ knowledge certainly plays an
important role in the application of entrepreneurial elements to SSN. This matter
is also supported by Mursyida Aleas and Norshidah Mohd Salleh (2021) who
stated that the success of a teacher's teaching depends heavily on his/her ability,
knowledge and skills to accommodate and provide suitable teaching pedagogy to
meet the requirements of SSN. Teachers also need to be knowledgeable, skilled,
and creative besides having a high interest and attitude in the teaching and
facilitation processes (Derapa & Mohamed, 2018). According to Shaffeei et al.
(2020), a teacher with a high level of knowledge can optimally translate
knowledge in the classroom and develop SSN capabilities.
59
2.2 Elements of Entrepreneurial Skills

Effective teaching and facilitation require teachers to possess good skills, which
are elements of competence required by the MoE in the Malaysian Teacher
Standard (Norfarahin et al., 2021). In determining the effectiveness of a teaching
method, the main success factor is the skill in implementing a teaching and
facilitation activity (Rosli et al., 2022). This is also supported by Zulhilmi Haron
and Mohamad Khairi Othman (2019) positing that to implement curriculum
changes in this era of globalisation, educators need to have specific skills. So, it is
natural that all Special Education teachers must have specific skills including
entrepreneurial skills to teach SSN.
Entrepreneurial skills need to be mastered by teachers so that the application of

entrepreneurial elements during teaching and facilitation can be improved.
According to Ungku and Muhammad (2020), improving the skills of an educator
can make teaching and facilitation more effective, thus attracting students to
learning. The results of studies conducted in Malaysia and abroad showed that
teachers with entrepreneurial skills can help SSN prepare themselves to step into
the workforce after finishing school. This point is also supported by Yusof et al.
(2020) who mentioned that among the efforts to develop SSN's abilities is to
provide entrepreneurial skills in preparation for the students to get a job that can
meet the country's workforce needs. Therefore, Special Education teachers need
to be knowledgeable and skilled to be able to help SSN so that they can live
independently and gain employment and income to support their lives.
Based on the literature review, there are many studies conducted related to
entrepreneurial knowledge and skills but are insufficient to provide empirical
evidence about the application of entrepreneurial elements. Therefore, this study
will focus on the application of entrepreneurial elements in the teaching and
facilitation of Special Education teachers.
3. Research Methodology
3.1 Research Design
This study made use of a quantitative design based on data processing methods
to unravel the research questions (Ahmad Zainal Abd Aziz, 2020). Quantitative
research is a general study that uses descriptive statistical analysis, which is more
objective and focused on output. According to Atika et al. (2022), bias will not
occur in the quantitative method as the output is based on the data collected. In
this study, face validity feedback and content are necessary to avoid ambiguity or
prevent the questionnaire from contradicting the objectives of study.
3.2 Respondents
The study respondents involved 35 Special Education teachers of secondary
schools in the district of Selangor. This study sample was based on the table of
Krejcie and Morgan (1970) with the aim of obtaining detailed and in-depth
information from the participants. Careful sampling is very important to reduce
sampling errors as well as save time and expenses (Salleh et al., 2022). What is
emphasised is that the number of samples selected can answer each item of the
instrument prepared.
60
3.3 Instrument
A questionnaire was used as an instrument for this study. The items used in this
questionnaire were adapted from that of Nirmala and Mohd Hanafi (2021). The
use of a questionnaire as a research instrument is more relevant as it makes it easy
to obtain cooperation from research respondents (Atika et al., 2022). This
questionnaire consisted of three parts. Part A includes the demographic profile of
respondents, namely gender, age, race, religion, education level and teaching
experience. Part B, on the other hand, includes questions related to the construct
of entrepreneurial knowledge elements in the teaching and facilitation of Special
Education teachers. Part C constructs the element of entrepreneurial skills in the
teaching and facilitation of Special Education teachers. The questionnaire used in
this study has been referred to those with extensive expertise and experience in
the field of Special Education. The experts chosen for the validity of this
questionnaire were Special Education teachers with more than 10 years of
experience teaching Special Education. Overall, all the experts agreed with all the
items but suggested some improvements in terms of sentence structure to make it
clearer and easier to understand. Next, eight respondents were recruited to
conduct a pilot study for measuring the instrument's reliability. The Cronbach's
alpha value of the items for the teacher's entrepreneurial knowledge construct
was 0.9, whereas the teacher's entrepreneurial skill construct yielded 0.919 in
Cronbach's alpha value. The result reveals the high reliability of the research
instrument. This questionnaire was in the form of a 5-point Likert scale
comprising 5 options for the answer, namely; Strongly Disagree (SD), Disagree
(DA), Less Agree (LA), Agree (A) and Strongly Agree (SA). Information from
respondents was collected using questionnaires. A link for the online
questionnaire (Google Form) was sent via Telegram and WhatsApp to fellow
Special Education teachers.
3.4 Data Analysis

The data obtained from the study sample was collected and analysed using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 software to obtain
Cronbach's alpha, frequency, percentage and mean values.
4. Findings
4.1. Demographics Profile of the Respondents
A total of 32 respondents consisting of Special Education teachers participated in
this study. The description for demographic analysis of respondents involved the
aspects of gender, age, race, religion, level of education and teaching experience
as can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1: Demographic analysis

Variable Frequency Percentage
Gender
Male 3 9.4%
Female 29 90.6%
Age
25 years old or less 0 0
26 – 35 years old 7 21.9%
61
36 – 45 years old 20 62.5%

46 years old and above 5 15.6%
Race
Malay 29 90.6%
Chinese 0 0
India 2 6.3%
Others 1 3.1%
Religion
Islam 30 93.8%
Hindu 1 3.1%
Christian 1 3.1%
Buddha 0 0
Others 0 0
Level of education
Diploma 0 0
Bachelors 27 84.4%
Masters 5 15.6%
Doctor of Philosophy 0 0
Teaching experience
1 – 10 years 8 25%
11 – 20 years 18 56.3%
Over 20 years 6 18.8%
Based on Table 1, there were more female Special Education teachers with a
frequency of 29 (90.6%) than male Special Education teachers with a frequency of
3 (9.4%) from the total number of respondents. The frequency of respondents' age
showed the highest percentage (62.5%) displayed for 36 to 45 years old
respondents compared to those ranging from 26 to 35 years old (21.9%) and 46
years old and above (15.6%). The majority of respondents were Malays (90.6%),
followed by Indians (6.3%) and others (3.1%). Next, for religion, most respondents
were Muslims (93.8%), while Hindu and Christian respondents shared the same
percentage (3.1%). Regarding the education level of the respondents, it was found
that the majority had a bachelor's degree with a percentage of 84.4%, and a
master's degree with a percentage of 15.6%. As for teaching experience, most of
the teachers have 11 to 20 years of teaching experience, which comprised 18
(56.3%) of the respondents, followed by 1 to 10 years of teaching experience
represented by 8 (25%) and more than 20 years of teaching experience represented
by 6 or 18.8%.
4.2. Level of application of entrepreneurial knowledge elements in the teaching

and facilitation of Special Education teachers
The following are the findings on the level of application of entrepreneurial
knowledge elements in the teaching and facilitation of Special Education teachers.
62
Table 2: Distribution based on entrepreneurial knowledge
Item SD DA LA A SA Mean
I can convey my knowledge 0 0 0 20 12 4.38
about the definition of 62.5% 37.5%
entrepreneurship to SSN.
about the benefits of 62.5% 37.5%
entrepreneurship to SSN.
about the important factors of 65.6% 34.4%
carrying out entrepreneurial
activities such as choosing
products for sale, sales locations,
cost calculations and so on.
about the characteristics of 65.6% 34.4%
successful entrepreneurs to SSN.
about strategies to implement 3.1% 75% 21.9%
entrepreneurial activities to SSN.
about practising good moral and 53.1% 46.9%
ethical values in the context of
entrepreneurship, especially
when buying and selling, to SSN.
Overall mean 4.33
Based on Table 2, the majority of respondents agreed (62.5%) and strongly agreed
(37.5%) that teachers can convey knowledge about the definition of
entrepreneurship to SSN. A total of 20 (62.5%) teachers agreed and 12 (37.5%)
teachers strongly agreed that teachers can convey knowledge about the benefits
of entrepreneurship to SSN during teaching and facilitation. Next, most teachers
agreed (65.5%) and strongly agreed (34.4%) that they can convey knowledge
about important factors in carrying out entrepreneurial activities such as choosing
products, sales locations, cost calculations, and so on. Meanwhile, a total of 21
(65.6%) teachers agreed while 11 (34.4%) teachers strongly agreed that they can
impart knowledge about the characteristics of successful entrepreneurs to SSN
during teaching and facilitation. On top of that, most teachers agreed (75%) that
they can convey knowledge about strategies to implement entrepreneurial
activities to SSN, followed by those who strongly agreed (21.9%) and less agreed
(3.1%). Finally, regarding the impartment of knowledge about practising good
moral and ethical values in the context of entrepreneurship, especially when
buying and selling activities to SSN, 17 teachers agreed (53.1%) and 15 teachers
strongly agreed (46.9%). The overall mean for the entrepreneurial knowledge
element was 4.33.
63
4.3. Level of application of elements of entrepreneurial skills in teaching and

facilitation of Special Education teachers.
The following are the findings on the application of elements of entrepreneurial
skills in the teaching and facilitation of Special Education teachers.
Table 3: Distribution based on entrepreneurial skills
Item SD DA LA A SA Mean
I teach the skills of producing 0 0 0 22 10 4.31
products to SSN based on the 68.7% 31.3%
knowledge and skills that have
been learned at school.
I teach skills to produce 0 0 0 21 11 4.34
products for sale to SSN. 65.6% 34.4%
I teach skills to promote 0 0 0 22 10 4.31
products for sale to SSN. 68.7% 31.3%
I teach the skills of packaging 0 0 0 20 12 4.38
products to be sold to SSN. 62.5% 37.5%
I teach simple buying and 0 0 0 20 12 4.38
selling skills to SSN. 62.5% 37.5%
I teach the skill of calculating 0 0 1 20 11 4.22
profit and loss when doing 3.1% 62.5% 34.4%
business to SSN.
I teach skills and monitor SSN 0 0 0 18 14 4.44
when carrying out activities of 56.3% 43.7%
selling at school.
Overall mean 4.34
As for the findings of the entrepreneurial skills item, a total of 22 teachers (68.7%)
agreed and 10 teachers (31.3%) strongly agreed that they teach the skills of
producing products to SSN based on the knowledge and skills that have been
learned at school. Furthermore, teachers agreed (65.6%) and strongly agreed
(34.4%) that they teach skills to produce products for sale to SSN. Regarding
teachers teaching skills to promote products for sale to SSN, a total of 22 teachers
(68.7%) agreed and 10 teachers (31.3%) strongly agreed with the statement. SSN
was also taught and guided to package products as a total of 20 (62.5%) teachers
agreed while 12 (37.5%) teachers strongly agreed with the statement. Meanwhile,
the majority of teachers agreed (62.5%) that they teach SSN about simple buying
and selling skills, while the rest strongly agreed (37.5%) with the statement. In
addition, for the item of teachers teaching the skill of calculating profit and loss
when doing business with SSN, one teacher quite disagreed (3.1%), 20 teachers
agreed (62.5%) and 11 teachers strongly agreed (34.4%). The majority of
respondents agreed (56.3%) and strongly agreed (43.8%) that they teach skills and
monitor SSN when conducting activities of selling at school. The overall mean for
the teacher's entrepreneurial skill element was 4.34.
64
Table 4: Interpretation of the application of entrepreneurial elements in the teaching

and facilitation of Special Education teachers
Construct Mean Level
Entrepreneurial knowledge 4.33 High
Entrepreneurial skills 4.34 High
Findings of this study revealed the overall average mean score for entrepreneurial
knowledge at 4.33, which is high. Meanwhile, for entrepreneurial skills, the
overall average mean score was 4.34, which is also considered high. This clearly
shows that the level of agreement of the respondents, namely the Special
Education teachers, with the items presented was at a high level and has a
tendency towards positive perception. Therefore, it can be said that respondents
accepted statements related to the application of entrepreneurial elements in
teaching and facilitation.
5. Discussion
In this study, the element of entrepreneurial knowledge indicated a high average
mean score. Teachers who teach effectively possess enough knowledge and
creativity to manage and implement the teaching and facilitation processes in the
classroom. This point is also supported by Fung et al. (2017) who explained that
quality teaching is an important factor affecting a student's achievement. A
professional teacher should have knowledge and skills about the teaching
material used besides being able to create a conducive classroom environment.
Meanwhile, Shirvani (2015) in his study found a highly significant relationship
between teacher knowledge and elements across the curriculum in teaching and
facilitation.
The findings of this study are in line with the study conducted by Suzlina Hilwani
Baharuddin and Jamaludin Badusah (2015) demonstrating a high level of
knowledge of Malay language teachers. Mat Isa and Mahamod (2021) argued that
teachers' high knowledge of the content they teach makes it easier for them to
prepare and plan their teaching more effectively for students. This point is also
supported by Jalaluddin and Tahar (2022) who explained that knowledgeable and
skilled teachers can make learning effective at school and thus improve students'
basic knowledge. Chian and Mohamed (2021) also considered knowledge as a
dominant aspect within a teacher to implement teaching and facilitation. In
addition, knowledge is used to explain a subject and achieve a goal. Austin (2021)
also mentioned that the effectiveness of a teacher’s teaching affects the teacher's
knowledge. Therefore, based on the findings of this study, it is clear that
knowledge is the main aspect for teachers to produce effective teaching and
facilitation.
However, the findings of this study contradict the results of Isnon and Badusah
(2017), which showed a low level of teachers' knowledge. Exposure to the latest
methods and pedagogy needs to be effectively given to teachers through
seminars, courses or workshops so that teachers can improve the quality of their
teaching. This indirectly encourages active learning among SSN during the
teaching and facilitation processes. Naquiah Nahar and Jimain Safar (2016) also
65
stated that the teacher's knowledge of their teaching content must first precede
the increasingly challenging educational requirements. Teachers need to have
solid pedagogical knowledge to deliver lessons in the classroom and not just
master the subject content knowledge alone (Shahirah Zulkifli & Mohamed, 2019).
Hence, knowledge about the pedagogy of the content of a subject must be
mastered by all teachers.
Alahmadi and El Keshky (2018) discovered that the majority of mainstream

primary school teachers have average knowledge of teaching and managing SSN
students in the classroom. This point is also supported by C. T. et al. (2019) who
explained that the majority of mainstream teachers still lack knowledge about
concepts, teaching and management in the classroom in practice. The study by
Koshy et al. (2021) also showed that the majority (64%) of mainstream teachers
have moderate knowledge, 30% have low knowledge and only 6% of teachers
have good knowledge about SSN teaching in the Inclusive Education Program
(IEP). In another study, Jain Chee et al. (2018) stated that teachers with a moderate
level of knowledge may not gain self-satisfaction in teaching since one of the
satisfaction factors in teaching depends on a teacher's pedagogical knowledge.
In addition, the findings of this study demonstrated teachers’ knowledge as the

main basis for implementing entrepreneurial elements in teaching and facilitation.
These findings are also supported by Naquiah Nahar and Jimain Safar (2016) who
stated that the basic thing that a teacher needs to have in handling an effective
teaching and facilitation process is the knowledge to teach the standard content
of the subjects. The teacher's responsibility is to stimulate the mind and provide
knowledge to SSN to ensure that they can succeed in academics, live
independently and form a better identity. According to Ungku and Muhammad
(2020), the success of a teacher's teaching is highly dependent on the ability,
knowledge and skills of the teacher to accommodate and provide appropriate
teaching pedagogy to meet the requirements of SSN. In summary, all research
findings showed the important roles played by knowledge in the application of
entrepreneurial elements in teaching and facilitation.
The results of the data analysis obtained in this study regarding the element of
entrepreneurial skills displayed a high overall average mean score for the
teacher's skills. According to Fung et al. (2017), teachers need to be skilful to allow
them to create a fun classroom atmosphere and effective learning. This further
suggests the need for a Special Education teacher to have a high level of
knowledge and skills in the field of Special Education to be able to plan and carry
out responsibilities in the Special Education program (Mursyieda Aleas &
Norshida, 2021). This study is also supported by Rahim et al. (2021) who stated
that the success and effectiveness of teaching and facilitation of Special Education
depend on the existing skills and techniques possessed by the teachers. These
skills integrate the knowledge, expertise and teaching strategies of teachers in
every activity during teaching and facilitation in the classroom.
Additionally, teachers should master various skills including the methods to

implement certain approaches in teaching. A teacher needs to have teaching skills
66
to convey knowledge and information to students (Ab Hakim & Iksan, 2018). The
teacher's teaching skills and strategies that coincide with the teaching elements
require a set of planned procedures based on the teaching and facilitation
approach chosen by the teacher. The high level of implementation of the teacher's
teaching skills and strategies is a key aspect in ensuring that the student’s interest
and concentration in the classroom can be maintained. As explained by Muhamad
and Haleefa (2011), the student's weakness factor is closely related to the teacher's
teaching skills and strategies. The teacher's teaching skills and strategies are seen
to have an impact on the students' motivation and needs. Teachers who innovate
by diversifying them can increase student motivation and achievement in the
classroom. According to Mohamad Ali et al. (2018), there are several objective
achievements in the teaching and facilitation processes, namely the diversity of
mastery including entrepreneurial skills that are relevant today.
Based on the findings of this study, it was found that the element of
entrepreneurship is one of the cross-curricular elements that need to be applied
by teachers during teaching and facilitation owing to the current economic
development that demands a knowledgeable and skilled workforce in the field of
employment. Moreover, today’s employers require employees with skills (Anuar
Ahmad & Nelson Jinggan, 2015). Non-technical skills or competencies are
required by employers to perform all jobs regardless of the type or level of a job.
An entrepreneur is a realistic job choice for students with a vocational education
background and has flexibility in tasks that can match the person's disability
(Meager & Higgins, 2011). Students can no longer rely on the government to
provide job opportunities. Jobs are now moving towards self-employment.
According to Huda et al. (2016), students who are exposed to entrepreneurial
elements in school have the desire to choose that field as their career of choice in
the future.
A good teacher always cultivates students' knowledge and skills through

continuous efforts (Nur Hanani & Ab. Halim, 2017). One of the efforts that can be
made by teachers is to understand the teaching and facilitation process more
deeply. This effort gives better hope to the teaching profession through planned
education (Mohd Nor et al., 2021). Teachers need to be smart in combining their
knowledge and skills to produce effective teaching and facilitation. The results of
studies in Malaysia and abroad showed that skills can help SSN prepare and make
themselves ready to step into the workforce after finishing school. The teachers
involved must have sufficient knowledge and skills to apply entrepreneurial
elements comprehensively in the teaching and facilitation process. The
application of this entrepreneurial element is seen as very important not only to
achieve the objectives at the end of the teaching and facilitation session but more
so to prepare students with appropriate knowledge and skills for the current
situation as a preparation for them to enter the workforce later.
Overall, this study demonstrated that the application of entrepreneurial skills met
the requirements of the job scope and can be indirectly applied by SSN in the
workplace. The goal of applying entrepreneurial elements during teaching and
facilitation is to produce students as potential job creators and not job seekers.
67
6. Conclusion
It has been found in this study that the entrepreneurial knowledge and skills of
Special Education teachers who apply entrepreneurial elements in teaching and
facilitation are at a high level. This indicates that Special Education teachers have
been actively employed entrepreneurial elements during teaching and facilitation.
Teachers’ entrepreneurial knowledge in various aspects, especially in pedagogy
and subject content standards, as well as teachers’ entrepreneurial skills, are
important in preparing teachers for the application of entrepreneurial elements
during teaching and facilitation. Special Education teachers who strive to increase
knowledge and skills can increase the motivation of students to remain focused
in the classroom since the teacher's knowledge and skill are correlated with
teaching and facilitation.
The implications of this study demonstrated that the element of entrepreneurship

is very important and needs to be applied during teaching and facilitation. Thus,
Special Education teachers must have entrepreneurial knowledge and skills
besides ensuring that teaching objectives are achieved. The implementation of
entrepreneurial elements in teaching and facilitation is in line with the goals of
entrepreneurial education and the efforts to cultivate entrepreneurship carried
out by the Malaysia of Education Ministry (MoEM) at the school level. This study
only utilised a quantitative method approach and involved a small study sample.
Further research can involve a larger study sample and the use of interviews to
aid the researcher in obtaining more thorough information. Next, this study was
also limited to Special Education teachers; therefore, future research can be
extended to primary school teachers and cover the research objective on
correlation.
Acknowledgement
This study is funded by the FPEND Futuristic Learning Special Research Fund
GG-2021-010.
7. References
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terhadap Pembelajaran Berasaskan Masalah (PBM) dalam mata pelajaran Sains
[Knowledge, implimentation skills and teacher's attitude towards Problem-Based
Learning (PBL) in Science subjects]. Seminar Antarabangsa Isu-Isu Pendidikan
(ISPEN2018), 72–82.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 72-93, January 2023
Received Oct 24, 2022; Revised Jan 10, 2023; Accepted Jan 20, 2023
Integrative Principals’ Leadership Behaviour

Approach to Improve Student Academic
Outcomes in Ethiopian Secondary Schools
RJ (Nico) Botha*
University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
Seyoum Gari Aleme

Institute of Education and Behavioural Science
Dilla University, Dilla, Ethiopia
Abstract. It is clear from the literature that there is no consensus on the

most effective type of leadership behavior which promotes one of the
main objectives of education, namely student achievement. This current
study was initiated due to the prevalence of low student achievement as
well as the observed controversies regarding effective types of leadership
behaviors in secondary schools in the Gedeo Zone of Ethiopia. The aim of
the study was to examine the effect of secondary school principals’
leadership behaviors on student outcomes in the zone and consequently
to identify effective types of leadership constructs that could enhance
learners’ success. An explanatory sequential mixed-design approach was
used with a sample of six schools which were chosen by using a
maximum variation strategy. Out of these six sampled schools, eighteen
(18) participants, comprising of six (6) principals, four (4) district
supervisors, two (2) zone education experts and six (6) PTSA chairmen
were chosen for the qualitative phase. These participants were selected
purposively as they have a better understanding, by virtue of their
position regarding the effect of principals’ leadership behavior on student
achievement. A close-ended questionnaire was used to collect
quantitative data, while interviews and document analysis were used as
research instruments in the qualitative phase. The findings of this study
indicate that effective practicing of a combination of instructional and
transformational leadership behaviors, in integrative ways, enhances
student outcomes.
Keywords: instructional leadership; transformational leadership; school

culture; student achievement; Ethiopian schools
*
Corresponding author: RJ (Nico) Botha, botharj@unisa.ac.za
©Authors
73
1. Introduction
The growing complexity, responsibility, and accountability of leadership as well
as a rapidly changing school environment, call for effective principals who can
win the trust and support of all stakeholders to commit themselves to realizing
better achievement for all students (Aleme, 2021; Muchiri, 2022; Onorato, 2013).
During the last few decades education systems globally have entered a major
transformational change due to the emerging trends of globalization; competition;
decentralization; knowledge-driven economy; expansion of information
technology; consumer driven education; and social constructivist views of
teaching and learning (UNESCO, 2022). Such global trends require competent
school principals who can exert positive influence on the thought and actions of
stakeholders by exhibiting appropriate types of leadership behaviors to enable
them to work willingly and with commitment to maximize student outcomes
(Bryk et al., 2010; Chrispeels et al., 2008; Muchiri, 2022; Sengeh & Winthrop, 2022).
For school principals to be effective, they must deal and work integrally with
various groups of people with different interests. In addition, they need to be
skillful in their leadership behaviors and be able to adopt the best practice (cf.
Aleme, 2021; Botha, 2012; Dereje, 2015; Girum 2017; Gyasi, Xi & Owusu-
Ampomah, 2016).
According to Bush (2008), a principal’s leadership qualities is among one of the

few core factors that determine the success or failure of the school. Strengthening
this view, Leithwood et al. (2004) stated almost two decades ago that the total
effect of leadership, on enhancing student outcomes, can have an improvement
percentage as high as 25 percent. Likewise, Louis et al. (2010) as well as Simkin
(2011) and Botha (2012), have ranked school leadership as the second most
important factor in realizing better student achievement. In contrast to a strong
agreement regarding the determinant role of principals, there is less consensus
and more contradictions with respect to the most effective type of leadership
behaviors, which enhances better student achievement (cf. Kene et al., 2021; Pinto,
2014; Robinson et al., 2008; Ross & Gray, 2006; UNESCO, 2022). These
inconsistencies necessitate further research in this area.
Several studies (cf. Al-Safran et al., 2020; Barker, 2007; Mthombeni, 2006; Simkin,
2011, Tedla & Redda, 2021) have been done to identify the most effective types of
leadership behaviors that better enhance student achievement. In these studies,
various types of leadership models were cited as being more effective. For
instance, some researchers such as Simkin (2011) and Preston (2012), suggests that
the instructional model is the most effective model for improving student
outcomes, while other authors such as Barker (2007) and Peariso (2011) suggest
that the transformational model is the preferred model. On the other hand,
authors such as Sadker (2005) and Louis et al. (2010) propose the distributive
leadership model as the preferred model, while authors such as Murphy et al.
(2006), Rhodes and Brundrett (2010) as well as Hallinger (2011) recommend the
learner centered leadership model as the preferred model.
In contrast, Heck and Hallinger (2005), Hoy and Miskel (2008) and Louis et al.
(2010), proposed positive school culture as the most effective variable to improve
74
student outcomes. More recently, Pinto (2014) and Townsend (2015) suggested
that the hybrid leadership model is the best one. From these findings, it is easy to
understand that no single research finding can get full acceptance as the best
model, since none of them are free of criticism, either in terms of
incomprehensiveness, or methodological weakness, or due to its inconclusiveness
(cf. Al-Safran et al., 2020; Hailegebreal & Temesgen, 2020; Marzano et al., 2005;
Miller & Rowan, 2006; Muchiri, 2022).
In furthering the existing disagreement between various views, the ‘contest’

observed between the instructional and transformational leadership models, as
preferred models, are presented here as evidence. Instructional leadership is
proposed as the most effective leadership model by many researchers (cf. Aleme,
2021; Cayetano, 2011; Hallinger, 2005; Simkin, 2011; Sirinides, 2009).
Robinson et al., (2008) state that principals, who typically exhibit strong
instructional behaviors, achieve three to four times more in terms of student
achievement than those principals who exhibit transformational behaviors. These
authors specifically argue against the importance of transformational behaviors
because the change of culture brought through this model could improve only
social interaction among members, rather than academic performance of students.
Contrary to the findings reported above, some researchers (cf. Chrispeels et al.,
2008; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006; Peariso, 2011; Ross & Gray, 2006; Sengeh &
Winthrop, 2022) have identified transformational leadership as the most effective
model in enhancing student achievement. Ross and Gray (2006) have revealed
that when transformational behavior is increased by one standard deviation, it
enables the improvement of student achievement by almost one quarter of a
percent. School principals who exhibit transformational type of leadership
behaviors more often have higher teacher collective efficacy, greater teacher
commitment, and better school‐community partnerships which, in turn, results in
higher student achievement (cf. Nguni et al., 2006; Ross & Gray, 2006; Sengeh &
Winthrop, 2022). These authors criticized the instructional leadership model as a
top-down, non-participatory and principal dominating model which encourages
excessive control, and hence, impedes organizational learning and teacher
discretion (cf. Aleme, 2021; Botha, 2012; Kene et al., 2021; Muchiri, 2022; Mulford,
2008).
The discussion so far seems to imply that scholars agree on the determinant roles
of principals, while they fail to reach a consensus when it comes to choosing and
implementing the most effective type of leadership behaviors that enhances
student achievement.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of an integrative leadership
model (ILM) which combines instructional and transformational behaviors on
student achievement in the Gedeo Zone of Ethiopia. To achieve the above
identified study’s aim, the following research question has been raised, namely:
What effect does an integrative leadership model, which combines instructional and
transformational behaviors, have on student achievement in the Gedeo Zone of Ethiopia?
In relation to the above stated research question, we propose a positive hypothesis
75
to be tested in this study, namely H1: Principals who score high in practicing
instructional and transformational components of an integrative leadership
model are effective in realizing better student achievement.
2. Methods
2.1 Design
The Learning-Centered Leadership (LCL) is a set of strategies which influence the
quality of learning and teaching in classrooms and encompasses components of
both the instructional and transformational leadership models (Özdemir et al.,
2021). With this in mind, we have used LCL as a theoretical framework for this
study. The study employed a mixed-method approach which encompassed both
qualitative and quantitative strands. The combination of both quantitative and
qualitative data is reported to provide a far better understanding of the research
problem, rather than using either type individually (Creswell, 2012). The
quantitative data could yield a specific number which represents the findings of
the study in statistically expressed scores, whereas the qualitative data offers
different perspectives of the respondents regarding the effect of principals’
integrative leadership behaviors on student achievement (Johnson & Christensen,
2014). Specifically, an explanatory sequential mixed method design was
employed. In line with the notion of this design, the analyses were carried out in
two separate phases and the result was triangulated to verify whether the finding
of the two phases agreed or not.
2.2 Participants
Out of the 23 secondary schools in the zone, six (6) sample schools were selected
purposively by using the maximal variation technique. The sample includes the
three least achiever schools (Group-1) and the three best achiever schools (Group-
2) in the zone based on the 10th grade standardized national exam results for two
consecutive academic years, namely 2016/17 and 2018/19. The six schools were
selected with the assumption that the variation in student achievement could
occur mainly due to the difference in leadership behaviors/styles that school
principals employed in their schools. Indeed, care has been taken to minimize
interference of any other extraneous variables that influence student achievement.
Only government schools were involved in the study since their context is almost
similar in all other aspects.
Out of these six sampled schools, eighteen (18) participants, comprising of six (6)
principals, four (4) district supervisors, two (2) zone education experts and six (6)
PTSA chairmen were chosen for the qualitative phase. These participants were
selected purposively as they have a better understanding, by virtue of their
position regarding the effect of principals’ leadership behavior on student
achievement.
𝑵
The Slovin formula (𝒏 = 𝟏 + 𝑵(𝒆)𝟐
) of Umar (2000) was used in the quantitative
phase to determine the teacher sample size proportionally from the six (6)
selected general secondary schools. In this formula, n is the sample size, 𝑵 is the
population size (total number of teachers in the six (6) sample schools), and e the
level of precision (if 5 % is taken). Therefore, the sample size for this study
76
251
was, 𝑛 = ≅ 154, where N = 251 was the total number of teachers in
𝟏+251(𝟎.𝟎𝟓)𝟐
the six (6) schools. Sample determination from each school was obtained using
𝑛 𝑛
the proportional allocation rule for the schools; RLAS 23, 𝐸 = . In this formula
𝑁𝐸 𝑁
𝑛𝐸 = is the number of sample teachers from the school; and 𝑁𝐸 = is the population
of all teachers in school.
Similarly, student respondents were also selected by applying the concept of the
proportional stratified sampling method. Accordingly, the number of 10th grade
students in the sample schools and samples chosen from each school, are
proportional. The final sample of the quantitative phase was 141 teachers and 180
students drawn from 10th grade learners of the six (6) sample schools. These
samples perfectly represent the proportions in the population.
2.3 Instruments
A close-ended questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data, while
interviews and document analysis were used as research instruments in the
qualitative phase. The quantitative data was analyzed statistically, by SPSS
version 25, to obtain a general picture regarding the effects of principals’
integrative leadership on student achievement. In the second phase, qualitative
data was analyzed to get additional explanatory ideas.
3. Results
The effect of practicing an integrative leadership approach by principals of Group-
1 (least achiever schools) and Group-2 (best achiever schools) regarding student
academic achievement was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The
quantitative data was analysed with descriptive and inferential statistics. Such
analyses enabled us to compare the performance of school principals in the two
respective groups. The total number of questionnaires, dispatched to teachers in
this phase, was 154 and that to students were 194. Out of these, 141 questionnaires
from teachers and 180 questionnaires from students were properly completed and
returned. This implies that 91.56 percent of teachers and 93.75 percent of students
(which account 92.24 percent of the total respondents) returned usable
questionnaires. In the proceeding analysis, the effective practicing of integrative
leadership by the principals of the Group-1 and Group-2 schools were used as an
independent variable, while student achievement in the 10th grade standardized
national exam was used as a dependent variable.
The biographical characteristics of the respondents were analysed as it helps to

understand the context under which the results were analysed. Accordingly,
respondents’ personal data were analysed in terms of their gender, age,
qualifications, and work experience. Regarding the gender of participants, most
teacher respondents (116 or 67%) and student respondents (117 or 65 %) are male.
This indicates that the number of male and female teacher participants is
disproportional in secondary schools of the zone. With respect to qualification,
the vast majority (120 or 85.11%) of teachers are bachelor’s degree holders, while
only 14 (9.93%) of them have master’s degrees. In addition, seven (7) (4.96%) of
them are diploma holders. Similarly, the demographic data of interviewees in the
qualitative phase revealed that all 18 (100%) participants are male. With respect
77
to their qualifications, out of the six principals, only two (30%) of them have
master’s degrees, while only one (25%) of the four district supervisors have a
master’s degrees.
In the following sections, the results with respect to the effect of principals’
integrative leadership behavior (that encompasses both instructional and
transformational behaviors) on student achievement which were obtained from
descriptive and inferential data analysis during the quantitative phase, as well as
the content analysis of data from the qualitative phase, are presented. The analysis
of the instructional and transformational behavior, as component of ILM, will be
discussed separately.
3.1 Analysis of principals’ instructional leadership behavior as a component of

the Integrative Leadership Model (ILM)
The instructional leadership component of the proposed ILM was adopted from
Hallinger’s (2011) model which comprises three dimensions, namely, defining the
school mission; managing the instructional program; and promoting a positive
school learning environment. Furthermore, the ten (10) functions that derived
from these three dimensions, were used to examine the extent to which principals
of the two groups are practicing the ten (10) functions appropriately in their
leadership role. The results of the analysis, in performing their instructional
leadership role, by school principals of the two groups, are presented in Table 1
below.
Table 1: Descriptive analysis of principals’ instructional leadership practice

Performance Score of Principals
Dimensions Instructional leadership behaviours Score of Group-1 Score of Group-2
M SD M SD
1. Defining 1.Framing the school’s goals 2.64 .781 3.99 .841
mission 2.Communicating school goals 2.66 .732 3.89 .773
Mean score of dimension 1 2.65 1.12 3.94 1.14
2. Managing 3.Supervising & evaluating instruction 2.46 .771 4.08 .811
the 4.Coordinating the curriculum 2.59 .800 3.73 .744
instructional
programme 5.Monitoring student progress 2.48 .695 3.98 .624
3.
6.Protecting instructional time 2.85 .796 3.93 .758
Promoting 7.Maintaining high visibility 3.25 .816 3.91 .832
positive 8.Promoting professional development 2.44 .757 4.07 .887
learning 9.Providing incentive for teachers 2.94 .787 3.84 .791
climate
10.Providing incentive for learning 2.66 .654 3.84 .689
Mean score of instructional leadership behaviour 2.67 2.43 3.93 2.46
Note: Group-1 represents of least achiever schools while Group-2 represents of best achiever
schools
Regarding the first dimension of defining school mission, respondents showed

that the performance of Group-1 principals were generally perceived as average
(M = 2.64; SD= .781), while respondents of Group-2 principals revealed high
performance (M=3.99; SD=0.841) regarding item 1 (Framing school’s goals). This
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means principals in the least achiever’s category, were only partially successful in
setting desirable ends. The result of item 2 (Communicating school goals) was also
average for Group-1 (M=2.66, SD=.732), while the mean score of Group-2 (M=3.89,
SD=.773) indicated a high achievement in terms of this item. The result of the first
dimension implies that principals of Group-2 schools were effective in setting
clear, aspiring, and feasible goals and in communicating the vision of the school
to stakeholders. These principals were in a good position to secure collaboration
with their major stakeholders to accomplish the goal and the vision they set.
Regarding the second dimension of managing the instructional program,

participants were asked to verify whether the principal of their school exhibited
an effective type of leadership behaviour or not. As the results of the analysis
showed, the principals of Group-1 exhibited low performance (M=2.46; SD=0.771)
in item 3 (Supervision and evaluation of instruction), whereas Group-2 principals
performed at a higher level (M=4.08, SD= .811) in this item. This implies that
Group-1 principals were ineffective in supporting and improving competencies
of teachers, while the practice of Group-2 principals were more effective.
Furthermore, the higher mean scores (M=3.73; SD=.744) of Group-2, for item 4
(Coordinating the curriculum) implies that principals of best achiever schools
practiced appropriate types of leadership behaviours which helps to implement,
evaluate, and improve the curriculum. Regarding item 5 (Monitoring of student
progress), respondents of Group-1 indicated an average performance (M=2.48;
SD=.695), while the mean scores (M= 3.93; SD=1.27) for Group-2 principals
ascertained a higher performance. This implies that principals of Group-1 schools
utilized student achievement data to some extent for improvement purposes,
whereas principals of Group-2 schools used this data as input to ensure the
sustainability of student progress.
Regarding the third dimension, which deals with promoting a positive learning
climate, respondents were asked to rate the degree to which the principal of their
school exhibited appropriate leadership behaviours that enhance better results in
preserving supportive school culture and the learning environment. The overall
performance of Group-1 principals was average (M=2.84; SD=1.71), whereas the
performance of Group-2 principals was high (M=3.92; SD=1.78). The analysis
furthermore showed that principals of Group-1, performed four out of the five
items in this dimension on an average level with a mean score ranging from M=
2.94 to 3.25 with respect to the role of item 9 (Providing incentives for learning)
and item 7 (Maintaining high visibility), respectively. Furthermore, item 8 of this
dimension (Promoting of professional development) was performed at a low level
(M=2.44; SD=.757) by principals of Group-1.
The performance of Group-1 for item 6 of this dimension (Protecting instructional

time) was average (M=2.85; SD=.796). This means that some periods were wasted,
or inefficiently used, due to the ineffectiveness of principals in this dimension. The
higher performance (M=3.93; SD=.758) of Group-2, in this item implies better
performance of Group-2 principals. This finding is in line with those of Alig-
Mielcarek (2003) and Lyons (2010) where these authors claimed that successful
school principals give precedence to saving instructional time from any form of
79
distractor, while they create an orderly, safe, and quite atmosphere which is
conducive to academic achievement.
As the result of item 7 (Maintaining high visibility) shows, the mean score
(M=3.25; SD=.816) of Group-1 indicated an average performance, whereas the
performance of Group-2 was higher (M=3.91; SD=.832). This implies that
principals of Group-2’s visibility enables them to perceive more easily what is
going on in their classrooms, therefore, motivating their staff and strengthening a
positive school environment.
As depicted in item 8 (Promoting professional development) of Table 1 above, the

responses from the principals from Group-1 were low with mean scores (M=2.44;
SD=.757), while Group-2 principals’ responses were much higher with mean
scores of M=4.07 and SD=.887 respectively. With reference to item 9 (Providing
teacher incentives), respondents from Group-1’s mean scores were average
(M=2.94; SD=.787) while Group-2’s mean scores were, once again, higher (M=3.84;
SD=.791). This implies that principals of Group-2 were better in motivating
teachers, by providing incentives for their commitment as well as for the best
overall result achieved than principals of Group-1. Similarly, for item 10
(Providing incentives for learning), the mean scores for Group-1 were average
(M=2.66; SD=.654), while that of Group-2 principals were, once again, higher
(M=3.84; SD =.689). This implies that in motivating students to learn, principals
of Group-2 were strengthening desirable behaviour and augmenting their
commitment more than principals of Group-1.
3.2 Analysis of principals’ transformational leadership behavior as a

component of the Integrative Leadership Model (ILM)
In this study, the transformational leadership behaviour approach, developed by
Leithwood and Jantzi (2006), was adopted as a component of the proposed
Integrative Leadership Model (ILM). This approach has three broad dimensions,
or categories, that are further sub-divided into nine (9) distinguished items or
functions. The first dimension is referred to as the Mission Centred Cluster, that
comprises of two specific functions, which are presented in Table 2 below. The
second dimension is called the Performance Centred Cluster that comprises of
three sub-functions, as indicated in Table 2 below. The third category is known as
the Culture Centred Cluster and has four functions which are listed in Table 2
below. The extent to which principals of the two groups practiced each function
of transformational leadership effectively is indicated below.
Table 2: Descriptive analysis of principals’ transformational leadership practice

Transformational leadership Group-1 score Group-2 score
Dimensions
behaviours M SD M SD
1. Developing shared vision for
2.88 .88 3.85 .786
1. Mission the school
Centred 2. Building consensus on school
2.65 .921 3.81 .908
goals & priorities
Mean score of dimension 2 2.77 1.27 3.86 .787
2. Performance 3. Holding high performance
2.60 .969 3.97 .792
Centred expectations
80
4. Providing individualized
2.60 .886 3.81 .762
support
5. Providing intellectual
2.47 .868 4.04 .926
stimulation
6.Modelling organizational
2.86 .919 3.98 .804
values
7.Strengthening productive
3. Culture 3.22 .789 3.86 .822
school culture
Centred
8.Building collaborative cultures 2.94 .885 3.81 .778
9. Creating structures that promote
3.02 1.70 4.02 .785
participation
Mean score of transformational behaviours per
2.78 1.51 3.91 1.05
a group
As seen in Table 2 above, the overall performance in terms of dimension 1

(Mission Centred Cluster) of Group-1 principals was average (M=2.77; SD=1.27),
while the performance level of Group-2 principals was high (M=3.86; SD=.787).
The results ascertained an effectiveness of Group-2 principals, both in establishing
an inspiring vision, as well as inspiring the stakeholders to cultivate this vision as
a dream, to which they committed enthusiastically, in attaining it. From the results
of the analysis of this dimension, it is possible to infer that more committed staff
is available in the best achiever category (Group-2), mainly due to the appropriate
transformational leadership abilities and skills exhibited by their school
principals.
The overall performance, in terms of dimension 2 (Performance Centred Cluster)

of Group-1 principals was, once again, average (M=2.56; SD=1.57), while the
performance level of Group-2 principals was higher, once again (M=3.94;
SD=1.44). This performance focused dimension, as a transformational ingredient
of the proposed ILM, has three items, or sub-functions and the results of the
descriptive analysis of these items are presented in the Table 2 above. With respect
to item 3, (Holding high performance expectations), the mean scores for Group-1
were M=2.60 and SD=.969, respectively, while the scores of Group-2 was M=3.97
and SD=.792, respectively.
This revealed a more moderate performance of Group-1 principals and implied

that principals of best achiever schools were more successful in cultivating the
school community in enabling the best performance, by establishing high
expectations. This implies that members were encouraged to scrutinize the
existing assumptions, values, practices, and strategies, instead of simply pushing
to accept everything as it is. Principals of Group-1 schools were ineffective in
cultivating the commitment of stakeholders, by appealing to their sense of
efficacy; eagerness to learn; and their ability of questioning the existing value
system. We can infer that principals of Group-2 not only have better knowledge
about member’s strengths and weaknesses, but also perform better in supporting
them to reach their potential.
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For item 4, (Providing individual support), the performance of Group-1 was

identified as moderate (M=2.60; SD=.886) while the performance of Group-2
principals was rated higher (M=3.81; SD=.762). This was also the case for item 5,
(Providing intellectual stimulation), where the scores rage from M=2.47 to M=4.04
and SD=.868 to SD=.926, respectively. For both these items, principals form
Group-2 performed higher in their mean scores, as those of Group-1.
With respect to dimension 3, (The Culture Centred Cluster), of transformational

leadership, the overall performance of Group-1 principals was average (M=3.02;
SD= 1.57) while the performance of Group-2 principals was high (M=3.94;
SD=1.56). Performances of principals in Group-1 rated average to all behaviours
set under items 6 to 9, which could help to develop a positive school culture.
Comparatively, the performances of principals of the Group-2 category
recognized as high. This implies that principals of Group-2 were perceived as role
models, going beyond their personal interest, building trust, sharing leadership
and decision-making authority, and communicating important values and actions
openly.
3.3 Analysis of an Integrated Leadership Model (ILM) with inferential statistics

and hypothesis testing
The hypothesis, set in this study, is that the integrative leadership model is
perceived as effective, as it can help principals to give adequate attention and to
put emphasis on the teaching-learning aspect. The scores for each of the two (2)
sample groups, in performing the two (2) leadership behaviours which form the
components of the ILM, are presented in Table 3 below. The analysis was done
via inferential statistics.
Table 3: Analysing integrative leadership model using inferential statistics

Analysing Integrative Leadership Model (ILM)
Components Group-2 score per Group-2
Score Group-1 score per school Group-1
No of ILM school total
total score
RLAS-23 RLAS-22 RLAS-21 RBAS-3 RLAS-2 RLAS-1 score
Score in M 2.55 2.68 2.76 2.67 3.83 3.89 4.04 3.93
1
instructional SD 2.50 2.50 2.27 2.43 2.46 2.56 2.35 2.46
Score in M 2.64 2.75 2.89 2.78 3.76 3.91 4.02 3.90
2
transformational SD 2.28 2.32 2.27 2.65 2.62 2.36 2.30 2.43
Overall score M 2.60 2.72 2.83 2.73 3.80 3.90 4.03 3.92
3
in ILM SD 2.39 2.61 2.52 2.54 2.54 2.46 2.33 2.45
% Students pass to Prep. S 29.56 30.62 35.95 - 58.16 61.13 66.68 -
Rank out of 23 Sec. Schools 23 rd 22 nd 21st - 3 rd 2 nd 1 st -
Note: RLAS-23, RLAS-22 & RLAS-21 are code name of Group-1 schools. Similarly, RBAS-3,
RBAS-2 & RBAS-1 are code name of Group-2 schools. The accompanied number indicates their
rank.
The data shown in Table 3 above, revealed that the performance of Group-1
schools, which are identified by code names for RLAS-23 (M=2.55, SD=2.5), RLAS-
22 (M=2.68, SD=2.5) and RLAS-21 (M=2.76, SD=2.27), respectively, were average.
This implies that participants of Group-1 were partly dissatisfied with the
leadership influence of their school principals, in terms of instructional leadership
82
behaviours they exhibited in performing the core business of the school. While
participants revealed the performance of Group-2 schools of RBAS-3 (M=3.83,
SD= 2.46), RBAS-2 (M=3.89, SD=2.56) and RBAS-1(M=4.04, SD=2.35),
respectively, were high. This result implies that principals of Group-2 exhibited
appropriate leadership behaviours and thus, they satisfied major stakeholders by
exhibiting the appropriate type of leadership behaviours in leading the teaching–
learning process.
With respect to transformational leadership, the performances of Group-1 schools

were rated as average. Namely, the performance of the school RLAS-23 (M=2.64,
SD=2.28), RLAS-22 (M=2.75, SD=2.32) and RLAS-21 (M=2.89, SD=2.27),
respectively, were ascertained as ineffective in winning the full dedication of
members, which in turn, shows weak collaboration prevailing in the school. To
the contrary, the performances of Group-2 principals’ scores were found to be
high regarding this behaviour. That can be ascertained from the score of school
RBAS-3 (M=3.76, SD=2.26), RBAS-2 (M=3.91, SD=2.36) and RBAS-1(M=4.02,
SD=2.30), respectively. The result of the analysis shows that school principals of
Group-1 were ineffective, since all the school RLAS-23 (M=2.64, SD= 2.28),RLAS-
22 (M=2.75, SD=2.32) and RLAS-21 (M=2.89, SD=2.27), respectively, performed at
the bottom line of the average score, whereas performance of Group-2 schools,
RBAS-3 (M=3.80, SD=2.54), RBAS-2(M=3.90,SD=2.46) and RBAS-
1(M=4.03,SD=2.45), respectively, were rated high. This implies that stakeholders
in Group-2 were satisfied with the appropriateness of the instructional and
transformational leadership exhibited in the work process.
Furthermore, the relationship between instructional and transformational

behaviours has scrutinized, visually, by plotting the paired measurements on a
graph with each pair of scores being representative of the performance of a sample
school principal. Regarding the importance of scatterplot, Cohen, Marion, and
Morrison (2007) stated that it helps to display the distribution of
schools/points/scores, in accordance with their comparative ranking, on the two-
dimensional variables. In line with this understanding, by putting the
instructional behaviours on the ‘X’ axis, and the transformational behaviours of
principals on the ‘Y’ axis, the relative position of each sample school is
determined. Their relative position is determined by the extent to which their
school principals effectively practiced the two ingredient behaviours.
Accordingly, the relative position of the six sample schools is demonstrated in
Figure 1 below.
83
Figure 1: Performance of principals in exercising instructional and transformational

component of the integrative leadership model
The above graph revealed that the position of the best achiever schools, namely
RBAS-3, RBAS-2 and RBAS-1, respectively, are at the right-top side of the graph.
This means that it is situated at the 3rd quadrant position, which implies that those
mentioned as best achiever schools, have high scores in employing both the
instructional leadership, as well as the transformational leadership behaviours, at
the same time. In a similar analysis, the position of least achiever schools, which
were identified with the code name of RLAS-23, RLAS-22, and RLAS-21,
respectively, are situated in the first quadrant of the graph, which is at the left-
bottom position. This implies that least achiever schools have low performance in
employing both the instructional and transformational leadership behaviours.
The graph shows that all the best achiever schools, practiced both instructional
and transformational behaviours at a higher level. It also illustrated low
performance in practicing integrated leadership in the least achiever schools.
Thus, it is reasonable to correlate high performance, in the two ingredient
behaviours of integrative leadership, with high student achievement.
Besides computing the correlation between dependent and independent

variables, and testing a related hypothesis with appropriate inferential statistics,
helps to come to the correct conclusion. With this understanding, first the
correlation between the integrative leadership model and student academic
achievement, Pearson’s product moment coefficient was used to analyse this. The
correlation between integrative leadership behaviours and student achievement
is presented in Table 4 below.
Table 4: Correlation between integrative leadership model and student achievement
Integrative Leadership
Pearson Correlation Student Achievement (SA)
Model (ILM)
Integrative Leadership Model (ILM) 1 0.9055682214142797**
Student Achievement (SA) 0.9055682214142797** 1
Note: ** denotes the rejection of the null hypothesis at 5% significance level
84
The correlation results seen in Table 4, revealed the presence of statistically

significant correlation between the integrative leadership model and student
academic achievement. As to the strength of the correlation between the
dependent variables and the independent variables, different authors suggested
different interpretations of the values of the correlation coefficients; however, we
applied Taylor’s (1990) classification. The results obtained, using Pearson-product
moment correlation, revealed a statistically significant correlation between an
integrative leadership model and student academic achievement (r = 0.90, p =
0.05). This implies that those school principals who exhibited a comprehensive
leadership style, which incorporates instructional and transformational
behaviours, may succeed in improving student achievement, while those being
reluctant, were found to be less successful. In addition to the correlation test, the
above alternative hypothesis was also tested with regression statistics by using
SPSS version 25. The computed regression result is presented in Table 5 below.
Table 5: The computed regression result of integrative leadership model
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. R2 Adjusted R2

C -0.219632 0.018584 -11.81843 0.0000 0.82 0.82
ILM_SUM 0.010915 0.000286 38.12810 0.0000**
Note: **denotes the rejection of the null hypothesis at 5 percent significance level
Dependent Variable, Student Achievement Independent Variable, integrative leadership
Method, Least Squares Included observations, 321
As Table 5 clearly shows, effectively practicing an integrative leadership that

comprises instructional and transformational behaviours may enable principals
to increase student academic achievement. Precisely speaking, the coefficient
0.010915 shows an increase of 1 per cent in the effective application of an
integrative leadership style and yields almost a 1 per cent improvement in student
achievement. Further, the size of the effect, as measured by r2, was relatively large
(r2=.82), being 82 percent of the variance in student academic achievement which
accounted for the employment of an integrative leadership model by principals.
The probability value (p=0.0000) of an integrative leadership model confirms the
presence of strong statistical evidence regarding the significant effect it has on
student academic achievement. This statistical evidence indicates the possibility
that ILM has strong, positive effects on student academic achievement.
In accordance with the chosen design, small qualitative data was collected and
analysed in the second phase of the study to supplement quantitative results
which were obtained earlier. Respondents were asked to suggest leadership
behaviours/styles that they perceived as effective in enhancing better student
achievement. In their response, most participants (50 % of P, 75 % Sup, 50% of
Exp, & 50% of PTSA chairman) which account 61percent of the contributors
proposed a combined leadership style that offers quality instruction and the
transformation of the school community (cf. 5.2.3). The importance of exhibiting
leadership behaviours which assists in preserving a positive culture, was
indicated by a considerable number of participants. For instance, Exp-2 suggested
that,
85
In my opinion, principals to be effective, they must realize the provision of quality

instruction through well planned, organized and implemented teaching-learning
program. They required to exhibit leadership behaviors that inspire, motivate, and
empower members so that they strive to achieve higher result and promote a positive school
culture that help to sustain improvement.
Furthermore, P-5’s response has taken as the second representative view that
signifies the opinions of those participants who recommended integrative
leadership as effective model (cf. 5.6.3). He stated that, “Comprehensive leadership
model may enable principals to succeed in two major areas, in provision of effective
teaching-learning process and in securing collaboration and commitment of members in
realizing school goals”. Generally, the findings obtained from qualitative data
analysis coincide with the quantitative results obtained earlier in the first phase.
4. Discussion
The discussion hereunder is based on the findings obtained from descriptive and
inferential analysis of the quantitative data, as well as from the content analysis
of the qualitative data. The findings obtained from the descriptive analysis in
Table 1 show high performance, both in designing and communicating the
school’s mission, has enabled Group-2 principals to secure collaboration with
stakeholders. Specifically, the high-performance score of Group-2 principals in
practicing the function of ‘framing school goals’ and ‘communicating the school’s
goals shows their effectiveness in both settings clear, aspiring, and feasible goals
and in communicating the established goals (cf. par.5.5.2.1).
Effectiveness in practicing the core dimension of ‘managing instructional

program’, which incorporates leadership functions of ‘supervising and evaluating
instruction’; ‘coordinating the curriculum’; and ‘monitoring student progress’,
determines the degree to which effective types of teaching-learning processes are
carried out. Evidently, the significant difference observed between the
performance of principals of Group-1 and Group-2 schools, in practicing these
three functions, may determine the quality of instruction which has a direct
impact on student achievement. The results obtained in this study, is consistent
with the findings of the literatures, which revealed that principals who effectively
supervise and evaluate instruction, provide professional support to teachers, and
monitor instruction through classroom visits, and can align classroom practice
with the ultimate goals of the school, which is student achievement (cf. Alig-
Mielcarek, 2003; Leithwood & Seashore-Louis, 2012).
High performance in the dimension of ‘promoting positive school learning

climate’, by principals of Group-2 schools, can be observed from the data analyzed
in Table 1, above. Perhaps the most significant difference observed in the
performance of the two groups, is seen in ‘promoting professional development
of teachers’ in all the five leadership functions as set under the third dimension.
The study shows that the principals of Group-1, perform this function
unsuccessfully, while the principals of Group-2 accomplished the function at a
higher level. This implies that the teachers’ sense of professionalism in Group-1
schools, were fading through time as their principals gave less value to it, while
teachers’ proficiency in teaching were blooming in Group-2 schools. Similarly,
86
regarding the function of ‘maintaining visibility’, Group-2 principals scored high,

whereas Group-1 principals exhibited an average performance. The maintenance
of high visibility shown by Group-2 principals assisted them to not only recognize
the actual teaching–learning process and the interaction between different
stakeholders in various activities of the school, but also offered an opportunity to
motivate their teachers. This result is incongruent with the findings of Kwinda
(2002), who stated that visible principals motivate teachers; monitor instruction;
provide support; and has knowledge of what is going on in their school.
Regarding the provision of incentives for teachers and learners, the results of the
analysis revealed the effectiveness of Group-2 principals. This implies that
principals of Group-2 were effective in motivating both teachers and students. By
doing so, these principals were successful in strengthening desirable behavior and
commitment in their members.
The result of the data analysis, as seen in Table 2, shows that by practicing
transformational leadership behaviors, at higher level by principals of Group-2,
enables them to inspire, motivate and empower the school community and in turn
this motivates the members to work with determination to realize better student
achievement. This result is consistent with the findings of Nguni et al., (2006) as
well as Ross and Gray (2006), who advocates the use of transformational behavior
for improving student achievement, as it has a stronger effect on teachers’
commitment and empowerment; multi-stakeholder participation in decision
making; as well as promoting self-initiated change.
When the practice of the individual item, is taken specifically into consideration,
principals of Group-2 have a high performance in the vision cluster and thus, it
enables them to obtain allies who accept the school’s vision as theirs and is
enthusiastically committed to its realization. Evidently, the descriptive analysis
results of this study indicated that Group-2 principals performed effectively, both
in the function of ‘developing shared vision’, as well as in ‘building consensus on
the vision and priorities’ (cf. par.5.5.2.2). Group-2 schools had committed
members, who strived for achieving the best result due to their school principal’s
influence on their sense of efficacy, willingness to learn from others and ability to
examine the value of the existing knowledge, assumptions, and strategies (cf. par.
5.5.2.2).
Regarding practicing the three functions, set under ‘performance cluster’, Group-
1 principals accomplished it moderately, while Group-2 principals performed it
at a higher level. Specifically, exerting effective influence through the
communication of high expectations by principals of Group-2, were instigating
members to achieve the best results. Similarly, high performance in ‘offering
individualized assistance’ by principals of Group-2 schools, enables them not only
to recognize member’s strengths and weakness, but also to offer appropriate
individualized support. The significant difference was seen in delivering
intellectual stimulation, which benefited Group-2 principals to make constant
improvements by encouraging members to examine the existing assumptions,
values, practices, and strategies for its appropriateness. Principals of the best
achiever schools, strengthen positive school culture, by being role models and by
87
going beyond their personal interest, building trust within the school, and by
sharing leadership and decision-making authority. The performance of Group-1
principals was identified as moderate in all four behaviors, set under the culture
centered cluster, which helps to develop a positive work culture in the school,
while the performance of Group-2 principals was found to be high (cf. par. 5.5.2.2).
Notwithstanding the descriptive results discussed above, the following advanced

interpretation has been made based on the results obtained from the inferential
statistics which are set out in Table 3, 4, and 5, as well as in Figure 1. The
correlation between the effective practicing of ILM and student achievement is
positive and strong (see Table 4). Evidently, the results obtained from the
computed Pearson moment correlation (r = 0.90, p = 0.05), revealed the presence
of statistically significant correlation (cf. par.5.5.2.3). Furthermore, the findings
which were identified from the qualitative data analysis, has strengthened the
above results. Most participants proposed integrative leadership as an
appropriate model. They argued that when principals exhibit instructional
behavior, the teaching-learning process is influenced positively and
concomitantly when engaged in transformational behavior which inspires,
motivates, and empowers stakeholders, and consequently provokes them to
achieve a higher-level result (cf. par.5.6.3).
The hypothesis, H1, stated as, “Principals’ who score high in performing instructional
and transformational components’ of an integrative leadership model are effective in
improving students’ is, thus, confirmed. This was revealed by the results of the
regression coefficient (r= 0.010915, p=0.0000) that was obtained from the
hypothesis test, and it implies an increase in the practicing of ILM by one percent
which may yield an almost one percent improvement in student achievement.
Furthermore, the results obtained in terms of effect size, as measured by r2 was
large (r2 = .82), indicated almost 82 percent of the variance in student achievement
which was accounted to the practicing of ILM (cf. par.5.5.2.3).
By using graphic analysis, the relationship between the two constituent behaviors
of the ILM was examined visually, by plotting the paired measurements on a
graph. Each pair of scores represents the performance of the six (6) sample school
principals in the two ingredient leadership behaviors (see the detail in section 5.8).
The graphic result shows the relative position of the six (6) sample schools which
represent either the category of least achiever or the category of best achiever
schools of the zone. As seen in Figure 1, the graph illustrates that better academic
achievement of students in the schools RBAS-3, RBAS-2 and RBAS-1, respectively,
were possibly an attribution of principals’ effectiveness in practicing both,
instructional and transformational leadership behavior.
Conclusively, high performance by principals of the best achiever schools, both in

the aspect of the teaching-learning process, as well as transforming and
empowering the school community, may inspire members to go beyond their
personal interest. Thus, high engagement of principals in leadership behaviors
that enables the management of an instructional program and transforming the
school community, which may inspire and empower the school community with
88
the commitment to help realize better student achievement. Besides these two
leadership behaviors, preserving a positive school culture and climate is
identified as a third core ingredient from the content analysis of the third
dimensions of the instructional model of Hallinger’s (2005); the transformational
model of Leithwood and Jantzi (2006); as well as from the suggestions of a
considerable number of interviewees. We are, therefore, convinced that these core
leadership behaviors should be added as the third component of an integrative
leadership construct, which we propose as an effective model to enhance better
student achievement.
5. Conclusion
Even though, this study contributes by adding certain new perspectives and
insights that assists in extending the frontier of knowledge in the area, it cannot
be free from limitations. Amongst others, the results of this study may not be
representative of all secondary schools of the country of Ethiopia. Thus, the
purposive sampling procedure used in selection of the sample schools; as well as
the compactness of the study area, the generalizability of the findings can be in
question. Further research is recommended in future, to minimize the impact of
the assumed limitations of the study. We suggest future studies to verify the
effectiveness of the integrative leadership model, when it is carried out on a large
scale, as well as in diversified school environments. Furthermore, a comparative
study on the effect of various leadership styles on student successes is useful as to
assist in gaining additional insight and direction on which scholars need to
emphasize.
6. Recommendations
In line with the findings of this study, school principals are recommended to
exhibit high engagement in the three core aspects of school leadership to realize
better student achievement. These include the provision of effective leadership in
the teaching-learning process, which determines the extent to which students
learn, as well as transforming and empowering the school community, which may
stimulate members to work with commitment and preserve the positive school
climate, which enhances the suitability of achieved success. Thus, to be effective
in realizing better student achievement, secondary school principals are required
to practice those interdependent core leadership roles at higher levels in an
integrative way. These three leadership behaviors are used as core pillars
/components in our integrative leadership model, reinforcing each other and
working as a system which implies a failure in one core area, may affect
performances in the other two complementary aspects (cf. par.3.3, 3.4 & 3.6).
Although all specific functions, set under instructional leadership, help to carry
out the teaching-learning process properly, effectively practicing the core
dimension of the ‘managing instructional program’, which incorporates the three
functions, such as ‘supervising and evaluating instruction’; ‘coordinating the
curriculum’; and ‘monitoring student progress’, determines the degree to which
a quality teaching-learning process is carried out, special emphasis must be given
to this dimension to realize better student achievement (cf. par. 5.5.2.1 & 5.6.3).
Similarly, the performance center dimension, that comprises the leadership role
89
of ‘holding high performance expectations’; ‘providing individualized support’;

and ‘supplying intellectual stimulation’, contributes significantly to the
improvement of student achievement, by appealing to the motivation and
capability of the school community (cf. par. 5.5.2.2 & 5.6.3).
Generally, we tried to develop and portray ILM as an effective style that enhances
better student achievement, based on the concepts reviewed from the various
related literatures and the Learning Centered Leadership theories which we
consulted, as a conceptual framework and, more importantly, the findings we
obtained from the empirical data analysis of this study (cf. par.3.2 & 3.6).
Therefore, we propose the ILM, which comprises of the instructional and
transformational behaviors, as well as leadership behaviors which promotes a
positive school climate. Accordingly, we propose a new model of ILM, which
comprises the three core leadership roles, named: leading instruction;
empowering and transforming stakeholders; and preserving a positive school
climate.
Parent and Teachers’

Community Leadership
involvement
Transformational
Leadership Empowering School
Earlier
experience & Transforming Condition
followers
Family and Better

community Principals’ Preserving Student
background leadership positive school academic
behaviours Climate achievement
Instructional
Professional Leadership behaviour
Classroom
training and Quality instruction and
development its sustainment Condition
Precursor Leadership behaviors Influence pathways Outcomes
Figure 2: Integrated leadership as an appropriate model for improving student’s

achievement
As shown in the left side of the diagram in Figure 2, it is assumed that the school
principals’ leadership behaviors are influenced and shaped by his/her earlier
experience; the culture of the leaders’ family and the community; and his /her
professional training and development. Furthermore, the box seen at the bottom
which comprises four variables is used to illustrate how the different component
parts of the diagram are being interdepend on each other. Basically, we propose
90
leadership behaviors of school principals, as set out under the three core
functions. Principals, to be effective in realizing better student achievement, are
required to lead the instructional program adequately, which is a foundation of
student learning. Simultaneously, an appropriate type of transformational
leadership behaviors should be exhibited, which governs the commitment level
of the school community, and the preservation of a positive school climate, which
has a direct effect on maintaining the continuity of success. Accordingly, from the
findings of this study and concepts extracted from related literatures, we propose
practicing effective instructional behaviors, transformational behaviors, and
leadership behaviors, which help to preserve a positive school culture and
climate, as a system that assists better student achievement.
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94

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 94-111, January 2023
Students’ Perceptions of Biology Teachers’

Enacted Pedagogical Content Knowledge at
Selected Secondary Schools in Lusaka Province
of Zambia
Thumah Mapulanga
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics
and Science, University of Rwanda, College of Education, Kayonza, Rwanda
Gilbert Nshogoza
Rwanda Institute for Conservation Agriculture, Department of Academics,
Research and Extension, Bugesera, Rwanda
Ameyaw Yaw
University of Education, Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Science
Education, Winneba, Ghana
Abstract. Since teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) plays a

vital role in attaining educational goals, it has become a favourable
construct in science education research. Because students are more
perceptive when evaluating teachers, this quantitative survey examined
students’ perceptions of biology teachers’ enacted PCK (ePCK). The
sample consisted of 319 students from six secondary schools in three
districts of Lusaka province, Zambia. Data were collected using a Likert-
scale questionnaire called “students’ perceptions of teachers’ enacted
PCK” questionnaire. It had a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.842, indicative
of good reliability. Data were collected on six ePCK components:
curricular saliency, what makes the subject easy or difficult to
understand; conceptual teaching strategies; representations; students’
prior knowledge; and assessment. The findings revealed that the
students perceived that their biology teachers’ ePCK was moderate
(M=3.61, SD=0.47). While the component ‘students’ prior knowledge’
was the most enacted (M=4.01, SD=0.73), while ‘what makes the subject
difficult to understand’ was the least enacted component (M=3.01,
SD=0.77). Statistically significant differences were observed in students’
perceptions pertaining to the variables grade level and type of school but
not gender. These findings suggest that students’ perceptions of the
teachers’ ePCK may highlight areas that teachers may reflect on to

Corresponding author: Thumah Mapulanga, thumahm@gmail.com
©Authors
95
improve their PCK and, hence, students’ learning. The implications of

these findings on teaching and learning were discussed. The study
recommends using students’ perceptions to evaluate teachers’
knowledge and the general teaching-learning process.
Keywords: enacted pedagogical content knowledge; biology; teachers;
students; secondary school
1. Introduction
1.1 Background to the Study
The provision of quality education to citizens has been on the top of the agenda
of many countries across the globe (Guerreiro, 2017). A primary concern relates to
improving the quality of science education, as many students face learning
difficulties in science (Lin et al., 2016). In Zambia, for example, secondary school
students continue to perform poorly in science subjects, including biology
(Examinations Council of Zambia, 2018). The students’ average pass percentage
in biology in the school certificate examinations has not been satisfactory
(Examinations Council of Zambia, 2018). This performance negatively affects
students’ progression in careers that require a pass in grade 12 biology
examinations.
Several factors account for the students’ poor performance in biology

examinations, such as how the subject is taught (Mapulanga et al., 2022a) and
teachers’ professional knowledge (Soysal, 2017). As students regularly interact
with teachers, their perceptions of teachers’ professional knowledge can be used
as the means to measure and describe the teachers’ professional knowledge. The
students’ perceptions may be used to inform actions for teacher professional
development (Halim et al., 2014). Students’ perceptions influence their academic
performance and can help teachers reflect on and develop their professional
knowledge (Luft et al., 2022). Therefore, researchers (Akinyemi & Mavhunga,
2022; Halim et al., 2014; Uner & Akkus, 2019) have used students as a lens to
measure their teachers’ professional knowledge. These researchers have stressed
the value of students’ views in evaluating the teaching-learning process. Students’
perceptions may also help teachers enhance students’ learning experiences
(Stobaugh et al., 2020). As students’ perceptions influence their learning
behaviour, students’ views of the teaching processes may be more important than
external opinions (André et al., 2020).
Shulman (1986, 1987) asserted that pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

distinguishes teachers from other subject specialists. For example, PCK
distinguishes biology teachers from biologists. PCK is the knowledge teachers
draw upon to transform content knowledge into what students can easily
understand (Shulman, 1986). Since teachers with developed PCK have higher
chances of leading students to achieve learning outcomes, research has
investigated how PCK is documented and portrayed (Loughran et al., 2004; Park
and Oliver, 2008), and developed (Anwar, 2018).
96
1.2 Theoretical Framework

This study was based on the theory of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)
(Shulman, 1986). PCK is the teachers’ professional knowledge domain through
which content is transformed into what students can easily understand. In the
revised consensus model of PCK, students are recognised as critical modifiers and
amplifiers of PCK (Carlson et al., 2019). However, students’ response to teaching-
learning may be influenced by their perceptions of the process, including teachers’
knowledge, which would also influence their motivation and performance in the
subject.
The current study modified and applied Mavhunga and Rollnick’s (2013) model
of topic-specific PCK (TSPCK). Mavhunga and Rollnick’s model was developed
for describing TSPCK based on the transformation of content through five
content-specific components. However, the current study added another
component (assessment) so that six components were used to describe the ePCK
for the subject biology (see Table 1). Enacted PCK was conceptualised as the
knowledge that is demonstrated by teachers during instruction, as perceived by
the students.
Two assumptions were made for adopting and modifying the TSPCK model: (1)
that the topic-specific components would apply to a subject (domain), and (2)
additional components could be included in the model. Therefore, the six
components were applied to describe teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge in
biology after including knowledge of assessment as an additional component. The
components are conceptualised in Table 1.
Table 1: Conceptualisation of the PCK components

PCK Components Definition
Knowledge of assessment Understanding of the concepts that must be measured, as
(ASS) well as knowledge of the techniques for measuring
learning.
Curricular saliency (CS) The ability of a teacher to pick and sequence crucial
concepts in biology.
What makes the subject Understanding of biology concepts that require special
easy or difficult to attention, while teaching biological concepts that students
understand (WD) typically find difficult to grasp.
Students’ prior The knowledge of concepts students already know either
knowledge, including from personal experiences or prior teaching. It includes
misconceptions (SPK) both alternative and correct conceptions.
Representations, and The understanding of methods for depicting biological
analogies (RP) topics in ways that aid in the conceptual growth of ideas,
diagrams, demonstrations, analogies, and models.
Conceptual teaching Topic-specific instructional knowledge that includes
strategies (CTS) competence, knowledge of, and effective integration of
other components.
1.3 Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Professional Knowledge

Students’ perceptions of teaching and learning have been used to measure and
describe teachers’ knowledge, including PCK (Halim et al., 2014; Jang et al., 2009;
97
Uner & Akkus, 2019). Since students filter and amplify teachers’ PCK, their
perceptions of teachers’ PCK are critical in detecting weak areas in teachers’ PCK
(Gess-Newsome, 2015). The information about these areas may be used to identify
the components of PCK that may need to be developed. Therefore, students’
perceptions may contribute to forming a theoretical viewpoint on the
development of PCK, which is highly significant in education.
Researchers have outlined the importance of students’ perceptions in science

education. For example, Uner and Akkus (2019) asserted that students’
perceptions of teachers’ PCK can help examine the effectiveness of the teaching-
learning process. Luft et al. (2022) added that students are one factor contributing
to the development of PCK. Further, Tuan et al. (2000) opined that students can
judge their teachers’ knowledge and expect them to possess high subject matter
expertise to employ effective teaching approaches.
While students’ views might not match the truth as seen by professionals, they
may provide insight into the spectrum of reality in the classroom and may indicate
areas that require improvement (Jang, 2011). This implies that although students’
perceptions may inform the teaching-learning process, care should be taken to
interpret students’ data. Alternatively, such data may be supported by evidence
gathered through other approaches, such as analysis of instructional plans,
interviews, observations, and teachers’ questionnaires.
As already mentioned, some studies have used students’ perceptions or views to

explore teachers’ professional knowledge or at least some aspects of it. For
example, Halim et al. (2014) investigated science teachers’ PCK using perceptions
of students of differing academic abilities. They concluded that the students
perceived that all the six PCK components (subject matter knowledge, assessment
concept representation, teaching strategies, teaching context, and students) were
significant. Amalu et al. (2020) examined the relationship between senior
secondary students’ perception of teachers’ mastery of the subject, class
management, and their academic performance. They concluded that a positive
perception of teachers and the subject would motivate students and improve their
performance.
Further, Sofianidis and Kallery (2021) examined science teachers’ practice using
classroom observation and students’ views. They reported that teachers’ strong
points in teaching included using representations, subject matter knowledge,
questioning, explaining learning objectives, and knowledge of students’
difficulties. However, teachers’ practice related to teaching approaches, students’
alternative conceptions of teaching, and inquiry and experiment-based learning
was weak.
Wisniewski et al. (2020) investigated German students’ perceptions of

instructional quality and found some variance among grade levels, school types,
and subject groups. In another study, Wisniewski et al. (2021) compared the
perceptions of teachers and students of teaching quality in German secondary
schools. They found that the students’ perceptions of instructional quality ranged
98
from favourable to less favourable. Recently, Akinyemi and Mavhunga (2022)

investigated learner views of pre-service teachers’ enacted topic-specific PCK.
They found that learners viewed pre-service teachers’ integrated use of the
TSPCK component as essential to their conceptual understanding.
1.4 Statement of the Problem

Studies show that much research on students’ perception of teachers’ professional
knowledge or effectiveness has been conducted on students at different levels.
The studies focused on different aspects of the teachers’ professional knowledge.
However, there appears to be limited research on secondary school students’
perceptions of their biology teachers’ PCK based on the six components of
assessment, curricular saliency, students’ prior knowledge, what makes the
subject easy or difficult to learn, representations and conceptual teaching
strategies.
Although students could be used to measure and develop teachers’ PCK (Luft et
al., 2022), little research has employed quantitative approaches to measure PCK
from students’ perspectives (Halim et al., 2014; Uner & Akkus, 2019). Most PCK
research has used teachers as a lens to investigate teachers’ PCK (Barendsen &
Henze, 2019; Mapulanga et al., 2022a; Park & Chen, 2012).
In Zambia, where this study was conducted, there is limited research on teachers’
PCK. Specifically, research on secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’
PCK is lacking. To close this gap, the current study explored secondary school
students’ perceptions of biology teachers’ enactment of PCK at selected secondary
schools in Lusaka district, Zambia.
1.5 Aim and Research Questions

This study investigated secondary school students’ perceptions of their teachers’
PCK enactment in biology. Teachers’ enactment of PCK may be influenced by
context (Carlson et al., 2019), including students’ gender, grade level and the type
of their school. Therefore, this study investigated whether the variables gender,
type of school (day, boarding and technical schools), and grade level (grades 10,
11 and 12) influence students’ perceptions of biology teachers’ enactment of PCK.
The specific research questions were as follows:

1. What are the secondary school students’ perceptions of their biology
teachers’ enacted pedagogical content knowledge?
2. Do secondary school students’ perceptions of teachers’ ePCK in biology
differ based on gender, type of school and grade level?
This study examined secondary school students’ perceptions of their teachers’
ePCK in biology. The study’s findings identified gaps in biology teachers’ ePCK
that need to be filled in. The findings also provided information to aid the
measurement and growth of teachers’ PCK through teacher professional
development (Luft et al., 2022), as well as the possibility of utilising students’
perceptions to assess the teaching-learning process. This information might help
teachers and supervisors examine the effect of teachers’ knowledge on students’
99
learning. When teachers become aware of students’ perceptions of their PCK, they
may begin to structure lessons that meet the students’ expectations (Halim et al.,
2014).
2. Methodology
This section presents the methodology and procedures employed to collect and
analyse the data. It details the following subsections: research design, sampling,
research instrument, procedures and ethical considerations, and data analysis.
2.1 Research Design
This study adopted a quantitative survey research design (Creswell, 2014). This
design allows the collection of data from a large sample within a relatively short
period of time.
2.2 Sampling
A total of six secondary schools were purposively selected based on proximity
and type of school; the selected schools were either day, boarding or technical
secondary schools. These schools were selected from Lusaka, Chongwe and
Chilanga districts of Lusaka province. The sample comprised 319 students (122
females and 197 males) drawn using the simple random sampling technique. The
students were selected from grades 10, 11 and 12, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Variables: Students’ characteristics (n = 319)
Variables: Students’ Characteristics Category Frequency Percentage
Gender Female 122 38.2
Male 197 61.8
Grade 10 74 23.2
11 125 39.2
12 120 37.6
Type of school Day 182 57.1

Boarding 99 31.0
Technical 38 11.9

The study used a five-point survey questionnaire to collect data. According to
Young (2016), survey questionnaires are preferred because they are relatively easy
to use and allow the collection of data from larger samples. Therefore, a five-point
Likert scale questionnaire (Appendix 1) was adapted from a validated scale with
an alpha value of 0.925 (Uner & Akkus, 2019).
The adapted questionnaire consisted of 27 items, based on six components of
pedagogical content knowledge, as shown:
a) Curricular saliency (CS) — eight items.
b) What makes a subject easy/difficult to understand (WD) — four items.
c) Conceptual teaching strategies (CTS) — five items.
d) Students’ prior knowledge, including misconceptions (SPK) — three
items.
e) Representations and analogies (RP) — two items.
f) Assessment (ASS) — five items.
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The questionnaire was sent to two biology education experts, two biology
teachers, and one English language teacher for content and face validation. Their
recommendations on the clarity and completeness of the items were used to make
them clear and concise. The questionnaire was also piloted with 24 secondary
school students and a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.842 was obtained, indicative of
internal consistency (Taber, 2018).
2.4 Procedure and ethical consideration
Permissions were obtained from the Ministry of Education Headquarters, District
Education Board Secretaries, and headteachers of the selected schools before
surveying the students. The students voluntarily participated in the study and
were not required to indicate their names on the questionnaires. The survey
questionnaires were administered to the selected students who were requested to
describe their perceptions of teachers’ ePCK in biology. The students were asked
to select the most suitable response from strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree, to strongly disagree. The first author was available to answer students’
queries. For example, some students sought clarification on whether they only
had to make one choice per item. Completing the questionnaires took
approximately 25 minutes.
2.5 Data Analysis
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to
analyse the data. The responses were treated as though they were continuous
data, so that aggregated means and standard deviations were computed (Lai &
Lin., 2018; Mapulanga et al., 2022b). Therefore, appropriate descriptive statistics
(means and standard deviations) were used to describe students’ perceptions of
teachers’ ePCK. Inferential statistics (t-tests and analysis of variance) were used to
compare the students’ perceptions of teachers’ ePCK based on the variables of
gender, grade level, and type of school.
3. Results
This section presents the findings of the study concerning students’ perceptions
of teachers’ PCK for six PCK components, namely curricular saliency (CS); what
makes a subject easy or difficult to understand (WD); conceptual teaching
strategies (CTS); students’ prior knowledge, including misconceptions (SPK);
representations and analogies (RP); and assessment (ASS). The data were checked
for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, which revealed that the
distribution of students’ responses was approximately normal (p = .094) at the
significance level of .05. Therefore, appropriate parametric tests were performed.
A key for interpreting the means was developed as shown in Table 3. Firstly, the
students’ overall perceptions are presented, followed by the results based on the
variables gender, grade level and type of school respectively.
Table 3: Key for interpreting the means
Mean range Level of perceived ePCK
1.0 to 1.9 Very low
2.0 to 2.9 Low
3.0 to 3.4 Undecided
3.5 to 3.9 Moderate
4.0 to 4.5 High
4.6 to 5.0 Very high
101
3.1 Students’ Perceptions of their Teachers’ EPCK in Biology

The study revealed that the students perceived that their teachers’ ePCK (ePCK)
was generally moderate (M = 3.61, SD = .47) as shown in Table 4. With regards to
perceptions for the PCK components, the results showed that students’
perceptions were high for SPK. However, the students were undecided for WD,
indicating that teachers’ enactment of WD was low. The enactment of the other
components was moderate.
Table 4: Students' perceptions of their teachers’ ePCK in biology
Perceptions of ePCK
N M SD Level
Overall PCK 319 3.61 .47 Moderate
Perceptions of ePCK components
N M SD Level
SPK 319 4.01 .73 High
WD 319 3.01 .77 Undecided
CS 319 3.73 .61 Moderate
CTS 319 3.63 .68 Moderate
RP 319 3.78 .92 Moderate
ASS 319 3.48 .87 Moderate
3.2 Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ EPCK Components by Gender

The results of the independent samples t-test in
Table 5 show that students’ perceptions of teachers’ ePCK for males (M = 3.62, SD
= .44) and females (M = 3.60, SD = .44) were not statistically significantly different
[t (317) = -.437, p = .662] at the significance level of .05. Concerning ePCK
components,
Table 5 shows that students’ perceptions did not differ by gender for all the ePCK
components.
Table 5: Students’ perceptions of ePCK components by gender
Students (n=319, females=197, males=122)
Perceptions of ePCK
Gender M SD df t p
Female 3.59 .48 -.437 317 .662
Male 3.62 .44
Gender M SD df t p
Female 4.07 .79 301.21 1.792 .074
SPK
Male 3.92 .62
Female 2.95 .78 317 -1.684 .094
WD
Male 3.10 .78
Female 3.77 .61 317 1.292 .197
CS
Male 3.68 .60
Female 3.59 .69 315 -1.390 .166
CTS
Male 3.70 .67
Female 3.81 .92 313 .679 .498
RP
Male 3.74 .92
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Female 3.40 .91 282.92 1.937 .054

ASS
Male 3.59 .79
3.3 Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ EPCK Based on their Grade Level

Table 6 shows that the students’ perceptions of teachers’ ePCK based on their
grade level (grade 10, 11 and 12) were significantly different [F (2,52 = 10.640, p <
.001]. Also, their perceptions of ePCK components were significantly different for
the components: WD [F (2,316) = 4.04, p = .019]; RP [F (2,316) = 14.18, p <.01]; ASS
[F (2,316) = 3.48, p = .032]; and SPK F (2,316) = 7.47, p = .001].
Furthermore, the post hoc analysis using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference
(HSD) criterion revealed that there were statistically significant differences
between the perceptions of students in grades 10 and 12 for WD (p = .014) grades
10 and 11 for RP (p = .001), ASS (p = .032) and SPK (p = .001), and between grades
11 and 12 for SPK (p = .022). The students’ perceptions for the components CS and
CTS were not significantly different.
Table 6: Students’ perceptions of teachers’ ePCK based on grade level
(G10 = 74, G11 = 125, G12 = 120)
Perceptions of ePCK
Grade M SD F p
10 3.75 .41 10.640 <.001*
Overall PCK 11 3.47 .49
12 3.67 .45
Perceptions of ePCK component
Grade M SD F p
SPK 10 4.22 .59 7.465 .001*
11 3.83 .79
12 4.08 .71
WD 10 3.22 .711 4.038 .019*
11 2.99 .81
12 2.90 .75
CS 10 3.77 .55 2.274 .105*
11 3.64 .65
12 3.80 .58
CTS 10 3.72 .73 1.642 .195
11 3.55 .66
12 3.66 .67
RP 10 3.65 .81 3.475 .032*
11 3.33 .84
12 3.52 .92
ASS 10 3.65 .81 3.475 .032*
11 3.33 .84
12 3.52 .92
* Significant at p = .05
3.4 Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ EPCK Based on the Type of their School
The results in Table 7 show statistically significant differences in students’
perceptions of teachers’ ePCK based on their type of school [F (2,316) = 7.367, p =
.001]. Further analysis using Tukey’s HSD criterion revealed that the perceptions
(means) of students from boarding and day schools (p = .026), boarding schools,
103
and the technical school (p = .001) were significantly different. Further, statistically
significant differences were observed in their perceptions for the components
SPK, CTS, RP, and ASS. Except for the component WD (M = 2.89, SD = .86), the
means for the technical school were higher for all PCK components. The analysis,
using Tukey’s HSD criterion, revealed that the perceptions (means) of students
from boarding and technical schools for CTS (p = .001); technical and day schools
for CTS (p = .036); boarding and technical schools for RP (p = .016); technical and
boarding schools (p < .001) and technical and day schools (p = .001) for ASS;
boarding and day schools (p < .001) and boarding and technical schools (p = .049)
for SPK were statistically and significantly different.
Table 7: Students’ perceptions of teachers’ ePCK components based on the type of
school
Students (Boarding = 99, Day = 182, Technical = 38), df = 2,316
Perceptions of ePCK
Type of school M SD F p
Overall Boarding 3.48 .49 7.367 .001*
PCK Day 3.63 .45
Technical 3.80 .43
Type of school M SD F p
SPK Boarding 3.70 .86 14.847 <.001*
Day 4.18 .65
Technical 4.02 .46
WD Boarding 3.05 .75 .530 .589
Day 3.01 .77
Technical 2.89 .86
CS Boarding 3.75 .58 2.034 .133
Day 3.69 .62
Technical 3.90 .58
CTS Boarding 3.48 .69 6.858 .001*
Day 3.65 .66
Technical 3.95 .68
RP Boarding 3.59 .86 4.265 .015*
Day 3.82 .95
Technical 4.08 .82
ASS Boarding 3.33 .87 14.847 <.001*
Day 3.45 .89
Technical 3.98 .58
* Significant at p = .05
4. Discussion of Results
This section presents the discussion of the results of the study, including the
implications for practice. Further, the limitations of the study are discussed.
4.1 Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ ePCK
The results show that the students’ perceptions of their teachers’ ePCK is
moderate. These perceptions influence students’ motivation since positive
perceptions motivate students positively (Amalu et al., 2020). Students also
perceive that their teachers enact all the five components of PCK but to various
levels. The teachers’ enactment of the PCK components has implications for
104
teaching and learning as it enables them to convey content in a way that students
can understand (Akinyemi & Mavhunga, 2022). Therefore, the quality of PCK that
teachers have reflects the quality of their teaching and, hence, students’ learning.
Since the study finds that students’ perceptions are moderate, their teachers may
have moderate PCK. It can be inferred that the quality of learning these students
receive is moderate. However, these results contradict with teachers’ perceptions
of their ePCK. For example, a previous study found that teachers had high
perceptions of their PCK enactment (Mapulanga et al., 2022b). The difference in
students’ and teachers’ perceptions needs to be investigated further. A possible
explanation is that teachers overrate themselves in self-reported PCK or that
students underrate their teachers’ ePCK.
Although the students in this study perceive that their teachers enacted the PCK
components moderately, previous studies on teachers’ actual PCK enactment
revealed varying results. For example, Chapoo et al. (2014) found that their case
teacher confidently implemented all five PCK components (knowledge of
students’ understanding of science, orientations toward science teaching,
curriculum, assessment, and instructional strategies). Also, the finding that
teachers’ enacted knowledge of conceptual teaching strategies to a moderate level
contradicts Sofianidis and Kallery (2021), who reported that teachers’ knowledge
of teaching approaches was weak.
The current study shows that students perceive that teachers’ enacted knowledge
of representations to a moderate extent. The results support Halim et al. (2014),
who reported that low-achieving students did not consider teachers’ knowledge
of conceptual representation as significant for effective instruction. However,
Sofianidis and Kallery (2021) found that knowledge of representations was among
the teachers’ strong points. Therefore, teachers need adequate knowledge of
representation to present content in a clear and understandable way.
The result that ‘what makes the subject easy or difficult to understand (WD)’ is
perceived to be the least enacted component raises fundamental questions about
how effective instructional activities can be carried out. This outcome is also
similar to findings from previous research; for instance, Mapulanga et al. (2022a)
found that WD was the least integrated component in teachers’ planned topic-
specific PCK in respiration. This result corroborates the claim made by Uner and
Akkus (2019) that student surveys were in line with those obtained by utilising
other techniques. The results, however, counter Sofianidis and Kallery (2021),
who concluded that teachers’ expertise in understanding students’ challenges is
one of their strongest points.
It may be nearly impossible for teachers to prepare and deliver lessons that might
lead to meaningful learning if they are unaware of the characteristics of the subject
matter that make studying it easier or more challenging. Knowledge of students’
difficulties may enable teachers to identify topics that require more time and effort
to be taught and understood. and so may fail to guide the students appropriately.
There is a severe and urgent need for the teachers’ knowledge of this component
(WD) to be enhanced.
105
The finding that students’ perceptions are highest for the component ‘students’
prior knowledge including misconceptions (SPK)’ implies that it was the most
enacted component. However, the finding contradicts Sofianidis and Kallery’s
(2021) conclusion that the teachers in their study had weak knowledge of
students’ alternative conceptions. The findings also contradict Barendsen and
Henze’s (2019) observation that the teachers did not elaborate on students’
misconceptions during instruction (actual PCK enactment).
Teachers having high knowledge of students’ prior knowledge may enable them
to choose effective teaching strategies as they would reflect on students’
knowledge (Lee & Luft, 2008). This knowledge may enable them to conduct
learner-centred lessons likely to enhance students’ learning (Soysal, 2017). By
reflecting on the knowledge of students, teachers can mould their PCK to enhance
student learning. Therefore, teachers need to have advanced levels of knowledge
of their students.
4.2 Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ ePCK Based on Gender, Type of School,

and Grade Level
The study finds that there are no differences in students’ perceptions of teachers’
ePCK based on their gender. This result was expected as the students are taught
the same content, usually in the same classes, and are expected to meet the same
criteria for the learning outcomes, regardless of their gender. However, this result
contradicts the findings by Korte et al. (2013) and Stobaugh et al. (2020), who
reported some differences in the students’ perception of teaching effectiveness.
It was interesting that the students’ perceptions are influenced by the type of their
school. This may imply that the teachers at these schools enact their PCK
differently, as these schools have some critical differences in access to teaching
and learning facilities, such as laboratories and libraries. This may also be a result
of other factors, such as teachers’ characteristics that may influence students’
perceptions of their teachers’ knowledge which have not investigated in this study
(Korte et al., 2013).
The study finds that there are differences in students’ perceptions of teachers’
PCK based on their grade level. This result is in line with the findings by Stobaugh
et al. (2020). A possible explanation for the higher perceptions by the grade 10s is
that they may not know what to expect from their teachers as they may still be
young and cannot discern and understand the knowledge teachers ought to
demonstrate in class. However, this may also imply that teachers have developed
PCK for the biology topics taught in grade 10. The lower ratings by grade 11 and
grade 12 students may imply that some teachers are unable to effectively teach
some of the topics taught in the biology curriculum. Further, research has shown
that teacher characteristics, such as gender and attitude towards students, can
account for the observed differences in students’ perceptions (Korte et al., 2013),
although they have not been investigated in the current study.
106
5. Limitations of the study

A significant limitation of this study is the use of a Likert-scale questionnaire as
the only source of collection but the results are still valuable since they give a sense
of the prevailing teaching and learning situation at the selected schools. This is
because the data represent the perceptions of many students as compared to the
data that could be provided by one or two observers (Geiger & Amrein-Beardsley,
2019). Also, students’ views are based on many lessons, unlike expert or
researcher views that may be based on a few hours’ lessons (van der Scheer et al.,
2019). The validity of the results is further strengthened by involving students
from different types of public secondary schools in the study. However, future
investigations may utilise larger samples drawn from many districts across the
country, and include interviews and observing lessons for triangulation purposes.
6. Conclusion and Recommendations

This study investigated students’ perceptions of secondary school biology
teachers’ ePCK. The results showed that the students perceived that their biology
teachers’ ePCK was moderate, apart from knowledge of students’ prior
knowledge, which was perceived to be high. The results also showed that there
were no statistically significant differences in students’ perceptions of teachers’
ePCK attributed to the students’ gender. However, statistically significant
differences were observed in students’ perceptions of teachers’ ePCK attributed
to their grade level and type of school. The implication is that teachers may not
differentiate their instruction based on their students’ gender, but, given the
context-specific nature of PCK, the teachers at the three types of schools may enact
their pedagogical content knowledge differently.
The study recommends using students’ perceptions to evaluate teachers’

professional knowledge and the effectiveness of teaching and learning. The study
also recommends improving teachers’ ePCK in all the six PCK components.
Future research may compare students’ perceptions and their academic
performance in biology. Research may also compare students’ and teachers’
perceptions of ePCK in biology.
Acknowledgment
The authors thank Prof. Lydia Mavuru and Prof. Overson Shumba for
commenting on the academic rigour of the study. Also, thanks go to Mr Chileshe
Busaka, Mr David Opanga and all colleagues who contributed during the various
stages of the study.
Funding
This study was funded by the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative
Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS).
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Appendix 1. Questionnaire: Perception of Teachers’ EPCK in Biology
Part I: Biographic Information

Please tick where applicable
1. What is your gender?
Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. What is your grade level?
Grade 10 [ ] Grade 11 [ ] Grade 12 [ ]
3. State the type of your school
Day school [ ] Boarding school [ ] National STEM
school [ ]
Part II: Enactment of Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Please state (tick or cross) the extent to which you agree/disagree with each
statement below.
SA= Strongly agree, A = Agree, U = Undecided, D = Disagree, SD = Strongly
disagree
Responses
Statements SA A U DA SDA
Students’ prior knowledge
1. The questions my teacher asks about what he/she has
taught evaluate how much I have learned.
2. The questions my teacher asks before introducing
any topic reveal how much I know about the topic.
3. My teacher’s examinations reveal how much I have
learned in class.
What makes the topic difficult to understand
4. My teacher warns about the topics/concepts that I
may find difficult.
5. My teacher explains the points commonly
misunderstood by students by giving reasons and
examples
6. My teacher immediately notices when I have
difficulty learning a topic/concept.
7. My teacher immediately notices why I have difficulty
learning a topic.
Curricular saliency
8. My teacher informs us about the biology syllabus.
9. The questions my teacher asks in class give clues
about important points regarding the topic/concept.
10. My teacher explains how and where I can use the
knowledge I learn in class.
11. My teacher explains how I will use the knowledge I
learn in other topics/concepts.
12. My teacher helps me to establish the relationship
between the biology topic I learn and previous topics.
13. My teacher helps me to establish the relationship
between the topic I learn and topics in other subjects.
14. My teacher clearly explains biology concepts
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15. My teacher asks us to clearly explain biology

concepts
Conceptual teaching strategies
16. My teacher allows us to perform activities specific to
the topic such as demonstration/experiment,
simulation, animation, and teaching aids.
17. My teacher uses stories about the topic/concept to
explain concepts in class.
18. Each time my teacher gives a task, he/she expects us
to develop skills related to the topic
19. My teacher encourages me to express my views in
class.
20. My teacher asks us to give examples from daily life to
explain biology concepts.
Representations, analogies, and examples
21. My teacher uses teaching aids specific to biology
topics, such as figures, diagrams, simulations,
models, and drawings.
22. My teacher uses materials and activities to facilitate
my learning of the concepts in biology.
Assessment
23. My teacher gives the end-of-topic tests about the
topic.
24. My teacher gives class and homework exercises,
assignments, and projects, and about biology topics.
25. My teacher uses different types of questions such as
open-ended, multiple-choice, and filling in the blanks
in tests.
26. During a term, my teacher uses different assessment
methods such as assignments, projects, homework,
experiments, and portfolio.
27. The homework exercises my teacher gives can be
done using the knowledge I learn in class.
Thank you for completing this questionnaire
112

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 112-128, January 2023
Received Oct 11, 2022; Revised Dec 19, 2022; Accepted Jan 16, 2023
Postgraduate Science Students’ Impressions and

Experiences of Online Pedagogical Practices:
Implications for Technology-Enhanced Pedagogy
Sam Ramaila*
Lydia Mavuru
Abstract. This study explores the postgraduate science teachers’

conceptions and experiences of online pedagogical practices in diverse
school contexts. Embracing technology-enhanced pedagogy remains a
key strategic imperative within the context of evolving pedagogical
benefits associated with the advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution
(4IR). As key agents of educational change, science teachers face the key
imperative to harness the pedagogical affordances of online platforms
with a view to realizing the achievement of envisaged educational
outcomes. Furthermore, research studies on online teaching have
predominantly focused on technological aspects and very little on their
impact on humans. The empirical investigation adopted a qualitative
case study design and involved 20 purposively selected postgraduate
science students from diverse school contexts in South Africa. Data were
collected through the administration of an open-ended survey
questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Key findings emanating
from the empirical investigation indicated that postgraduate science
teachers’ coherent adoption of appropriate online pedagogical strategies
was largely hampered by a lack of technological resources and
inadequate professional capacity to implement online teaching and
learning in diverse school contexts. Sustainable teacher professional
development opportunities on the utilization of virtual digital platforms
ought to be provided with a view to enabling postgraduate science
teachers to harness the pedagogical affordances of online teaching and
learning.
Keywords: pedagogical practices; science teacher conceptions; science

teacher experiences; technology-enhanced pedagogy
*
Corresponding author: Sam Ramaila, samr@uj.ac.za
©Authors
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1. Introduction
This paper examines postgraduate science students’ conceptions and experiences
of online pedagogical practices in diverse school contexts. These postgraduate
science students were in-service teachers practising in various schools in South
Africa. The COVID-19 pandemic challenged teachers to rethink and reimagine
their pedagogical practices with a view to harnessing the pedagogical affordances
of remote teaching and learning. In essence, the COVID-19 pandemic provided
opportunities for teachers to embrace digital transformation. In response to the
key imperatives of digital transformation, science teachers adopted innovative
pedagogical practices to maximize the pedagogic benefits that accrue from the
meaningful implementation of remote teaching and learning (Kaur & Bhatt, 2020).
However, existing socio-economic disparities within the South African basic
education system stifled a meaningful transition from face-to-face to remote
teaching and learning. Studies conducted in the United Kingdom, the United
States, and Germany revealed that the transition from face-to-face to online
teaching and learning was largely seamless in well-resourced schools (e.g.,
Adams-Prassl et al., 2020; Mitchell, 2020; Turnbull et al., 2021). This transition was
essentially predicated on the assumption that teachers and learners have adequate
access to bandwidth (Lederman, 2020).
There is a need for critical interrogation of science teachers’ conceptions and
experiences of online pedagogical practices in view of their implications for
technology-enhanced pedagogy. The advent of the 4IR provides opportunities to
harness pedagogical affordances of technology-enhanced learning to foster
pedagogic innovation in science classrooms through the use of interactive game-
based applications such as Kahoot. In this sense, this article makes a significant
intellectual contribution toward coherent realization of this key strategic
imperative. Fostering pedagogic innovation in science classrooms is
commensurate with the quest for the meaningful development of scientific
literacy through the coordinated enhancement of the quality of science education
in its broadest sense. As such, this study explored the postgraduate science
teachers’ conceptions and experiences of online pedagogical practices in diverse
school contexts.
The COVID-19 pandemic posed formidable challenges to the provision of
instruction in South African schools. The transition to online teaching and
learning had varied implications for technology-enhanced pedagogy in diverse
school contexts. Science teachers faced the key imperative to migrate to online and
blended teaching modes. There is a need to interrogate critically the implications
of pedagogical practices adopted during online teaching (Kirkwood & Price, 2014;
Salmon, 2014). Critical interrogation of the implications of online teaching mode
to pedagogy requires reflection on science teachers’ conceptions and experiences
of online pedagogical practices. Gillett-Swan (2017) argues that while pedagogical
practices applicable to face-to-face contact modes can utilized in online learning
environments, they cannot merely be the application of a “one-size-fits-all
approach”. In fact, Orlando and Attard (2015) state that “teaching with technology
is not a one-size-fits-all approach as it depends on the types of technology in use
at the time and also the curriculum content being taught” (p. 119). While science
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teachers endeavour to provide equitable learning experiences for all learners in

online learning environments, the realization of this pedagogic goal may be
hampered by a lack of access to technology and the fact that teachers may feel ill-
prepared to teach online as they may still be learning to use online platforms
(Rucker & Downey, 2016).
South African schools are classified as public and private schools. A considerable
number of public schools are largely under-resourced as compared to private
schools (Amnesty International, 2020). Nevertheless, technology-enhanced
pedagogy requires the availability of adequate ICT infrastructural resources. In
addition, school science is by its very nature a practical subject. Online learning
environments ought to make provision for opportunities for the performance of
practical work. The key conundrum that arises revolves around the extent to
which science teachers create opportunities for the performance of practical work
through the adoption of appropriate online pedagogical practices. Online
teaching may be synchronous or asynchronous depending on the requirements of
online environments, notwithstanding the fact that online environments provide
opportunities for the delivery of instruction (Williams et al., 2012). These practical
considerations underscore the need for a critical reflection on in-service science
teachers’ conceptions and experiences of online pedagogical practices when
teaching science. Thus, the article grapples with two key questions, namely
(a) How do science teachers conceptualize online pedagogical practices when
teaching science in online learning environments? (b) What were science teachers’
experiences of online teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic?
3. Conceptual and theoretical framework

The empirical investigation reported in this article is framed by the Advanced
Signal (AS)-TPACK as the underlying conceptual framework. As proposed by
Mpungose (2018), the key elements of the AS-TPACK framework are content
knowledge signals (subject themes), pedagogical knowledge signals (rationale,
goals assessment, role, accessibility, time, environment, activities), and
technological knowledge signals (hardware resources, software resources,
ideological-ware resources). It is important to point out that the framework’s
structural configuration is anchored on the subject matter (content), teaching
methods (pedagogy), and resources (technology) in a pedagogic sense. Mishra
and Koehler (2006) posit that the acquisition of the envisaged teacher knowledge
hinges to a large degree on subject matter competence, pedagogical skills, and the
proficient use of technology. According to Verloop et al. (2001), teacher knowledge
refers to understandings which are relevant to teachers’ daily practices, while
pedagogical knowledge is central to the development of requisite skills in any
instructional setting. In an attempt to demystify the nature of pedagogical
knowledge, Khoza (2019) asserts that pedagogical knowledge involves teaching
and learning driven by goals such as aims, objectives, and learning outcomes.
Pedagogy is described by Moyles et al. (2002) as “an extremely complex
phenomenon comprising a wide variety of practices underpinned by principles
acquired through training and as a result of professional experiences and personal
understandings” (p.1). Pedagogical practices are teacher actions that facilitate and
promote learning. Empirical exploration of science teachers’ online pedagogical
practices is intrinsically linked to the utilization of educational technology.
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Govender and Khoza (2017) maintain that educational technology involves “the
effective use of technological tools (resources) in teaching and learning” (p.67).
Mpungose (2018) argues that having content, technological, and pedagogical
knowledge without reflecting specifically on signals within each knowledge
component may potentially render teaching and learning of Natural Sciences,
Physical Sciences and Life Sciences in particular a fruitless pedagogic
undertaking.
The empirical exploration as encapsulated in this article is predicated on the
provision of a critical reflection on postgraduate science teachers’ conceptions in
relation to technology-enhanced pedagogy. González (2010) classifies teachers’
conceptions of e-learning into four qualitatively different categories: (a) provision
of information to students; (b) occasional communication among unit
participants; (c) engaging students in online discussions; and (d) supporting
knowledge-building tasks. While technology-enhanced learning involves the
application of technology to teaching and learning, however, it does not
appropriately address the complexity of the partnership between education and
technology (Bayne, 2014). As a consequence of the prevalence of the COVID-19
pandemic, postgraduate science teachers were compelled to deliver instruction
using online platforms in the face of prevailing technical challenges and often
without proper technical support (Hodges et al., 2020), particularly in developing
countries such as South Africa.
The other fundamental pedagogic challenge facing science teachers within the
broader South African context is the lack of adequate pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK) (Shulman, 1987) which is essential for online teaching and
learning (Ching et al., 2018). By its very nature, online teaching requires sound
pedagogical content knowledge related to the design and organization of
meaningful learning experiences through the creation of distinctive learning
environments with the help of digital technologies. It is argued in this article that
the AS-TPACK framework should make provision for pedagogical practices,
teacher conceptions, teacher experiences, and technology-enhanced pedagogy as
key constructs explored in this empirical investigation. More specifically, the key
elements of the AS-TPACK framework can make provision for the constructs
under exploration as follows: content knowledge signals (Natural Sciences,
Physical Sciences, and Life Sciences), pedagogical knowledge signals (online
pedagogical practices, teacher conceptions, teacher experiences), and
technological knowledge signals (technology-enhanced pedagogy and its
inherent ramifications).
The empirical exploration is underpinned by the multimodal model for online
education proposed by Picciano (2017) as the underlying theoretical framework.
As a theoretical lens, the framework is anchored on a learning community whose
key components are content, social/emotional aspects, self-paced/independent
study, dialectic/questioning, evaluation/assessment, collaboration/student-
generated content/peer review, and reflection. As key participants in the
empirical exploration, postgraduate science teachers constitute a learning
community by virtue of their pursuit of a common goal to realize online teaching
and learning. The framework is relevant to the inquiry as the components can
serve as key ingredients required for the delivery of online teaching and learning.
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While AS-TPACK provides insights into science teachers’ content, and

technological, and pedagogical knowledge, the components of the multimodal
model for online education inform the establishment of communities of practice.
4. Methods
The research design, selection of participants, data collection and analysis
procedures are discussed below. Ethical considerations are also presented.
4.1 Research design

The empirical investigation adopted a qualitative study design (Creswell, 2014).
Qualitative study helps in the exploration of a phenomenon within a particular
context through various data sources and provides opportunities to undertake the
exploration through a variety of lenses to reveal multiple facets of the context
(Baxter & Jack, 2008). Therefore, the unit of analysis is science teachers who were
engaged in postgraduate studies at a South African higher education institution.
4.2 Participants and sampling procedure
Purposive sampling techniques (Etikan et al., 2016) were employed to select the
target participants from a given population of 53 postgraduate science teachers
from diverse schools in a South African university. The following criteria were
used to select the target participants from a population of 53 postgraduate science
students (B.Ed. Honours, M.Ed. and Ph.D.): diversity of the schools in terms of
socioeconomic profiles and learners’ sociocultural backgrounds, teaching
experience, academic understanding of the need to teach for understanding,
willingness to participate, and exposure to the use of learning technologies.
Through the use of purposive sampling, a total of 20 participants were selected to
participate in this study.
4.3 Data collection procedures
Qualitative data were collected through the administration of an open-ended
survey questionnaire (Appendix 1) and semi-structured interviews. The
questionnaire had three constructs: (a) Teachers’ biographical profiles (seven
items); (b) Postgraduate science teachers’ conceptions about online pedagogical
practices (five items); and (c) Postgraduate science teachers’ experiences of online
teaching and learning (five items). By their very nature, open-ended questions do
not provide participants with a predetermined set of answer choices but instead
allow participants to provide responses in their own words. The open-ended
survey questionnaire was developed by the researchers and piloted with eight
postgraduate students enrolled in an ICT online programme before
administration with the participants. The open-ended survey questionnaire was
piloted before the administration to the participants. The questionnaire items
were then modified based on feedback obtained from the pilot phase. When
analysing data, the two researchers coded the participants’ responses, and 90%
inter-rater kappa reliability was obtained.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with four (4) postgraduate science
teachers who were selected based on their knowledge and skills in implementing
online pedagogical strategies. A semi-structured interview is a qualitative data-
collection strategy in which the researcher asks respondents predetermined open-
ended questions. The advantage of using a semi-structured interview is that it
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allows for open-ended responses from participants for more in-depth

information. The interviews enabled the researchers to probe participants’
conceptions further and to provide elaboration on their questionnaire responses.
4.5 Ethical considerations
Permission to conduct research was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of
the institution where the research was carried (Ethical Clearance: Sem-2020-031).
Research procedures were explained to the participants and participation was
voluntary. Pseudonyms were used to ensure anonymity and confidentiality.
Furthermore, informed consent was obtained from the participants. In addition,
participants were allowed to withdraw their participation at any stage without
repercussions.
5. Findings
Key findings emanating from the study are clustered according to themes that
emerged during data analysis, namely (a) mixed conceptions on online
pedagogies; and (b) context-dependent experiences on online teaching and
learning. As the context is important in this study, the participants’ demographic
profiles are provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Participants’ demographic profiles
Characteristics Category n Percentage
Gender Female 15 75.0
Male 5 25.0
Race Black 18 90.0

Coloured 1 5.0
White 1 5.0
Age in years Below 25 2 10.0
25-30 9 45.0
31-35 1 5.0
36-40 3 15.0
41+ 5 25.0
Subject taught Life Sciences 15 75.0

Natural Sciences 11 55.0
Physical Sciences 4 20.0
Type of school Township 12 60.0

Suburban 5 25.0
Private 3 15.0
Smartphone 11 55.0
Tech. devices used Laptop 13 65.0
Desktop 2 10.0
Source of connectivity Data 9 45.0
Wi-Fi 11 55.0
ICT skills Very good 5 25.0

Good 8 40.0
Average 7 35.0
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The majority of teachers (75%) were Black females (seven with a B.Ed. Honours,
six with an M.Ed. and three with a Ph.D.) teaching in township schools.
Township schools are under resourced as compared to suburban and private
schools. In addition, township schools enrol a large proportion of learners from
poor socioeconomic backgrounds. The majority (45%) of the participants fell
within the 25-30 years age range. These postgraduate science teachers are
expected to be technologically savvy and capable of teaching using learning
technologies in online learning environments. Table 1 also shows that the teachers
taught several science subjects such as Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, and
Natural Sciences. Some of the postgraduate science teachers had access to
technological devices such as smartphones and laptops which enabled them to
choose the most suitable device to use depending on the type of online task at
hand. Postgraduate science teachers used their own data or Wi-Fi for Internet
connectivity when using online platforms. However, high data costs remained a
major impediment for the teachers. A total of 35% of the teachers indicated that
their technical knowledge and skills were inadequate; this challenge had
implications for the choice of pedagogical tools and strategies they employed
when using online platforms.
The following themes were generated from open-ended questionnaire items and
semi-structured interviews.
Theme 1: Mixed conceptions on online pedagogies
Postgraduate science teachers viewed online teaching as an important
development that motivated them to rethink how they taught and implemented
pedagogical approaches. They implemented pedagogical approaches in response
to the key requirements of pedagogic innovation and digital transformation. The
postgraduate science teachers embraced the use of technological devices for
online teaching as being technology savvy. On the other hand, teachers with
inadequate technological skills and who lacked appropriate digital devices
viewed online teaching as a challenging task imposed on them by the prevailing
circumstances.
The postgraduate science teachers expressed fundamental appreciation of
exposure to the utilization of virtual digital platforms (e.g. Microsoft Teams,
Zoom, Google Meet). However, they bemoaned the lack of professional capacity
to use technology effectively. Postgraduate science teachers who had received
prior professional training in their schools indicated that they still encounter
challenges when it comes to the identification and utilization of appropriate
technological tools in online learning environments. These challenges can be
attributed to the inadequacy of the training they received. During the interview,
one of the teachers acknowledged, “Online teaching was not very effective for me
and my learners as I lacked the necessary technical knowledge and skills.”
Some of the postgraduate science teachers indicated that they found it
increasingly challenging to provide meaningful opportunities for practical work
(e.g. simulations, use of videos, voice-over demonstrations) in online learning
environments. More specifically, postgraduate science teachers found it extremely
difficult to engage learners in inquiry-based learning as they lacked the
knowledge and skills to use online platforms. As a result, demystifying abstract
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scientific concepts to develop conceptual understanding remained an arduous

task for postgraduate science teachers. The implication is that these professional
deficiencies underscore the need for coherent and sustainable development of
teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge. Enhancing technological
pedagogical content knowledge would enable teachers to harness pedagogical
affordances for online platforms in order to foster effective science teaching and
learning. The sentiments from the interviewed postgraduate science teachers are
encapsulated in the following excerpts:
Teacher 1 (Well-resourced school): Online teaching is very effective if done right and
if all learners are given resources to enable them
to be able to participate.
Teacher 2 (Poorly-resourced school): I believe that online teaching and learning is not
as effective as face-to-face teaching and learning.
For instance, there are constraints associated
with online learning and teaching, such as access
to the Internet, and electronic gadgets such as
laptops, smartphones, iPads, or computers.
These constraints limit teaching and learning
online.
Most postgraduate science teachers indicated that the implementation of online
teaching and learning was hampered by a lack of technological skills and a
concomitant lack of technological resources. The postgraduate science teachers’
conceptions of online pedagogical practices point to the need to put appropriate
interventions in place to pave the way for teachers to be fully immersed in
technology-enhanced teaching and learning. According to the teachers in poorly
resourced schools, the Department of Basic Education ought to move with optimal
speed to accelerate the provision of technological resources with a view to
addressing prevailing socio-economic disparities within the system.
Theme 2: Context-dependent experiences in online teaching and learning
The postgraduate science teachers’ pedagogical practices were largely context
dependent. These factors included technological knowledge and skills, learners’
abilities to access online learning platforms, the efficacy of online pedagogical
practices to prepare learners for tertiary science-related courses, as well as the
affordability of Internet connectivity for both teachers and learners.
Likewise, the postgraduate science teachers indicated that the use of virtual digital
platforms posed enormous instructional challenges owing to contextual
constraints. These constraints included access to technological devices, the
availability of WIFI, prohibitive data costs, and connectivity issues. These
sentiments are reflected in the following excerpt:
Teacher 3: If I had means, I would have preferred to use Zoom or Google Teams where
we would have some interaction. But it goes back to which devices learners
have and if they do have access to data/Wi-Fi.
The identified contextual constraints had an adverse impact on teachers’ coherent
implementation of adopted pedagogical practices. These fundamental challenges
120
could be addressed through the provision of unlimited access to bandwidth in

schools to facilitate the implementation of online teaching and learning. Although
some postgraduate science teachers appreciated the use of online teaching and
learning platforms such as Microsoft Teams, Zoom, and Google Meet to facilitate
virtual interactions, they bemoaned the poor attendance and participation by their
learners. The teachers from socio-economically advantaged suburban and private
schools pointed out that some of the learners deliberately skipped online lessons
as a result of truant behaviour. This implies that meaningful implementation of
online teaching and learning requires active parental involvement. Learners from
disadvantaged areas were severely affected by connectivity issues as the
following excerpt illustrates:
Teacher 4: If I had the means, I would provide all my learners with efficient and
sufficient connectivity and microkits from the school labs for them to
partake in micro practicals.
Postgraduate science teachers indicated that WhatsApp was the easiest and
cheapest way to communicate with their learners and share notes and assessment
tasks as the app consumes less data compared to the other interactive platforms.
The elaboration is provided in the following excerpt:
Teacher: 3: I had a WhatsApp group that I used to help learners and share materials.
I interacted with my learners via the WhatsApp and they posted questions
on the group and I tried to address them and assist them.
Despite the challenges encountered, the postgraduate science teachers
demonstrated resilience when navigating the vagaries of online teaching and
learning. One of the postgraduate science teachers said the following:
Teacher 5: I used mostly Microsoft Package to organize notes and presentations, and
I used online tools like Google Classroom and Kahoot to assess the
learners. I was also creating videos to explain difficult concepts.
The transition to online teaching and learning posed formidable pedagogical
challenges to postgraduate science teachers in diverse schools. These challenges
are encapsulated in the following excerpts:
Teacher 6: I found the design of authentic online assessment tasks difficult.
Teacher 7: I experienced poor learner participation during online learning as well
[as] poor submission of online tasks.
Teacher 8: Identification of appropriate pedagogical strategies for online teaching
and learning was problematic to me.
The challenges encountered underscore the need for critical interrogation of
enablers and constraints of online teaching and learning in diverse contexts.
6. Discussion
The participants expressed varied conceptions pertaining to online pedagogical
practices. These conceptions are specifically related to their technical knowledge
and skills, learners’ abilities to access online learning platforms, the efficacy of
online pedagogical practices to prepare learners adequately for tertiary science
121
studies, as well as the affordability of Internet connectivity for both teachers and
learners. This finding is consistent with a study conducted by Das and Meredith
(2021) which demonstrated that prior training on eLearning significantly
influences effective teachers’ adoption of online pedagogical practices. The
sudden transition to online teaching and learning required resources such as Wi-
Fi connections, laptops, and smartphones (Sari & Nayir, 2020). However, teachers’
coherent adoption of appropriate online pedagogical strategies was hampered by
a lack of technological resources for online teaching and learning. The prevalence
of the COVID-19 pandemic critically exposed socio-economic disparities within
the South African basic education system as postgraduate science teachers in
poorly resourced schools struggled with learner participation and attendance
owing to high data costs and lack of digital devices. These socioeconomic
disparities served as constraints for meaningful access to bandwidth.
At another pragmatic level, the prevalence of the COVID-19 pandemic provided
opportunities for teachers to embrace digital transformation as evidenced by
teachers’ appreciation of the exposure to the utilization of virtual digital
platforms. However, teachers bemoaned the lack of professional capacity
required for the coherent integration of technology in online science teaching and
learning. Technology integration should be responsive to the dynamic nature of
learning in terms of the three interconnected learning theories, namely (a)
behaviourist, (b) cognitive and (c) constructivism (Celikoz et al., 2019). The
provision of meaningful opportunities for the performance of practical work or
investigations in online learning environments through the enactment of inquiry-
based learning remained a formidable pedagogical hurdle for teachers. In
addition, teachers encountered pedagogical challenges in the administration of
technology-mediated assessments as evidenced by a lack of competence in the
administration of online assessments. In the final analysis, the prevalence of the
COVID-19 pandemic underscored the significance of the nexus between the
development of 21st century skills and 4IR skills. While the pandemic disrupted
teaching and learning, there is a need to harness opportunities that accrued from
the prevalence of the pandemic to embrace pedagogical innovation in online
learning environments. In fact, Baum and Dahlin (2017) posit that a crisis initiates
learning and change using the knowledge and experience gained during the event
itself.
The AS-TPACK framework provides insightful elucidation into the pedagogical
dynamics associated with the provision of instruction in online learning
environments. In terms of content knowledge signals, teachers encountered a
myriad of pedagogical challenges in online Natural Sciences, Physical Sciences
and Life Sciences teaching and learning. As part of pedagogical knowledge
signals, teachers expressed varied impressions and experiences relating to the
adoption of pedagogical strategies in online learning environments. In relation to
technological knowledge signals, teachers bemoaned the lack of professional
capacity required for meaningful and coherent integration of technology in online
Natural Sciences, Physical Sciences and Life Sciences teaching and learning. The
contextual factors that influenced technology integration in online learning
environments were intrinsically linked to the socio-economic disparities
characterizing the South African basic education system.
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The empirical exploration is further underpinned by the multimodal model for

online education proposed by Picciano (2017) as the underlying theoretical
framework. As a theoretical lens, the framework is anchored on a learning
community the key components of which are content, social/emotional aspects,
self-paced/independent study, dialectic/questioning, evaluation/assessment,
collaboration/student-generated content/peer review, and reflection. As key
participants in the empirical exploration, science teachers constitute a learning
community by virtue of their pursuit of a common goal to realize the stipulated
educational outcomes of online teaching and learning. The teachers were
overwhelmed by the complexity of pedagogical challenges encountered within
online learning environments. A pervasive lack of technological resources
hampered teachers’ ability to deliver self-paced lessons and learners’ ability to
engage in independent study. Posing questions to establish learners’ prior
knowledge was increasingly difficult for teachers.
Furthermore, teachers expressed frustration with their lack of professional
capacity to administer technology-mediated assessments in online learning
environments. Connectivity issues also had an adverse impact on the provision of
meaningful opportunities for collaboration among learners. Overall reflection on
online teaching and learning activities revealed several pedagogical challenges
that require attention in order to strengthen teachers’ professional capacity for
meaningful delivery of lessons in online learning environments. Key findings of
the study demonstrated how science teachers in disadvantaged contexts could
nevertheless embrace pedagogic innovation in online teaching and learning
environments despite the scarcity of technological resources.
7. Conclusion
The key themes that emerged from the empirical investigation related to teachers’
mixed conceptions about online pedagogical practices as well as the context
dependence of teachers’ experiences of online teaching and learning. Online
teaching and learning posed formidable pedagogical challenges for science
teachers. A pervasive lack of technological resources had an adverse impact on
the effective delivery of instruction in online learning environments. There is a
need to support science teachers when grappling with challenges presented by
the sudden transition to online teaching and learning. Prevailing socioeconomic
disparities characterizing the South African basic education system should be
addressed as a matter of priority with a view to confronting social injustices
within the educational space. Failure to address these socio-economic disparities
adequately would serve to exacerbate the articulation gap between school and
higher education. Enhanced epistemic and epistemological access would remain
a pipe dream and this could hamper the human capital development required for
achieving sustainable levels of economic growth. For science teachers to embrace
digital transformation fully and pedagogic innovation by extension, concerted
efforts are required to put appropriate strategic interventions in place that
promote seamless navigation of the vagaries of online teaching and learning
through the adoption of innovative pedagogical strategies. The provision of a
globally competitive curriculum that fosters the inculcation of requisite skills
through meaningful development of scientific literacy ought to be predicated on
sound pedagogical principles and evidence-based pedagogical solutions. The
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study was confined to a sample of postgraduate science students and the findings
cannot be generalised. However, the findings have important implications for the
understanding of pedagogical practices adopted in online learning environments
in diverse contexts.
8. Recommendations
It is imperative to provide sustainable teacher professional development
opportunities on the utilization of virtual digital platforms with a view to
harnessing pedagogical affordances of online teaching and learning.
Maximization of the academic experience of learners is central to the coherent
achievement of envisaged educational outcomes. To this end, the Department of
Basic Education should implore teachers to take advantage of available in-service
professional development interventions providing meaningful opportunities for
designing effective procedures for online teaching and learning. There is a need
to enhance teachers’ professional capacity required for the coherent
administration of technology-mediated assessments in online learning
environments. As key agents of educational change, teachers ought to be
encouraged to embrace digital transformation fully to harness the affordances of
various learning technologies. The realization of this key strategic imperative
requires careful identification of enablers and constraints of both synchronous
and asynchronous teaching and learning activities in online learning
environments. There is also a need to provide adequate resources to
disadvantaged schools and to provide concomitant professional development on
the utilization of digital devices to stimulate meaningful online teaching.
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Appendix 1
QUESTIONNAIRE ON CONCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF ONLINE
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Section A: Biographical information
Please place a cross (X) in the appropriate response.
1. State your gender.
Male
Female
Other
2. Select your age range

20-24 years
25 -30 years
31-35 years
36-40 years
40 + years
3. Which race group do you belong to?

Black
Coloured
Indian
White
4. Indicate the location/type of school in which you are teaching

Informal
settlement
Rural
Farm
Township
Suburban
Private/
Independent
5. Indicate the subject(s) you are currently teaching.

Natural Sciences
Physical Sciences
Life Sciences
Other (specify)
127
6. Indicate the grades you are currently teaching

8
9
10
11
12
Other
(specify
7. Indicate your teaching experience

0-5 years
6-10 years
11-15 years
20 + years
8. I mostly use the following gadget to access information or to teach my

learners (choose one)
Cellphone
Tablet/iPad
Laptop
Desktop
Other
(specify)
9. My main source of connectivity is (choose one)

Data
Wi-Fi
Internet cafe
Other
(specify)
10. How do you rate yourself in terms of ICT skills?

Excellent
Very good
Good
Average
Poor
128
Section B: Postgraduate science teachers’ conceptions about online pedagogical

practices
a. What are your views about the effectiveness of online teaching and learning?
b. What are your views about the efficacy of pedagogical practices you adopted
during online teaching and learning?
c. What are your views about the role of school management team in assisting
you navigate online teaching and learning?
d. What are your views about the preparedness of your school for online teaching
and learning?
e. In your view, what was the level of preparedness of learners and teachers for
online teaching and learning?
Section C: Postgraduate science teachers’ experiences of online teaching and

learning
a. Describe your experiences of online teaching and learning.
b. What were the challenges you encountered during online teaching and
learning?
c. How did you use ICT tools as part of online teaching and learning?
d. What are your professional development needs that must be addressed to
pave the way for you to fully embrace online teaching and learning?
e. What lessons have you learnt from online teaching and learning?
129

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 129-142, January 2023
Received Jun 29, 2022; Revised Dec 27, 2022; Accepted Jan 24, 2023
The Impact of KaniMani Storytelling Mobile

Application (KM-SMA) on Tamil Students’
Speaking Skills and Motivation in Learning Tamil
Khasturi Ramalingam*
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
Yeo Kee Jiar

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
Abstract. The research aims to delve into the KaniMani Storytelling

Mobile Application (KM-SMA)’s impact on Tamil students’ speaking
skills and motivation to learn Tamil through the use of mobile
applications. Thirty-six Tamil students aged between 7 and 8 years old
were chosen based on their performance on a Classroom Assessment
(CA) and randomly assigned to one of two groups (one experimental and
one control) of 18 participants each. All the students were from three
national primary schools, in the Pasir Gudang district, Johor, Malaysia.
Two instruments were employed to examine the speaking skills of the
participants before and after the experiment: speaking tests as pre-post
tests and a motivation questionnaire. In addition, paired t-test was
employed to examine the data. We found that following treatment, KM-
SMA participants performed better than the control group regarding
motivation and speaking skills. The results showed the importance of
language instruction through mobile applications; it is a crucial element
and we advised that it be considered in the Tamil language curriculum.
Keywords: digital storytelling; education; speaking skills; motivation;

Tamil language
1. Introduction
Technology evolves rapidly in the digital age, as do technological tools in teaching
and learning. Technology may be employed as a tool to facilitate learning and for
students to acquire various skills (Tambi & Awang, 2020). Consequently, it is vital
for teachers to employ technology in the classroom to cultivate speaking skills
during the lesson. There are many types of techniques applied for speaking, such
as discussion, brainstorming, role play, storytelling, and discussions (Khaerana &
*
Corresponding author: Khasturi Ramalingam, khasturiam@gmail.com
©Authors
130
Nurdin, 2018). Storytelling methods encourage creative thinking and keep

students’ attention during class (Csikar & Stefaniak, 2018). Storytelling is among
the digital media’s versatile functions and it helps the students’ creativity with the
integration of student-centred learning (Dalim et al., 2019). Traditional oral or
paper-based storytelling has been supplanted by digital storytelling as a result of
rapid technological advancements (Alharbi & Newbury, 2020). In reality, utilising
digital media to create a tale enables students to convey the story to others and
help them organise their ideas and thoughts.
A new style of storytelling has arisen due to rising new technology in education
(Adara, 2020). New educational resources are being made available to students,
for instance, mobile applications (Alharbi & Newbury, 2020). According to
Gangaiamaran & Pasupathi (2017), mobile technology allows students to access
information at any time and from any location. According to Choo et al. (2020),
short, unique, and multimedia stories with a theme and moral values in mobile
applications can help students develop their content knowledge. Mobile
application-based stories, in particular, provide opportunities for students’
learning processes, increasing their learning confidence and motivation
(Tanrikulu, 2020).
The mobile application can be viewed as a pedagogical tool for teachers to utilise
to engage and focus students’ interest in various areas of language. As mentioned
by Rachels & Rockinson-Szapkiw (2018), mobile applications provide
opportunities for students’ learning processes, boosting their learning confidence
and motivation. Challob (2021) stated that increasing students’ motivation to
study is essential for teaching and acquiring new information since motivation
affects how teachers and students engage with the course contents. Employing a
mobile application has many extra advantages, for instance, improving language
and computer skills, expressing opinions, learning to ask questions, and
improving speaking skills (Melian-Melian & Martin-Gutierrez, 2018). Given this
fact, technological solutions, particularly mobile applications, must be
implemented for students to help them become more tech-savvy language
learners.
The “Theory of Multimedia Learning” (Mayer, 2001) is employed in this study.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory related to active learning integrate with Self-
Determination Theory by L. Deci & M. Ryan (1985) motivates students to become
involved in storytelling activities. This Theoretical Framework provides the basic
understanding of how the enrichment of the process of research.
As a result, it demonstrates that speaking skills improve learning in all

educational settings (Azlan et al., 2019). As a result, this study looks into the effect
of the KaniMani Storytelling Mobile Application (KM-SMA) on the improvement
of Tamil students’ speaking skills and motivation to learn Tamil.
1.1. Statement of the problem

For several decades, researchers have investigated how technology, particularly
mobile applications, influences learning and achievement in the classroom.
According to Rao (2019), teachers are still looking for different teaching strategies
131
to implement in their classrooms that will assist their students in improving their
speaking skills. According to James et al. (2019), many teachers believe mobile
applications are time-consuming and resource-intensive tools. Wan (2019) also
stated that a mobile application’s capacity to interest students in learning is a key
factor in determining how well it is integrated into education. Others, however,
believe that meaningful integration of technology, such as a mobile application,
may be beneficial in assisting students in constructing their own meaning from
thinking. In order to accomplish better student success and improve students’
their attitudes toward schooling and language generally, their point of view
encourages research into the use of different instructional media in the classroom
(Neamah et al., 2017). In reality, instructors need practical instructions to help
them integrate technology into their lesson plans.
Many academicians recognised the importance of developing a comprehensive

approach that included speaking (Khaerana & Nurdin, 2018). For all languages,
the debate over the position of technology in education has not yet been settled.
It has been reported that English is valued more than Tamil among Malaysian
primary school students (Nalliannan et al., 2021).
The goal of the present research is to determine how a mobile storytelling

application affects Tamil students’ speaking skills and motivation to learn the
language. Despite the fact that many mobile applications have been used for more
than two decades, there has been little research on this topic, particularly as it was
utilised in educational contexts to learn Tamil. Nevertheless, the impacts of
incorporating a mobile storytelling application on promoting speaking skills in
Tamil learners in Malaysia have yet to be investigated.
1.2 Significance of the study

By offering a fresh viewpoint on incorporating mobile applications into Tamil
instruction, this research can help instructors and students. The study’s findings
may also be useful to curriculum designers and Tamil teachers. This research can
help teachers and curriculum developers further comprehend the function of
KaniMani mobile application software instruction. Notwithstanding considerable
initiatives by Malaysia’s educational system as a whole, technology
breakthroughs that aid Tamil educational progressions have advanced more
slowly. The mobile applications’ use in primary schools has not been thoroughly
investigated. It is important to note that encouraging Tamil teachers to
incorporate mobile applications into their teaching may lead to active learning
situations in the classroom. Furthermore, no previous research has looked into the
potential of mobile applications in improving speaking skills in national primary
schools, particularly in Tamil as an elective subject.
1.3. Objectives of the study

The objectives of this study is to:
1. Examine the KM-SMA’s impact on the improvement of Tamil students’
speaking skills in national primary schools.
2. Investigate the impact of KM-SMA on the improvement of Tamil students’
motivation in national primary schools.
132
1.4. Research questions and hypotheses

This study answers the following research questions:
Q1. Does implementation of the KM-SMA have any impact before and after on
the speaking skills of Tamil students in control and experimental groups?
Q2. Does implementation of the KM-SMA have any impact before and after on
the motivation of Tamil students in control and experimental groups?
The following null hypotheses have been developed in relation to the

aforementioned research questions:
H01. KM-SMA does not have any impact on the before and after speaking skills of
Tamil students in control and experimental groups.
H02. KM-SMA does not have any impact on the before and after the motivation of
Tamil students in control and experimental groups.
2. Review of literature
The teaching and learning quality have increased as a result of technological
innovation. As a result, mobile applications emerged as effective storytelling
tools. According to Hidayati (2019), using a well-chosen narrative to illustrate and
describe what teachers want students to learn, storytelling is a valuable teaching
strategy. Additionally, this form of teaching encourages students to reflect
carefully on the ideas, characters, feelings, and experiences of the narrative. It is
believed that mobile applications might enhance speaking skills. Additionally,
teachers’ guidance and encouragement are very important to achieve the
academic development as well as their social and emotional growth among
students. In a study by Gillespie (2022), the researcher found that students loved
utilising tablets and digital software, which was both a good motivator for
students and a sign of their learning and accomplishment.
Another study, conducted by Alharbi & Newbury (2020), demonstrated the

successful integration of a mobile application in primary schools compared to
formal books. Finally, in an experiment, Sadik (2008) investigated mobile
applications as an integrated approach. The findings of the study indicated that
Egyptian instructors’ use of mobile application projects helped students better
understand certain course materials. Additionally, the results demonstrated that
teachers were open to using mobile application material to deliver more efficient
training.
A small number of studies show that mobile application instruction improves

student motivation. The motivation of students to learn Spanish was examined by
Rachels & Rockinson-Szapkiw (2018) in a study conducted in USA. A
motivational questionnaire and interviews were employed to collect their data.
Generally, it was found that student motivation had increased. Further research
by Eutsler et al. (2020) examined the impact of mobile applications on academic
performance in learning the English language and on motivation. For each
variable, they discovered favourable outcomes. Mobile applications were found
to be a successful strategy for fostering motivation and speaking abilities in
classrooms; nevertheless, the impacts of incorporating Tamil mobile applications
on fostering these abilities in Malaysia have not yet been examined.
133
3. Methodology
3.1. Participants
Participants in the research were randomly selected from a group of students from
national primary schools in the state of Johor. Purposive sampling was used in the
selection of the schools. The participating students were 8-year olf Tamil students.
The decision to choose lower primary schools stemmed from the fact that this is
the age at which most Malaysian national school Tamil students begin learning
the language.
Following the Classroom Assessment (CA), thirty-six students were randomly

dispersed to either the experimental or control groups. Consequently, the sample
size was 18 students each in the experimental and control groups. The
experimental group was taught using KM-SMA, whereas the control group was
taught using traditional methods.
3.2. Instruments and materials

The following tools were utilised for the aim of this research:
1. CA was used to select homogeneous samples. The exam lasted for 60
minutes, and the results were provided by their Tamil language teacher,
who suggested a useful technique for evaluating learners and determining
their level of general Tamil competence.
2. Speaking Test: The speaking test consists of ten vocabulary questions.
Students looked at the picture and spoke for one minute to assess their
fluency. After receiving instruction in the Tamil language, learners
underwent a comparable exam as a follow-up to gauge their growth in
speaking abilities.
3. Motivation Questionnaire: A motivation questionnaire was administered
to the learners in the control and experimental groups to assess their
learning experiences as well as perspectives on KM-SMA instruction and
traditional teaching accordingly. The 30 multiple-choice questions had to
be finished in 60 minutes by the learners.
4. KM-SMA: This mobile application was created in 2019 by Murasu System
Sdn Bhd in Malaysia. It has a new series of KaniMani stories in Tamil that
are being used as a mobile storytelling application in this study. There are
six stories and six games for the students to enjoy. For the purposes of this
study, five stories were used. All downloads were handled through the
Apple AppStore or Google Play Store. All these were presented in the
home screen. The activities appeared disabled when the app is opened for
the first time. Each activity is linked to a story. Once the first story is read,
the first activity is enabled. The same occurs for the remaining stories. All
the six activities were enabled once all the six stories were read. During
the lesson, the students were given tablets. With permission from the
teachers, some students brought their own tablets. Each section of this
mobile application contains new terms linked to the stories as well as
enjoyable activities after completing one story. In the classroom, these
stories were played digitally. The family-oriented stories in this mobile
application are originally related to Malaysian culture and are based on
the Malaysian curriculum used for this study. It is intended for learners
134
who need more practice comprehending straightforward stories. Besides,

this mobile application has multiple advantages, including high-interest
topics that engage and motivate students to learn Tamil. It also includes
natural-sounding recordings that reflect everyday situations as well as
simple and enjoyable activities.
3.3. Procedure
This research was conducted as quasi-experiment using a quantitative and
qualitative approach. The researcher also provided pre-test and post-test were
given to the participants orally before and after each story was told through the
mobile application. The instruments’ confirmability was first tested to ensure their
reliability. Then, interrater reliability was calculated using Cohen’s Kappa in
identifying the speaking tests’ reliability. To begin the experiment, 50 Tamil
students studying Tamil as an elective subject from three different schools in Pasir
Gudang, Johor, were given the CA to guarantee homogeneity in respect of
language proficiency. Participants had half an hour to complete 30 items on the
placement test. Thirty six participants at the pre-intermediate level were chosen
based on the scores of the placement test. Subsequently, they were randomly
divided into two groups of 18 students in the experimental and control groups
each.
A speaking pre-test was conducted to gauge the participants’ past speaking

proficiency before the treatment was administered to the experimental group. A
speaking exam was provided to the experimental and control groups.
Additionally, students received assurances regarding the fluency and vocabulary
of their answers and were told that the test scores would not have an impact on
their course marks. All the participants in the two groups who were speaking at
a similar level made up the research sample. Additionally, the motivation survey
was distributed to the learners for completion in the same session. The motivation
survey was translated into Malay since it was the participants’ first language at
school, and they had pre-intermediate language skills. With the assistance of the
teachers, students completed the Malay version of the questionnaire.
Furthermore, two specialists translated the motivation’s Malay version into
English to ensure the validity of the translation.
A post-test using a speaking test and a motivation survey was performed for both
groups in the final session to assess the changes in their speaking skills and
motivation level. A speaking evaluation of fifteen questions was employed to
assess the students’ vocabulary and fluency in order to gauge their speaking skills.
To gain a thorough understanding of KM-SMA instruction in learning, a set of
questions were given to each student. The students were required to speak about
the picture in KM-SMA for about one minute. They had to use the vocabulary that
they had learned before wisely. An audio containing a list of words was also
played to the students. Students were required to answer correctly and were
scored on a range from 0 to 30. This procedure took five to six minutes for each
learner. In assessing the student's level of motivation once the five-week
programme was finished, a motivation survey was also administered. Finally,
after gathering the data, it was decided if integrating KM-SMA training would
135
improve the participating students’ speaking and motivation levels. The findings
of the pre-and post-tests were considered. We provide a detailed explanation of
the KM-SMA instruction for the experimental group and the traditional style of
instruction for the control group.
3.3.1. KM-SMA instruction (the experimental group)

The experimental group had five sessions, each averaging an hour, twice weekly.
In the first session, one of the researchers explained the goal of the investigation
and the notion of KM-SMA. Additionally, the instructional materials were
presented. Subsequently, the materials comprised the “KaniMani” mobile
application, which has six stories and six games, was presented. The learners in
this group were instructed on the stories from the mobile application from the
second to the ninth session. The Tamil instructor began with a warm-up phase
before introducing and reviewing part of the new story’s vocabulary. The
students then listened to one story from the “KaniMani” mobile application for
one time. When the students requested it, the story was replayed based on the
student’s needs. The beautiful pictures of the stories were shown on a big screen
via PowerPoint, while the stories were played by the “KaniMani” mobile
application. The students then engaged in some story-based speaking activities.
Finally, the learners were asked to record what they had learnt after hearing the
stories. The learners were divided into two groups: A and B, for the duration of
the second through ninth sessions. Next, in an attempt to sharpen their public
speaking skill, they were asked to retell the story. In a few of the sessions, there
was a role play centred around the subject of storytelling. Per session, they abided
by the identical procedures as described below.
3.3.2. Conventional (non-digital) type of instruction (the control group)

Even though similar content was presented to both groups, the experimental
group received instruction using a separate method from the control group.
Relying on a standard approach to introduce the stories, the control group had to
develop their speaking skill. Likewise, in the experimental group, all participants
took their lessons twice a week for an hour over the course of five sessions. In the
experimental group, listening to stories to improve speaking skills was taught
using the KM-SMA. Apart from that, in the control group, the material was taught
in the traditional manner by a Tamil teacher rather than using any Tamil mobile
application.
All the students in this group were previously informed of the study’s goal. The
narrative was printed out and given to the kids at the beginning of each class.
Following each lesson, a narrative was handed to the learners to read at home.
Conventional training was given to this group. In addition, throughout each
lesson, the teacher read the narrative aloud to the class while using motions, body
movements, and even rising and falling in voice. The students in the control group
had to give an overview of the stories that their instructor had selected for them,
depending on teacher instruction throughout the sessions. In this class, there was
no mobile storytelling application at all.
136
When comparing two data sets from the same group, the paired sample t-test was
employed to check if there were any substantial disparities. In addition, the
independent sample t-test was employed to check if there were any substantial
disparities between two data sets from different groups.
4. Results
A number of assumptions must be made before using covariance analysis.
Furthermore, the speaking and motivation questionnaire results were examined
for normalcy using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Information about these
variables’ normal distribution is displayed in Table 1.
Table 1: Normality test

Group Statistic df Sig.
Control Total pre-speaking test 0.919 18 0.123
Total post-speaking test 0.946 18 0.368
Pre-overall motivation 0.953 18 0.469
Post-overall motivation 0.928 18 0.182
Experimental Total pre-speaking test 0.967 18 0.733
Total post-speaking test 0.951 18 0.445
Pre-overall motivation 0.933 18 0.218
Post-overall motivation 0.899 18 0.056
The significance level for the research’s dependent variables is higher than the
alpha level (0.05), and the scores for the study’s dependent variables are normally
distributed. The first assumption for using covariance analysis was achieved. The
speaking and motivation scores for the control and experimental groups, both
before and after treatment administration, are shown in the table below, along
with descriptive statistics.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics (pre-and post-tests for both groups)
Group N Mean SD
Control Pre-speaking 18 27.44 4.449
Post- speaking 18 26.72 3.064
Pre-motivation 18 1.847 0.212
Post- motivation 18 1.871 0.210
Experimental Pre-speaking 18 25.50 4.062
Pre-motivation 18 1.795 0.179
Post- motivation 18 2.802 0.125
The table shows differences between experimental and control groups on pre-tests
and post-tests of speaking, as well as pre-tests and post-tests of motivation
questionnaires. The experimental and control groups’ respective means and
137
standard deviations on the speaking pre-test were (M=25.50, SD=4.062), as well

as (M=27.44, SD=4.449), accordingly. As per the table, the control group’s mean
on the speaking post-test was (M=26.72) with a standard deviation of (SD=3.064).
Additionally, the speaking post-test for the experimental group had a mean
(M=85.06) and a standard deviation (SD=9.496). On the speaking pre-and post-
tests, the mean of the experimental group improved higher than that of the control
group.
Before the intervention, the control group’s mean motivation score was (M=1.847)
with a standard deviation of (SD=0.212). Additionally, on the motivation pre-test,
the experimental group’s mean and standard deviation were (M=1.795,
SD=0.179). According to the table, the control group’s post-test motivation mean
was (M=1.871) with a standard deviation of (SD=0.210). Furthermore, the
experimental group’s mean on the motivation post-test was (M=2.802) with a
standard deviation of (SD=0.125). As a result, it is possible to conclude that the
experimental group’s mean post-test motivation increased more than the control
group. Table 3 shows paired samples t-test to compare the pre-test and post-test
in the control group on the complete speaking skills results.
Table 3. T-test using paired samples to compare speaking skills pre- and post-test
results
Group Test N Mean SD t df Sig. P

Control Pre-speaking 18 27.44 4.449 0.890 17 0.386
Experi- Pre-speaking 18 25.50 4.062 30.904 17 0.000
mental
Post-speaking 18 85.06 9.496
Table 3 depicts no substantial disparities in the control group’s speaking skills

scores between pre-and post-tests, with t (17) = 0.890, p > 0.05. Post-test mean
scores for speaking skills dropped to M = 26.72 (SD = 3.064) from M = 27.44 (SD =
4.449) on the pre-test. Table 3 also shows a significant difference in speaking skills
scores in the experimental group between pre-and post-tests, having t (17) = -
30.904, p < 0.05. As a result, H01 is rejected. The findings revealed that the
experimental group’s speaking skills improved the most because the participants’
mean score in the post-test (M = 85.06, SD = 9.496) was greater than the mean score
in the pre-test (M = 25.50, SD = 4.062).
Table 4. T-test on paired samples to compare motivation pre- and post-test results
Group Test N Mean SD t df Sig. P

Control Pre-motivation 18 1.85 0.212 1.279 17 0.218
Post-motivation 18 1.87 0.208
Experi- Pre-motivation 18 1.80 0.179 19.011 17 0.000
mental
Post-motivation 18 2.80 0.125
138
Table 4 shows no significant differences in motivation scores between pre-and

post-test in the control group, t (17) = 1.279, p > 0.05. The results showed that there
was only minor progress in the post-test in the control group, having the mean
motivation score in the post-test being M = 1.87 (SD = 0.208) compared to M = 1.85
(SD = 0.212) in the pre-test. Table 4 also shows a significant difference in
motivation scores in the experimental group between pre-and post-test, having t
(17) = 19.011, p < 0.05. Motivation improved the most in the experimental group,
with a post-test mean score (M = 2.80, SD = 0.125) higher than the pre-test mean
(M = 1.80, SD = 0.179). H02 is accepted because the findings failed to reject it. As
can be seen, the study’s null hypotheses were both rejected. It can be concluded
that KM-SMA was effective in improving speaking skills and motivation among
national primary school Tamil students. This can be seen in the experimental
group who took part in the 10-week intervention programme.
5. Discussion
There are numerous advantages to using a mobile application in the foreign
language classroom. Sung et al. (2020) investigated the use of mobile applications
in learning the Malay language. According to their findings, in order to assist
learners in creating their information and ideas, they can communicate and
exchange them more efficiently. Mobile applications have inspired teachers to
employ many more strategies and resources than before. Furthermore, the current
study’s findings are consistent with Etcuban & Pantinople (2018), who used a
mobile application to teach students to establish mathematical skills. The authors
claimed that worksheets and other teaching tools, for instance, digital storytelling,
help learners acquire the mathematical concepts and abilities they are required to
know while also putting those concepts and skills in an intriguing and engaging
context.
The findings of this study also confirm that mobile application instruction had a
positive impact on Tamil students’ motivation. A few studies have found that
mobile application instruction has an effect on student motivation. The findings
are consistent with Akla (2022), highlighting the teacher interviews and stating
that the student's technical and presentation skills had improved, as well as their
engagement and learning motivation.
The findings are also consistent with Alshenqeeti (2018), who investigated
students’ attitudes toward mobile applications and motivation in Saudi Arabia. A
motivational questionnaire and interviews were used to collect their data. The
findings revealed an overall improvement in student motivation. Furthermore,
the findings of Dias & Victor (2017) revealed that students enjoyed using mobile
applications. The authors discovered that it is a strong incentive for learners and
a barometer of their performance, behaviour, and learning. Numerous research
has demonstrated that mobile applications may affect students’ academic
performance at every grade level as well as their interest, attitude, and motivation.
Despite the fact that various research was done on the effects of mobile
applications on the literacy abilities of primary school youngsters, neither took
into account mobile application training in strengthening speaking skills in
139
Tamil, particularly for national primary school students. Therefore, this study’s
findings may present a new understanding for those involved in foreign language
teaching, for instance, material developers, curriculum designers, schools,
language teachers, and mobile application developer
When creating curricula for learners, curriculum designers consider the

importance of a number of learning standards and instructional objectives. The
significance of education that gives students enough exposure to digital
instruction was underlined by this research and its conclusions. The employment
of digital software is essential in this respect, and may be included in the national
Tamil language curriculum for primary schools in Malaysia.
Schools, particularly primary schools, must emphasise digital learning more in

the classroom and take into account the crucial role that technology, and mobile
applications especially, represent in today’s society. Schools must place a strong
education on the learner-centred educational philosophy, which calls for the
adoption of methodologies and practices that are suitable given the interests and
requirements of the learners at every educational level. Additionally, by
delivering hands-on tutorials and employing a variety of activities, Tamil
language instructors may help learners increase their fluency in virtual
classrooms. According to the integrated curricular approach, KM-SMA will
improve teachers’ career growth by helping them relate the Tamil topic they teach
to other subjects, creating a wealth of relevant context for learning. Additionally,
KM-SMA could inspire teachers to compile their own narratives. Every youngster
will have more learning chances as a result of the incorporation of languages in
digital technologies. This study contributes to the field of educational psychology,
particularly in the field of motivation, that focuses on engaging students in the
process of learning Tamil among students. There is no previous study in Malaysia
that related to the implementation of the teaching module of Storytelling Mobile
Application for national primary school Indian students.
6. Conclusions
In accomplishing two study goals and responding to relevant research questions,
data were acquired and assessed. The initially recommended study topic explored
how Tamil learners in national elementary schools may improve their speaking
skills using KM-SMA. The results showed that KM-SMA instruction improved
their speaking abilities. As a result, the study’s first null hypothesis was denied.
The second study topic examined how the KM-SMA affected Tamil learners’
motivation in national primary schools. The results showed that KM-SMA
education significantly affected students’ motivation. The outcomes
demonstrated that most students had favourable attitudes toward KM-SMA
instruction. As previously stated in the discussion part, these results corroborate
those of prior research in which most participants thought that KM-SMA teaching
had a positive impact on their ability to learn Tamil. Thus, the second null
hypothesis of the investigation was likewise disproved.
140
The results showed that there was a statistically substantial disparity in the post-
test scores of the control and experimental groups, that is, after the experimental
group received the intervention and the control group received traditional forms
of learning. However, the experimental group exceeded the control group in the
post-test. This would suggest that the treatment KM-SMA instruction is the
primary cause of the variance between the two groups. Additionally, the
experimental group’s answers to the motivation questionnaire supported the
argument that teaching KM-SMA is preferable to the conventional classroom
setting.
The present research only looked at how KM-SMA instruction improved speaking
skills knowledge. However, measuring literacy and speaking skills knowledge
gained through KM-SMA instruction remains an area of interest for future study.
In addition, this research recommends more investigation into the possible
impacts of KM-SMA education on other language skills, for instance, writing and
reading.
Given that the present research was limited to Tamil students from national
primary schools, the same study could be conducted on national type Tamil and
Chinese students to determine the possible impact of KM-SMA instruction on
their motivation and speaking skills. The study’s sample size can be expanded in
further research. The pre-test, treatment sessions, and post-tests were only
administered to 36 participants. Additional research in other learning contexts
with advanced-level students is required since the existing study was carried out
in an academic environment with eight-year-old students.
The purpose of the present research was to examine the efficacy of KM-SMA
based on the literature review, as well as the connection between KM-SMA and
motivation and speaking skills. Interested researchers could conduct additional
research on the effectiveness of mobile applications on Tamil students’ writing
achievements and vocabulary learning. The existing research demonstrates that
additional study on this issue with various competence levels, age groups, and a
wider context for the Tamil language is required.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 143-165, January 2023
Received Oct 1, 2022; Revised Dec 26, 2022; Accepted Jan 16, 2023
Contribution of Academia Colleague as a

Clinical Model to the Professional Development
of Pre-Service Teachers
Seham Hamza , Nabil Assadi , Tareq Murad and Muhammad Ibdah

Sakhnin Academic College for Teacher Education, Israel
Abstract. The current study aimed to investigate the contribution of

Academia Colleague as a clinical model to the professional development
of pre-service teachers. An interview consisting of 8 questions, a
questionnaire consisting of 24 paragraphs, as well as a measurement of
teaching tendencies, which consisted of 4 domains and 35 paragraphs,
were the major instruments used in the study. The qualitative research
method was employed to address, analyze, and interpret the concerned
phenomenon (domain of the research) within its natural context. This was
done in tandem with the descriptive analytical approach of a sample of
13 pre-service teachers who constituted the study community. Results of
the study showed that the incorporation of the proposed clinical model
contributed to the professional development of the participants and
promoted numerous positive aspects, including active participation,
collaborative learning, personal and collective responsibility, procedural
research (applied research), clinical-critical thinking, and socio-emotional
learning (SEL). The program also promoted positive tendencies towards
the teaching profession at large. The results also showed no statistically
significant relationship between the teaching tendencies and the
participants’ grade point average (GPA).
Keywords: academia colleague model; clinical model; professional

development; socio-emotional attitudes; teaching profession
1. Introduction
Teaching students, student-teachers, and pre-service teachers (used
interchangeably from here on) are terms that refer to college or university
students aspiring to become teachers and pursue teaching careers in the future.
Pre-service teachers are not yet fully qualified teachers. Besides their academic
studies, pre-service teachers are required during their third academic year to train
as schoolteachers for a designated period under the guidance and supervision of
professional teachers and pedagogists. In Israel, particularly, the clinical model
has been adopted as a major domain for this purpose.
©Authors
144
Optimal clinical training is a necessary condition for the professional

development of those qualified for teaching and practice in the field. The practical
knowledge revealed in the training process and in evaluation and feedback
conversations is focused on the event, based on the context, and aimed at
researching the practice (Furlong, 2013). The goal of learning in the practice
research approach is to improve teaching through the discussion of teaching
problems, in an exploratory and representation-based manner. This learning
approach is based on the assumption that teaching is a complex profession, a very
challenging task that seems doable (Horn, 2010). The teacher must manage
multiple interactions, address a variety of (sometimes conflicting) goals, react to
complex and unexpected situations, and deal with complex matters and many
challenges (Lefstein et al., 2020).
Therefore, good teaching requires a developed professional outlook. This includes

sensitivity, which helps identify problems and opportunities that require
attention. It also includes interpretation, which helps to analyze the causes of a
problem or an opportunity, its consequences, etc. Good teaching also requires a
repertoire of teaching techniques and strategies, meaning flexibility of choosing
from a wide range of action options. Lastly, it requires discretion, through which
one can evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative and based
on that choose the most suitable alternative (Lefstein & Snell, 2014).
Strengthening clinical training with an emphasis on connection and simultaneity

to the descriptive courses taught as part of teacher training is one of the important
strategies for improving the abilities of new teachers and the entire teaching
process (Burns et al., 2020). Other strategies that will be reflected in courses and
experiences at the same time include creating a cohesive vision and curriculum,
developing assignments and opportunities that connect theory to practice, and
creating partnerships with schools to support exemplary teaching in classrooms
characterized by diversity. Further strategies include integrating strategies to
assess the ability of the beginning teacher to teach, and providing constant
feedback to the training programs in order to improve them (Killian & Wilkins,
2009).
The research-based clinical training model exposes trainees to the practical

wisdom of experts and involvement in research processes (Jaspers et al., 2018).
Burn and Mutton (2015) mentioned that Great Britain, the United States, and
Australia have training programs that give expression to research-based clinical
experience. In Finland and the Netherlands, the training programs excel in
cohesion and a shared vision of learning and teaching. From the analysis of the
examples that emerged, we could recognize the deep value and limitations of
research given from the context of the practice of trainees and beginners and
understand the complexity and conceptuality of experienced teachers’
knowledge. In addition, we could identify the efforts required to qualify teachers
who are committed to lifelong learning and are able to generalize the new
professional knowledge they need to adapt to different contexts and changing
demands of the educational system.
145
In recent years, there has been a rising interest in pedagogical training to promote
the professional development of those training to teach as part of a long-term
relationship between expert teachers (Mena et al., 2016). The numerous studies
available on pedagogical training have dealt with improving communication,
supporting emotional and socio-psychological aspects in trainees,
institutionalizing the professional and interpersonal relationship with the trainee,
and defining the identity of that role (Mena et al., 2017). The newly introduced
Academia Colleague program has not been studied broadly. The emphasis here
is specific and centered. Despite the fact that improving communication and
supporting emotional and socio-psychological aspects in trainees are of utmost
importance, providing the pre-service teachers with unique real-life-based
expertise is the priority.
The different models relating to the topic, which were mentioned in the
introduction and are discussed in the literature review, can be distinctive in theory
and practice alike. Even though numerous modern and classical schools of
education have set up their models long ago, Academia Colleague deliberately
and systematically follows up the professional development of teaching students
and their tendencies towards the teaching profession practically and within the
work field. The field also provides insights into the psychological and cognitive
development of the participant involved.
The main research question of this study was: What is the contribution of the
learning community and of Academia Colleague as a clinical model in the
professional development of pre-service teachers? Based on this main question,
numerous sub-questions could be derived to examine further details and more
specific aspects of the clinical experiment. These are:
1. How effective is the clinical model from the point of view of the students
participating in the study?
2. Are there statistically significant differences at the significance level α = .05
in the average responses of the study sample participants on the
effectiveness of the clinical model from their point of view attributable to
the specialization variable (English and mathematics)?
3. What is the relationship between teaching tendencies and the
accumulative grade point average (GPA) of students participating in the
study?
4. What is the impact of the GPA on the teaching tendencies of students
participating in the study?
Schools of education are ancient, numerous, and fundamentally heterogeneous in
terms of the training models that pre-service teachers need to follow before being
actively engaged in their future career. The clinical model remains a relatively
modern approach that veers off from the classical patterns where pre-service
teachers are not offered sufficient opportunity for realizing their weaknesses,
fears, successes, and full potential.
146
2.1 Clinical Training Model

The concept of clinical practice is ambiguous. Yet, it could be simplified and
briefly elaborated by referring to the fact that it is a model where field work and
actual real-life situations are the domain and the main tool of measurement for
development and progress. Practice can be understood as routine ways of
working or as a process of systematic and directed repetition, the purpose of
which is to refine unique skills related to the diagnosis of needs and their
treatment. The emphasis in this sense is on an experiential process, in which
students effectively develop their abilities for continuous professional learning
and teaching (Kriewaldt & Turnidge, 2013).
In the clinical practice model, teaching students are integrated within the schools
in the learning communities and are partners in all phases of teaching and its
contents. The integrative planning and responsibilities of the team intertwined in
the program are reflected in the development of clinical thinking skills among all
partners: students, teachers, and academics. The environment that results from
these types of teaching-learning models is indeed symbiotic and supportive;
student-teachers will develop a sense of trust in their own abilities and in the
expertise of those who monitor their progress.
The characteristics of professional learning in the framework of clinical practice

(Alter & Coggshall, 2009) include placing the student at the center of the teacher’s
learning process, diagnosing specific needs of students, and adjusting differential
pedagogical actions to evaluate the results (Darling-Hammond, 2006). Obviously,
by granting greater emphasis on the student’s role in the process and making the
student the actual axis of the process at large, the student’s cognitive facilities and
capacities will be effectively, actively, and positively stimulated.
Pedagogical training enables a connection between knowledge drawn from the

theories and research studied theoretically in the training programs and the
clinical experience that occurs in the schools (Burn & Mutton, 2015). Burn and
Mutton (2015) reiterated the constant difficulties and liabilities of professional
training in numerous professional fields as well as in teaching. It is assumed that
the clinical model invites deeper interpretation, inquiry, and reflection than the
traditional one. These tools are required for the teacher and educator not only in
training but throughout the entire process of their professional development,
which is why the initial training phase is extremely important. In this context, we
share the views and insights of Hammerness et al. (2012), who reiterated the
benefits of the clinical experience and celebrated its emergence into the
educational arena.
2.2 Research School (Academia Colleague)

For teaching students, schools are arenas for experience in clinical training and
provide opportunity for collaboration with experts (Burn & Mutton, 2015;
Willemse et al., 2016). The field of teachers’ training allows the student to engage
in research processes, such as searching, interpreting, and constructing the
meaning of specific needs of students; designing and implementing pedagogical
actions; and evaluating the results. The research processes allow engagement in
deep processes of interpretation and in the design of the professional identity
147
(Taylor, 2017). The school in which a “student-teacher” is involved can indeed be

a rich environment where the student’s theoretical framework can be thoroughly,
practically, and tangibly construed.
Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) offered a rare glimpse into the systems that shape
quality teaching around the world, spanning three continents and seven
countries. They found that in high-performing countries, opportunities for
teachers to learn sophisticated practices and continue improving are embedded
in systematic education policy and practices. Certified educators have described
how several forward-thinking education systems create a coherent set of policies
designed to ensure quality teaching in all communities.
According to Willemse et al. (2016), among the most outstanding characteristics

of the learning culture in a licensed training school are: engaging in students’
learning needs, analyzing learning outcomes, and building adapted programs
with differential teaching methods. This also reflects discourse, peer observations,
and unique and constructive feedback and control. Willemse et al. (2016) also
reiterated the importance of the continuous learning of the students (the clinical
experience) and the teachers (the professional development) with the academics
in the common space. “Analyzing learning outcome” is a major domain. When
student-teachers are present within an interactive, rich, supportive, and
informative atmosphere, where their supervisors are physically present for
guidance and assessment, the experience gains depth, momentum, and
credibility.
2.3 Model of Partnership and Involvement in Clinical Experience

In clinical training, which pays great attention to providing the involved
participant with enriched and hands-on experience, a partnership is created at a
systemic level, between the institution providing the training and the school
where the experience takes place. This is based on the idea of creating a learning
community and a learning organization. All those involved – managers,
pedagogical and disciplinary instructors, lecturers, students, interns, and teachers
– together will have access to continuous learning while interacting with each
other within the collaborative space, promoting deep reflective learning (Kintz
et al., 2015). What Kintz et al. (2015) suggested is fundamental. Within a clinical
model, and even though the involved pre-service teachers are the domain and the
basis, managers, pedagogical and disciplinary instructors, and lecturers are all
vital catalysts that cannot be neglected and whose roles should not be ignored.
In this model, the activity focuses on the joint construction of “emerging

knowledge” through a dialogue between the students, the schoolteachers, and the
pedagogical instructors from the host institution (Avidov-Ungar, 2017). Again,
while the participants unconsciously believe that they are educators at this phase,
they are in fact a cogwheel in a very complex machine of continuous learning and
teaching, “emerging knowledge,” first-hand development of skills and expertise,
and future-teacher building. The professional development schools (PDS) model
allows students a long and continuous stay at the school, getting to know the way
an educational institution operates. The core with the partnerships is focused on
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improving the teaching-training processes and adapting them to the school

reality, exposing the teaching student to school life with its various activities,
demands, challenges, and advantages.
2.4 Clinical Thinking

Clinical thinking is a cognitive process used by students and teacher trainers to
collect and analyze data to diagnose learning needs and make decisions for
intervention accordingly (Hattie, 2009). The experience of visibility and open
thinking encourages the use of evidence and the study of their practice instead of
just drawing conclusions (Ritchhart & Perkins, 2008). Clinical thinking is
characterized by logical thinking and discourse, in which evidence from
individual cases and different types of knowledge are evaluated in an integrated
manner. In this domain, we could draw a solid line between clinical thinking, on
one hand, and critical thinking, on the other hand. Clinical thinking evokes critical
thinking, as the real-life situations that the participant will be part of will raise
their level of conception, perception, and awareness.
Kriewaldt and Turnidge (2013) offered an approach to promoting clinical thinking

based on four foundations: respectful and reciprocal dialogue, use of data and
evidence in context, examination of personal assumptions and theories, and
formulating reasons (open thinking) and holding guided conversations designed
to stimulate critical thinking and analysis skills (Golding, 2011).
2.5 Action Research (Practice Research)

Gaudelli and Ousley (2009) and Ifenthaler and Gosper (2014) reiterated that one
of the possible ways to strengthen the relationship between academy and the field
is through action research. Action research in the field of education is usually
defined as professional research, where the researcher is involved in the
researched activity with the aim of understanding and improving it (Cochran-
Smith & Lytle, 2009). A circular process of collecting data is used to determine
goals and activities to carry out the goals, evaluate the results of the intervention,
and provide feedback (Bradbury, 2015). In the same respect, the Academia
Colleague model is fertile soil for such approach. In this model, a student is in fact
a teacher-in-action, and the wide gap between the theoretical knowledge and the
actual fieldwork is bridged with potency, efficacy, and quality.
The process of learning about teaching to develop a professional outlook includes

discussion of pedagogical justifications – an expression of the thought processes
and judgments underlying the teaching. This process makes it possible to
recognize the complexity and challenges faced by teachers to understand the
source of these challenges and to deal with them (Loughran, 2019). The process is
anchored in rich representations from the classroom that allow examining the
ways of thinking of the learners, the challenges they experience, and the
connection between the planning of teaching and learning (Horn, 2010; Lefstein
et al., 2020).
Conceptualization in this context involves the use of professional concepts to

describe teaching and learning processes and the connection between theoretical
and practical concepts. This framework calls for action – adopting a productive
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approach and thinking about future implementation (Vedder-Weiss et al., 2018).

It also calls for multiplicity of opinions and productive tension between them –
having a discourse that allows for the exposure of differences between
perceptions, the expression of opposing opinions, appeals to ideas and methods
of action, etc. (Grossman et al., 2001).
Moreover, conducting action research in the training may equip the student with
tools suitable for the teacher as a future researcher and to use to create links
between theory and practice (Brownhill et al., 2017). Action research focuses on
the researcher’s personal actions, their personal assumptions, the change they
want to make, and the results that affect the day-to-day work (Lefstein et al., 2020).
The researcher is personally involved in both research and action. Klein et al.
(2015) pointed out that those who are trained to teach as teachers face a new role
for them and are engaged in the development of teaching skills.
Eriksson et al. (2017) claimed that for the questions in action research to be “good”
questions, it is desirable to create a structure for the question, a structure that
experts in the field will construct. Brownhill et al. (2017) believed that such an
approach reduces and limits the research of the teachers. These researchers
believed that teachers should address their research questions with what interests
them professionally and with topics and issues that inspire them. In any case, to
facilitate the formulation of a research question, they suggested building a
framework for writing a research question.
2.6 Socio-Emotional Learning

According to Reeve et al. (2014), socio-emotional learning (SEL) is an integral part
of education and human development. It is a process through which knowledge
is developed and applied to develop healthy identities, manage emotions to
achieve personal and collective goals, and demonstrate empathy towards the
other, thereby creating supportive relationships and decision-making capacities.
SEL refers to the process through which people learn and apply an array of
emotional, social, and behavioral skills and competencies required for success in
schoolwork. Accordingly, it also provides a sense of personal resilience and
protection and thereby helps to realize the personal potential of the learners. SEL
sees the learning process in the social group and the relationship between the
educational institution and the family as spaces for personal development.
Participants involved in such teaching-learning environment have experienced

positive emotions of vigor and optimism and developed autonomous motivation
to invest in challenging and positive actions and goals (Vansteenkiste & Ryan,
2013). As a result, they experience a feeling of significance and their basic
psychological needs are further satisfied, which further strengthens
self-perceptions and motivation, and so on. That is, it is a spiraling process in
which experiences of satisfying needs, motivation, and constructive actions
reinforce each other (Martella et al., 2021). Numerous studies have shown that
there are several ways of working and treating teachers and educators that
directly support the students’ needs and their positive self-perceptions (Reeve
et al., 2014; Ruzek et al., 2016).
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3. Methodology
Based on the research hypothesis, and considering the research questions of the
study and the data to be obtained, the qualitative research method, within which
the concerned phenomenon (domain of the research) was tackled, analyzed, and
interpreted within its natural context, was employed. This was done in tandem
with the descriptive analytical approach of a sample of 13 out of a total of 102
pre-service teachers enrolled during the same academic year when the research
was conducted.
3.1 Research Design

The current study adopted a multidisciplinary design that follows several
approaches in order to ultimately achieve the research objectives. An exploratory
approach was the evident choice by the fact that the program that the research
investigates is a modern educational scheme that aims to improve the quality of
pre-service teachers.
The descriptive route of the research is also notable in the statistical analysis of
the results that emerged because of a close and thorough follow-up to the
participants’ progress and development. Finally, nuances of an explanatory
approach to the research design could be observed as the study introduced a new
pedagogical school to the educational arena at large.

The study aimed to identify the contribution of the Academia Colleague clinical
model to a licensed-school experiment in the professional development of
teaching students and their tendencies towards the teaching profession by
examining a variety of dimensions. These include active participation and
collaborative learning, personal and collective responsibility, active research
(applied research), and clinical thinking and SEL.

The significance of this study lies in the fact that it used the clinical model that
supports the teaching profession and actively nourishes the teachers’ experience
of it. In addition, the study adopted a new model that offers teaching students
actual training during their studies. The importance of this study is evident in the
fact that it deals with the tendencies towards the teaching profession and their
relationship to the teaching performance of the students participating in the
study.
3.4 Context of the Study

The Academia Colleague clinical model in teacher training was implemented in a
limited way (in a pilot format) in Israel in 2015. Sakhnin Academic College for
Teacher Education in Northern Israel chose to participate in this model. The
leading principle of the model is the transfer of the center of gravity of the training
from the academic institution to schools that have been defined as Academia
Colleague model schools chosen for training teacher students. The choice of the
school was made by the Ministry of Education after conducting tests in the field
of the educational institution and its staff.
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The community meetings were attended by teachers from the school staff with a
supervisor from the college. The community’s areas of practice were related to the
educational/pedagogical work at the school, which involved the “practice
research” method, namely researching representations, collaborative learning,
critical thinking, interpretation, experimentation, and improvement. The
community meetings were held regularly throughout the school year.
To achieve the objectives of the study, a mixed-method approach was employed.

First, this study was based on the qualitative research method. This method
involves studying the phenomenon in its natural context, relying on it as a source
of data, and collecting data directly from the community involved in the study.
Then, analysis and interpretation of the data are carried out thoroughly. For data
collection in this study, interviews were conducted, in which we asked the
participants specific questions. Their responses were recorded and analyzed. The
participants were interviewed individually by the first author, with each
interview lasting between 40 and 60 minutes, depending on the answers provided
by the participant. The interviews were conducted over a one-month period
during selected days that were agreed upon with the participants.
Second, we used the descriptive and analytical approach, which is defined as a

method that deals with the study of existing events, phenomena, and practices
that are readily available for more analysis, experimentation, and scrutiny. In this
context, we had no direct intervention, yet solely observed, interacted, described,
and analyzed existing events, phenomena, and practices.
3.5 Participants
Thirteen third year students affiliated with Sakhnin Academic College for Teacher
Education in Northern Israel participated in the study. All participants exhibited
a desire to take part in the study. The data collection was carried out throughout
the 2021/2022 academic year, where the interviews were conducted individually.
Table 1 shows the distribution of the sample members according to their
specialization.
Table 1: Distribution of sample members by specialization variable

Specialization n Percentage (%)
English language 8 61.5%
Mathematics 3 23.1%
Science 1 7.7%
Arabic language 1 7.7%
Total 13 100%

Multiple instruments were actively employed to serve the purpose that the study
aspired to achieve. We identified a specific number of personal traits and qualities
within the participants’ personalities on which we desired insights, and for that a
qualitative approach was necessary. Besides, and in addition to the necessary
observability, direct feedback from the participants in written form was obtained
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through the employment of a quantitative part to serve in tandem with the

qualitative part.
3.7 The Qualitative Part

The participants were asked to share feedback and record their thoughts and
opinions, as well as the contributions they make by being involved in the
Academia Colleague clinical model. The following seven themes were considered:
active involvement, collaborative learning, personal and collective responsibility,
research of practice, clinical thinking, and SEL.
3.8 The Quantitative Part

Two questionnaire instruments were developed for the purposes of the study. The
answers to the questions were based on a five-point Likert scale: 1 expresses a low
degree of agreement to the presented option, while 5 expresses a high degree of
agreement.
First, a multiple-choice questionnaire was developed to examine the perceptions

and attitudes of faculty members regarding their professional development in the
clinical model of Academia Colleague at the research site, a licensed school. The
number of paragraphs of the scale were 24.
Second, a multiple-question questionnaire was developed to examine the

tendencies of female students towards the teaching profession when the clinical
model was used during the training period. The number of paragraphs of the scale
were 35, distributed over four domains, namely:
• Personal attitude towards the teaching profession.
• Personal characteristics of the teacher.
• Self-assessment of the professional abilities, skills, and capacities of the
future teacher.
• Looking forward to the future of the teaching profession and society’s
perception of it.
All paragraphs of both questionnaires were given a gradual weight according to

the Likert scale. The responses were divided into strongly agree, agree, neutral,
disagree, and strongly disagree. The statements are characterized by clarity and gave
the participants the opportunity to choose the response that was compatible with
their own views and attitudes. The results obtained from this scale can be easily
analyzed and interpreted.
3.9 Credibility of the Research Instruments (Interview Schedule and

Questionnaires
After reviewing the theoretical literature and consulting some experts in the field
of curriculum development and teaching strategies, the interview questions and
questionnaire paragraphs were designed to identify the perceptions and attitudes
of teaching students regarding their professional development in the clinical
model. The participants’ tendency towards the teaching profession was also
probed. The questions were first presented to a group of specialists who worked
as teachers and faculty members at Sakhnin Academic College for Teacher
Education to ensure that the questions measured the depth of what they were set
153
for. In turn, these specialists made some suggestions, asking for amendments as
well as a reformulation of some questions until the final version that was
presented to the students participating in the study was reached.
3.10 Stability of the Research Instruments

To verify the stability of the research instruments, the following measures were
adopted. As for the stability of the interview questions, we experimented twice
with interview questions on three pre-service teachers who did not belong to the
study sample, with an interval of two weeks between the first and second time.
The answers of the first survey sample and that of the second did not show
significant differences.
For the identification of students’ teaching perceptions and attitudes towards

their professional development in the clinical model, the stability of the interview
questions and questionnaire paragraphs was determined by calculating the
stability of internal consistency. Internal consistency indicates the strength of the
correlation between the paragraphs in the research instrument. To determine the
coefficient of consistency, we employed the Cronbach alpha method. Table 2
shows the results of the test of the stability coefficient using the Cronbach alpha
method.
Table 2: Results of the coefficient of stability test using Cronbach’s alpha

Cronbach alpha Number of items
.931 24
Table 2 shows that the coefficient of stability of the questionnaire was .931, which
is a strong coefficient; that is, the research instrument was appropriate for the
domains of this study because the correlation between the paragraphs of the
questionnaire was very strong. To determine the participants’ attitudes towards
the teaching profession, the stability of the research instrument was verified also
by employing Cronbach’s alpha. Table 3 shows the coefficients of the stability of
the questionnaire in each of its fields.
Table 3. Results of the Cronbach alpha test to measure the stability of the scale
Number of Cronbach’s
Domain paragraphs alpha
coefficient
Personal attitude towards the teaching
7 .854
profession
Personal characteristics of the teacher 8 .678
Self-assessment of the professional abilities,
11 .759
skills, and capacities of the future teacher
Looking forward to the future of the
teaching profession and society’s perception 9 .712
of it
Overall degree 35 .901
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Table 3 shows that the stability coefficients ranged between .678 and .854, while
the value of the alpha coefficient of total stability was .901. All coefficients were
educationally acceptable stability coefficients and suitable for the study purposes.
3.11 Study Procedures

This study comprised a set of arranged steps and procedures, the most prominent
of which are:
1. Thoroughly revising the literature pertaining to the clinical model.
2. Scientifically constructing the research instruments and conducting the
necessary measures of credibility and stability.
3. Obtaining official approval from individuals and official institutions who
were involved in the study before conducting the interviews.
4. Clarifying the nature of the research and showing its significance in terms
of results and findings and their relevance to teachers in all disciplines,
educational supervisors, and faculty members in the colleges of teacher
education.
5. Making appropriate recommendations related to the results of the study.
3.12 Data Processing

The following methods of data analysis were followed in this study. First, the
study relied on the existing literature and previous studies related to the analysis
of the results of interviews, and on observing the ideas of the participants. Each
paragraph, sentence, or idea indicated the reality of scientific research as a unit of
analysis. The purpose was to classify the ideas put forward by the faculty
members of Sakhnin Academic College for Teacher Education concerning the
realities and contributions of Academia Colleague as a clinical model to a licensed
pre-service teacher education program.
Second, the study analyzed the results of the questionnaire of the perceptions and
attitudes of teaching students in relation to their professional development in the
clinical model. SPSS software was used for the statistical analyses. This included
measuring Cronbach’s alpha to verify the stability of the research instrument, and
means and standard deviations of the responses of the study sample to the
proposed questions. In addition, Shapiro (1965) and Kolmogorov (1939) tests were
used to examine the normalcy of the distribution. Finally, the Mann-Whitney U
(1947) test was used to measure the averages of participants’ answers for the
specialization variable (English and mathematics).
Lastly, the following statistical methods were employed to analyze the results of
the questionnaire on participants’ attitudes towards the teaching profession:
Pearson coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, and Monovariance analysis.
4. Results and Discussion

The main research question of the study was: What is the contribution of the
learning community and of Academia Colleague as a clinical model in the
professional development of pre-service teachers? This question was answered by
examining a variety of dimensions. These are: active participation and
collaborative learning, personal and collective responsibility, active research
155
(applied research), and clinical thinking and SEL. The data obtained from
interviewing the 13 female students participating in the study were analyzed and
are presented in Table 4. We classified and arranged the collected data logically.
The first and second interview questions related to the dimension of active
participation and collaborative learning and point to an agreement and
convergence in the ideas put forward by the students participating in the study.
In response to question 1, all participants indicated that they had participated in
educational and cultural activities or initiatives in school, regardless of their
specialization. Most of the participants stressed that participation in such
activities helped them to hone their personality. They also agreed on their
satisfaction and shared sense of pleasure. This is compatible with the second
question, which suggests a partnership between the student, the academic leader,
and the training teacher in the school. All participants, except for one English
major, reiterated the sense of cooperation and partnership. The participants also
stressed within their given responses that partnership contributed to improving
their self-confidence, sense of achievement, and attitude towards the teaching
profession. These findings are in line with those of Vidergor and Sisk (2013) and
Avidov-Ungar (2017).
The third interview question fell under the dimension of personal and collective
responsibility. There was agreement and convergence in the ideas put forward by
the students participating in the study. All participants reported that the training
experience to practice the profession of teaching in the school increased the
personal and collective responsibility for learning, regardless of the specialization
of each student. This experience had an impact by increasing motivation in the
trainee students by supporting their sense of belonging to the school, which led
to their sense of leadership spirit, positive personality traits, and spirit of
discovery.
The fourth interview question related to the dimension of active research (applied
research). Responses to this question indicated agreement and convergence in the
ideas put forward by the students participating in the study. All participants,
except for one English major, reiterated that the training program was better than
learning from the curriculum textbook. This was because the training period
enhanced the students’ overall performance, created the opportunity to apply
what was learned in the course, and helped students to solve problems through
the actual practice. This finding is consistent with the findings of Loughran (2019).
The fifth, sixth, and seventh interview questions pertained to the dimension of
clinical thinking and SEL. Responses to these questions showed agreement and
convergence in the ideas put forward by the participants. Notably, numerous
examples were provided in the answers to the fifth question. These included
discussion with students and getting closer to students to build an understanding
of some of the problems that they might be going through, which will ultimately
create a sense of reassurance and mutual trust. Additionally, in some cases, a
teacher must be a good listener rather than practice their traditional law as a
speaker. Regarding the sixth question, notably, the provided answers were not
156
affected by the specialization of participants. The same notion applies to the

seventh question as well, where two English major participants did not provide
examples on the domain. These findings are compatible with the findings of Reeve
et al. (2014).
The eighth interview question pertained to the dimension of the role of the
training teacher. There was a lack of agreement and convergence in the ideas put
forward by the students participating in the study. In this segment, five of the
eight English major participants (62.5%), one of the three mathematics major
participants (33.34%), the Arabic language major participant, and the science
major participant agreed on the importance of the training teacher in the
development of clinical thinking. The rest of the participants did not feel that this
role actually existed, and we noted here that the opinions of the participants
changed according to the variable of specialization.
Table 4. Classification of participants’ answers to the interview questions

Number
of
Dimension No. Question Percentage
positive
answers
Active 1 Have you participated or been a 13 100%
participat- partner in educational and cultural
ion and activities or initiatives at school? Give
collaborat- an example and state your experience.
ive learning 2 Is there a partnership between the 12 92%
student, the academic leader, and the
training teacher at school? How did
you contribute to your development in
the experience?
Personal 3 The experiment at school increased my 13 100%
and personal and collective responsibility
collective towards learning. Explain.
responsibi-
lity
Action 4 Training research is a process of 12 92%
research observation of the procedure that
(applied allows the teacher to solve problems
research) and learn and develop during the
work processes. How is this reflected
in the action research I led during the
course? Explain.
Clinical 5 Provide an example of the contribution 12 92%
thinking of socio-emotional learning (during the
and SEL course) to your self-awareness
abilities.
6 Provide an example of the contribution 10 77%
of socio-emotional learning (through
the course) to your relationship
management skills.
7 Provide an example of the contribution 12 92%
of socio-emotional learning (during the
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course) to your decision-making

abilities.
The role of 8 Did the training teacher contribute to 8 61%
the training the development of your logical
teacher clinical thinking during the
experiment? Explain how.
As observed in Table 4, the percentages of answers to the questions of each

dimension were all high, except for the dimension of role of the training teacher,
which was the lowest percentage recorded, at 61%. These high percentages
indicate that the contribution of the clinical model to the professional
development of teaching students is effective in the dimensions active
participation and collaborative learning, personal and collective responsibility,
active research (applied research), clinical thinking and SEL, and the role of the
training teacher. These findings are consistent with those reached by Murad et al.
(2022), who concluded that the learning community of the clinical model of
teacher education contributed significantly to the professional development of all
participants regardless of their field of knowledge, the role in the training process,
and the methodological activities offered by colleges and schools.
The first sub-question of the study was: How effective is the clinical model from
the point of view of the students participating in the study? To answer this
question, means and standard deviations were extracted for all the questionnaire
questions which measure the effectiveness of the clinical model from the point of
view of the students participating in the study (Table 5).
Table 5: Mean and standard deviation scores on the effectiveness of the clinical model
from the perspective of the students participating in the study
Number
Standard
No. Question of Mean Level
deviation
responses
The Academia Colleague clinical
model in which I am a participant
1 13 4.69 0.48 High
allows my active personal
involvement
The model enables dialogue and
2 joint discussions to improve the 13 4.69 0.48 High
overall processes
The model allows each of the
3 involved individuals to contribute 13 4.85 0.38 High
effectively
In my opinion, the model allows
me to be involved in the
4 13 4.69 0.48 High
educational and cultural activities
of the school
The model contributes greatly to
5 the teamwork capacity of all its 13 4.46 1.39 High
participants
The model allows me to engage in
6 13 4.77 0.44 High
the students’ learning process
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The model enables constant

7 improvement in my 13 4.69 0.48 High
interdisciplinary skills
Pedagogical tools and products
that improve the quality of the
8 teaching, learning, and assessment 13 4.46 0.52 High
processes have been developed
within the model
In my opinion, the model enables
all its participants to develop the
necessary skills to adapt to the
9 13 4.46 0.52 High
various teaching processes and to
deal with the special challenges
present at schools
In my opinion, the model
promotes to a large extent the
10 13 4.62 0.51 High
openness of its partners to new
and flexible experiences
The model allows to actively
11 13 4.54 0.52 High
connect theory with practice
I believe that the learning,
planning, and evaluation done
12 jointly with the model allow for an 13 4.23 1.30 High
improvement in my sense of self-
esteem
In my opinion, the model increases
13 my personal responsibility 13 4.62 0.51 High
towards what is done at school
In my opinion, the model
significantly improves the
14 personal responsibility of the 13 4.54 0.52 High
partners in the subjects of the
study
The model increases the collective
15 responsibility towards the 13 4.54 0.52 High
activities in a school
The model increases the collective
16 responsibility towards the 13 4.46 0.52 High
students’ learning process
The model improves the sense of
individual responsibility by
reducing the personal tendency of
all partners in it to attribute the
17 students’ difficulties and 13 4.15 1.14 High
challenges to the home
environment, the society, and/or
the Ministry of Education and
other factors
The model allows all partners in it
to carry out an action research
18 13 4.46 0.78 High
process on pedagogical processes
within the school environment
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The model allows all partners in it

19 to have a critical reflection to 13 4.54 0.52 High
improve the learning processes
Within this model, I am enabled to
20 accurately recognize thoughts, 13 4.62 0.51 High
feelings, and values about myself
Within this model, I am allowed to
21 13 4.54 0.52 High
create supportive relationships
22 make decisions in a responsible 13 4.69 0.48 High
and caring manner
23 feel and show empathy towards 13 4.62 0.51 High
the other
In my opinion, within this model,
it is possible for me to integrate
24 social and emotional learning 13 4.62 0.65 High
content in the fields of knowledge
and practice
Overall degree 13 4.56 0.413 High
Table 4 indicates that the effectiveness of the clinical model from the point of view
of the students participating in the study was high, where the total average was
4.56, with a standard deviation of 0.413. With regard to the questionnaire
questions as a whole, the mean and standard deviation scores of the participants’
answers were limited between means of 4.15 and 4.85, where paragraph 3 came
in first place with a mean of 4.85, a standard deviation of 0.38, and within the high
level. Paragraph 6 came in second place with a mean of 4.77, a standard deviation
of 0.44, and within the high level as well. Paragraph 17 attained last place with a
mean of 4.15, a standard deviation of 1.14, and within the high level.
These results can be explained in relation to the fact that, through the study
procedure, employment of the clinical model was found to contribute to a tangible
change in the training practices of students who were actively involved in the
program. During the training, an intellectual change was observed in some of the
students’ convictions and behaviors as well. This was seen through the
enhancement of the skill of communication, the skill of active participation and
cooperative learning, the ability to take personal and collective responsibility, and
the SEL capacities. All these cognitive and behavioral alterations and
enhancements where also observed by Darling-Hammond (2006) and
Hammerness et al. (2012).
Table 6 shows an estimated scale according to the five-point Likert scale to

identify the results displayed in Table 5.
Table 6: Estimated scale according to the five-point Likert scale

Response Weighted average Level
Strongly disagree (SD) 1 – 1.79
Low
Disagree (D) 1.80 – 2.59
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Neutral (N) 2.60 – 3.39 Average

Agree (A) 3.40 – 4.19
High
Strongly agree (SA) 4.20 – 5
The second sub-question of the study was: Are there statistically significant
differences at the significance level α = .05 in the average responses of the study
sample participants on the effectiveness of the clinical model from their point of
view attributable to the specialization variable (English and mathematics)? The
Shapiro and Kolmorogov tests were used for checking the distribution (Table 7).
Table 7: Shapiro and Kolmogorov test results for checking the distribution
Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
Specialization
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Average English .257 8 .028 .862 8 .027
questions Math .302 3 .02 .910 3 .017
As seen in Table 7, the Shapiro and Kolmogorov tests revealed a statistical

significance of less than .05, meaning that participant responses regarding the
English language and mathematics subjects were not statistically significant. This
indicates that the distribution does not follow the normal distribution patterns.
This is confirmed by Figure 1, which shows that English did not have a normal
distribution pattern that is consistent with the averages of participants’ responses
to questions. Figure 2 also shows the same result for mathematics.
Figure1: Abnormal distribution pattern for English that is consistent with the
averages of participants’ answers to the questions
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Figure2: Abnormal distribution pattern for mathematics that is consistent with the
averages of participants’ answers to the questions
The Mann-Whitney U test (1947) was used to calculate the averages of

participants’ responses in regard of the specialization variable, that is English and
mathematics (Table 8), given the fact that the distribution of the two subjects does
not follow the normal distribution.
Table 8 shows that there were no statistically significant differences at the level of
significance (α = .05) of the average response of participating female students
attributable to the specialization variable.
Table 8: Mann-Whitney U test results for the average of participants’ responses for the
specialization variable (English and mathematics)
Average questions
Mann-Whitney U 5.000
Wilcoxon W 11.000
Z -1.445
Asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .148
Exact sig. [2*(1-tailed sig.)] .194b
The third sub-question of the study was: What is the relationship between
teaching tendencies and the accumulative GPA of students participating in the
study? The correlation coefficient between teaching tendencies, on one hand, and
accumulative averages, on the other hand, was calculated and is presented in
Table 9.
Table 9: Correlation coefficient between teaching tendencies and accumulative

average
Correlation
Domain Sig.
coefficient
Relationship between teaching tendencies
0.119 0.155
and accumulative average
162
Table 9 shows that the level of significance was greater than .05, which indicates
that there were no statistically significant relationships between the participants’
tendencies and the accumulative average, limiting the statistically significant
relationship role to participants’ personal preference and passion towards the
subject. In addition, and based on the observations of the professional teachers
who were part of the physical environment of the study, the supervisors who
were responsible for constant assessment, and the authors of the paper, the GPA
had little or no impact on motivation. Surprisingly, it was noted that some
participants with lower GPAs were more motivated and showed more
commitment to the tasks and responsibilities that were assigned to them.
The fourth sub-question of the study was: What is the impact of the GPA on the
teaching tendencies of the students participating in the study? One-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) of the sample members’ estimates was used to answer the
question, with the results illustrated in Table 10.
Table 10: One-way ANOVA results of sample members’ estimates

Sum of
df Mean square F Sig.
squares
Between groups 0.001 1 0.001 0.004 .950
Within groups 2.701 11 0.246
Total 2.702 12
Table 10 illustrates that the value of the calculated statistical significance level was
.950, which is greater than the value of the significance level of .05. This indicates
that there were no statistically significant differences between the average scores
of the participants to the questionnaire questions relating to the specialization
variable.
5. Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, which were based on the scientific analysis of
the data acquired, we may conclude that the clinical model Academia Colleague
in a licensed-school experiment contributed in a notable and significant way to
the professional development of teaching students and their tendencies towards
the teaching profession. The model offered new options for the teaching students,
introduced diversification to the already existing traditional models, put forward
new skills, and altered the classical atmosphere surrounding the educational
process at large. The introduction of such model contributed greatly to the
professional development of the involved participants, and notably motivated
cooperative and collaborative learning, personal and collective responsibility, and
clinical and critical thinking, and profoundly promoted SEL.
6. Study Recommendations and Limitations

In light of the results of the study, its discussion and interpretation, we came up
with the following recommendations:
1. To develop the teaching performance of students of educational
disciplines, emphasis should be placed on the nature of the practical
163
education program offered to these student-teachers in terms of quality

and quantity.
2. Comprehensive quality standards for the practical education program
should be developed in cooperation between the Department of
Educational Supervision and the departments of the educational colleges
to improve the teaching performance of the student-teachers.
3. Constant follow-ups should be done of student-teachers in the educational
field and multifaceted workshops held on the aspects of practical
education by various experts in the faculties of education and directorates
of education to reach the required level.
4. To enhance student-teachers’ abilities and skills during the actual training,
colleges of education must accelerate the development of the teacher
preparation program, especially in the field of training, by introducing
micro-teaching into their study programs before assigning
student-teachers to schools.
The research was conducted at two government schools in Northern Israel. All
participants of the study (13 female, Arab minority teaching-students) were
involved in the study along with supervisors, educational experts, college
professors, and in-service teachers of the same background.
It was more challenging to access a larger number of participants due to the

qualitative nature of the study and the fact that individual interviews were the
main source for the acquisition of data. The study was mainly based on extensive
fieldwork, with interviews and questionnaires conducted individually
throughout the duration of the study (the first semester of the 2021/2022 academic
year).
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166

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 166-190, January 2023
Effects of Interactive Mathematics Software on

Grade-5 Learners’ Performance
Innocente Uwineza
School of Education, University of Rwanda
Alphonse Uworwabayeho
School of Education, University of Rwanda
Kenya Yokoyama
Sakura-Sha, 101-0051 Tokyo, Japan
Abstract. In order to cope with globalisation and the growing world of

work, educational systems are challenged to improve the quality of
education. The use of technology in education attracts the focus of
developing countries aiming at raising their educational status to fit the
global scale. Therefore, Rwanda education system is promoting the use of
ICT in primary and secondary education as an instructional tool.
Interactive Mathematics (IM) software for Rwanda was developed to
support the effective implementation of the Competence Based
Curriculum (CBC) of mathematics in primary level. Designed as quasi-
experimental using control and experimental groups, this study was
conducted in urban public and private schools to investigate the effect of
IM software on grade-5 learners' performance. Considering IM software
as a new technology under piloting phase, this study was grounded in
TPACK framework with theories of technology acceptance model. Data
collected through pre-test and post-test in form of scores were analysed
using SPSS 23.0 to compute the statistical effect of the teaching
interventions. From results, IM software descriptively showed a greater
performance than the traditional class, based on the effect size of
significance and learning gains. Using repeated measures ANOVA
through the general linear model, it was found that IM improved learners'
performance more in public than private schools, although private
schools showed a high-performance level at both pre-and post-test stages.
Despite that, males’ performance remained higher than females’ although
females descriptively improved in post-test. The study suggests
conducting qualitative studies that would bring more information about
the features of IM in quality mathematics education.
Keywords: Interactive Mathematics software; grade-5 learners; learners’

performance; experimental group; control group
©Authors
167
1. Introduction
The major goal of any education system is to enable learners to achieve learning
outcomes in relation to national aspirations. The current globalisation vision
stresses the development of 21st century competences through education. This
pushes education systems worldwide to a race of providing quality and the right
education to equip the youth with the necessary skills to fit in the evolving world
of work. In fact it was argued that education should change as quickly as the
technology does to enable young people embrace the rapidly changing
environment (Khun-inkeeree, 2016). In education systems, the aspect of quality
education is generally translated into learning outcomes which are drawn from
national aspirations. According to Dev (2016), learning outcomes are generally
reflected by learners’ academic performance. For example, in India, learning
outcomes have become a phenomenon of interest such that many scholars have
been working hard to untangle factors that militate against good academic
performance (Dev, 2016).
Since 2015, Rwanda education system adopted a competence based curriculum

(CBC) and different teaching and learning resources have been developed to
support the effective implementation of the CBC. Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) tools were prioritised to address barriers
related to CBC effective implementation including insufficiency of resources, poor
pedagogy and mediocre performance. In fact, it was argued that availability of
technological aid could improve the quality of mathematics learning, the learning
environment and performance of both boys and girls (Khun-inkeeree, 2016).
Therefore, the Interactive Mathematics (IM) Software was developed to support
the teaching and learning of mathematics in primary or grade level schools.
Drawing on this background, this study explored the effect of Interactive

Mathematics (IM) software on grade-5 learners’ performance. The objectives that
guided this study consisted of a) investigating the role of IM on learners’
performance; b) comparing the role of IM in different performances of public and
private school learners; c) comparing the difference in females’ and males’
performance in IM supported mathematics classes.
2. Review of Literature
Existing literature on changes brought by Information Communication
Technology (ICT) in human life highlights the importance of technology in
empowering young people with skills to embrace the rapidly changing
environment (Khun-inkeeree, 2016). Therefore, education systems opted to use
ICT to stay updated with the dynamic life constraints and studies were conducted
to analyse the effect of technology integration in education. For example, in
mathematics education, a study argued that the availability of technological aid
could improve the quality of mathematics learning and performance of both boys
and girls (Khun-inkeeree, 2016). Other studies found that the best mathematics
performers in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) among the
OECD countries like Japan and Singapore mostly use computers in their
classrooms (Gronmo et al., 2016; House, 2007). Seemingly, most advanced
education systems, especially in developed countries which adopted ICT in
teaching and learning many years ago, succeeded in producing learners who excel
168
in mathematics worldwide. In light of advanced countries in mathematics

performance, the promotion of the use of computers in basic levels of education,
like primary school is of paramount importance (Gronmo et al., 2016). Therefore
the use of IM software to support the implementation of the CBC in mathematics
education in Rwandan primary schools would likely contribute to creating a
classroom learning environment that would improve quality teaching and
learning.
The purpose of quality education (Alshammari et al., 2017) is to improve

learners’ achievement. Learners’ academic performance is the ultimate
expectation for all educational stakeholders in general and for themselves in
particular, without excluding teachers, parents and school administration (Dev,
2016). In elementary school learners, academic performance predicts the future of
the youth and the whole nation (Dev, 2016). The ranking of schools from schools
of excellence to the rest of the schools is guided by many criteria, but emphasis is
always put on learners’ achievement or academic performance. For example, in
Rwanda's education system, it is a habit to rank schools from the best to the worst
by considering many criteria but, most importantly, by putting an emphasis on
academic achievement or learners’ performance. Therefore, all schools aspire to
be excellent by allowing learners to improve their achievements. These include
time for self-study, the increase in assignments or tests and the urge for teachers
to provide feedback timely and to integrate ICT in teaching and learning activities.
In education systems, different factors influence the quality of education and

learners’ performance. These include the school statuses, gender issues, learners’
educational level, qualification of teachers, the type of pedagogy and the
availability of instructional material as well as the scope of the subject content.
The type of school is a factor of the effective teaching and learning process and
school academic performance based on the differences between public and
private schools including class population and teachers’ qualifications. Khun-
inkeeree (2016) investigated on the performance between public and private
elementary schools in Thailand. Using ANOVA, he compared the difference
between two public schools and one private school, and found that private schools
showed better performance compared to public schools. Therefore, strategies to
empower public school learners so that they can perform in the same way as their
colleagues who study in private schools are necessary if they are all expected to
achieve the same learning outcomes. In Rwanda, learning environment in private
primary schools presents more opportunities to promote learners’ better
performance than public schools. These include a limited number of learners per
classroom making it easier for the teacher to take care of individual learners and
to teach them well. Therefore, the use of IM in public primary schools teaching
will promote the learning environment of overpopulated class resulting in
learners’ increase in performance. Many other factors, including lack of
instructional materials, lack of qualified teachers, teachers’ poor pedagogical
content knowledge or technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK),
influence the quality of education and academic performance of learners in
general and particularly in a mathematics lesson.
169
Literature on gender differences in mathematics performance reported that boys

and girls have different perceptions about their difference in performance (Dev,
2016; Uwineza et al., 2018). Girls attribute their mathematics learning and
performance more to external factors and less to abilities, while boys’ abilities’ to
learning and performing well in mathematics were credited more to internal
factors like reasoning and effort or commitment and less to external factors (Dev,
2016). Accordingly, the way IM content is developed and presented together with
other features which makes the teaching attractive and enjoyable to learners show
the potentials of IM to likely fit both female and male learning styles. Drawing on
Dev, (2016)’s findings, IM supported class can change the learning environment
from traditional learning environment using chalk and talks to smart learning
environment which is ICT enhanced. In addition, mathematics content in IM
software is developed from semi-concrete level to abstract level allowing learners
to develop critical thinking and reasoning while learning. Therefore, IM software
seems to be an instructional tool that may address female and male differences in
learning styles as explained by Dev (2016) and may bridge the potential gap in
females’ and males’ performance. In addition, teachers should be empowered to
develop the learners’ understanding of mathematics without distinction between
females and males (Habineza, 2018) using instructional resources including ICT
resources.
According to Uworwabayeho (2009), formal mathematics education in Rwanda

started with arithmetic and developed through many curriculum reforms. It had
long time been facing challenges to quality delivery related to but not limited to
pedagogy (Maniraho & Christiansen, 2015), gender differences in attitudes and
perceptions (Habineza, 2018), teaching and learning resources (Nyirahabimana &
Twagilimana, 2019) and mostly the lack of professional mathematics teachers
(Uworwabayeho, 2009). For example, a study conducted by Maniraho and
Christiansen, (2015) revealed primary teachers’ poor pedagogical content
knowledge in unpacking mathematical content. At the same time, Nyirahabimana
and Twagilimana (2019)’s study findings from one public secondary school
mentioned insufficiency or sometimes unavailability of textbooks to support
teachers’ commitment to influence learners’ performance. In another study,
Umuhoza and Uworwabayeho, (2021) identified insufficiency or total lack of
instructional materials for teaching mathematics. According to Msafiri (2017),
teachers and students need instructional materials to easily achieve instructional
objectives, increase learners’ motivation to learn and increase understanding in
practical ways. Therefore, instructional materials are necessary for successfully
teaching and learning any subject including mathematics. It is worth noting that
in Rwanda, nearly all studies conducted in mathematics education focused only
on secondary school level. However, it is necessary to shift the focus of research
attention to the primary level too, to build quality content delivery from the early
level of education. Addressing mathematics issues including those related to
pedagogy and instructional resources from primary level would be a means to
predicting the quality of mathematics and to indirectly addressing issues at upper
educational levels. Therefore, in this study IM technological tool was used as an
instructional material that may also help teachers’ effective delivery of the content
following IM content development which was tailored following CBC framework.
170
In 1986, Shulman introduced the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) theory

explaining quality knowledge for successful teachers in their teaching careers.
According to Sri and Mardhiyah (2019), PCK is a manifestation of content
knowledge and pedagogical knowledge, which means that teaching
(mathematics) is not only understanding it but also knowing how (and who) to
teach it. It is the teacher’s ability to manage students in the learning process.
According to Akturk et al. (2019), technology integration in education has become
a necessity. Therefore, building on Shulman's formulation of “pedagogical
content knowledge” in 1986, Punya Mishra and Matthew J. Koehler introduced
Technology Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) theory in 2006 and
extended it to the phenomenon of teachers integrating technology into their
pedagogy. TPACK is one of the teaching methods which is currently becoming
progressively more successful in promoting the effective integration of
technology in teaching and learning activities (Soler-Costa et al., 2021).
Many studies used the TPACK theoretical framework in teacher education studies
(Beri & Sharma, 2021; Omoso & Odindo, 2020; Antony et al., 2019; Bos, 2011).
Other few studies used the TPACK framework focusing on the teaching and
learning processes, students’ learning and self-efficacy and academic achievement
(Akturk et al., 2019). Some of the findings highlight that integration of technology
and pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) is beneficial to the school, college
and university teachers’ professional development (Beri & Sharma, 2021),
teachers’ qualifications and teaching experience (Antony et al., 2019). On teaching
and learning activities, studies found that the TPACK framework likely helps
teachers to update their teaching knowledge, to teach effectively and to increase
their teaching experience (Antony et al., 2019; Beri & Sharma, 2021) and promotes
confidence among learners, encourage to learn (Beri & Sharma, 2021). According
to Akturk et al. (2019), TPACK framed lessons has a positive impact on learning
outcomes. As for Soler-Costa et al., (2021), TPACK framework is likely
appropriate pedagogical approach for content delivery with appropriate ICT tool.
In addition, Akturk et al., (2019)’s study found that teachers’ TPACK level
influence on academic achievement was likely higher than learners’ emotional
self-efficacy.
The advent of different educational technological tools implies selective attention

with respect to their potential to influence quality teaching and learning.
Therefore the teachers’ attitudes and perceptions about the new technological tool
plays a role in developing or adjusting their TPACK with that particular tool.
According to Alomary and Woollard (2015), when presented with a new
technology, individuals behave differently with respect to acceptance or denial
of the tool which affects the end product. Different theories related to technology
acceptance have been used over time to explain end users’ perceptions and
intentions to use technology within and across organisations (Alomary &
Woollard, 2015). In 1989, Davis introduced Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
which was drawn from the theory of reasoned action (TRA) with the aim
justifying and explaining technologies user population and behaviour (Lee et al.,
2003). According to Momani (2020), the way technology users perceive it or judge
it ease of use and quality to produce desired outcomes results in user satisfaction.
TAM underwent several empirical studies with a focus on various variables and
171
organizations and has proven to be a robust model for understanding end-user

adoption of technology. Several reviews led this model to take different forms,
including TAM, TAM2 and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of
Technology (UTAUT). The purpose was to harmonise variables, focuses and
constructs and address some limitations to identifying end users’ perception and
attitudes towards the use of technology. In educational settings, nearly all the
UTAUT constructs and variables tested proven to have a significant influence on
how technology is perceived by users’ (Momani, 2020). Among the findings,
factors influencing students’ technology acceptance and the role of technology in
improving students’ levels of English were highlighted. Among the technology
acceptance model variables measured, the performance expectancy constructs
attracted our study’s attention. We argue that learners’ performance in technology
supported class results from teachers’ acceptance and attitude to the technology
considered which influences the teachers’ TPACK level.
Considering the current implementation of CBC in the Rwandan education

system, improving the quality of mathematics education using ICT as a tool for
teaching and learning is a priority issue. According to Ndihokubwayo and
Habiyaremye (2018), CBC requires teachers to teach many skills and teachers’
traditional teaching methods are not suitable to assist learners developing desired
competences from schools. A study conducted by Rutz et al. (2003) about the use of
instructional technologies to improve the learning process for students in
fundamental engineering science courses found improvement in students’
performance, time on tasks and interest in instructional technology class
compared to traditional methods. In addition, students developed satisfaction
attitudes towards technology. Therefore, research and policies suggest teachers to
embrace participatory and interactive methods that engage learners in the
learning process. Interactive technologies are among the ICT tools which are the
most widely used in education that can enhance communication and interaction
in the classroom (Eastman et al., 2009). Interactive technologies used in education
include interactive whiteboards (Papanastasiou, 2016), iPads and PowerPoint
presentation with or without learners’ technological tools for their interaction
(Eastman et al., 2009). In line with the effective implementation of the CBC in
mathematics in primary schools, Sakura-Sha, a Japanese private company, has
developed the Interactive Mathematics (IM) software for Rwandan basic
education learners.
IM software is an offline and easy-to-use software that is built to ensure the

exploitation of mathematics in all its aspects, following the CBC for respective
levels. The IM content software is offline, easy to use, user-friendly even for IT-
illiterate people, and portable (simply after copying and pasting it, you start using
it).
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Figure 1. Interactive Mathematics content software outlook of the starting window

and example of an interactive content
With Interactive Mathematics content software, mathematics objects are

presented in semi- concrete combined with the abstract nature of mathematics,
stimulating interactivity through colourful images, diagrams, movement text, and
sound. There are also the speeds of activity as well as variation of mathematics
activities at different levels of complication that can stimulate and sustain
engagement and interactivity in IM content software supported class.
This study is grounded in the TPACK framework with theories of technology

acceptance model with its performance expectancy construct. Considering IM
software as a new technology in the piloting phase, teachers’ attitude and
perceptions about IM software ease of use and its quality in influencing quality
teaching and learning will influence their TPACK level. This will result in
learners’ quality of learning and their performance. Therefore, learners’
performance will be a result of teachers’ TPACK level, which itself will be
influenced by their attitudes and perception towards the IM software
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design and Sampling Issues
This study was designed as quasi-experimental involving control and
experimental groups. Schools that were involved in the study were selected
depending on the availability of ICT infrastructures such as projection facilities,
electricity and computers. The selection focused on public and private schools in
an urban area, Kigali, Rwanda. The urban area attracted the focus of our study
because of the likelihood of finding there are more private schools of primary level
very close to one another and many public schools well equipped with ICT
infrastructure compared to a rural area. In addition, the urban area presents more
facilities to move from one school to another in a shorter time than in rural area.
Therefore, after identifying public and private schools that are ICT equipped, we
conveniently selected sample schools and focused on primary-5 learners to
participate in this study. Sample schools were assigned to two research groups
consisting of treatment and control groups. The teaching of mathematics in
treatment group schools uses IM software as an instructional tool and is
supported by a laptop, a wireless mouse and a projector. All learners were invited
to follow the teaching on the projected content and a wireless mouse was used to
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facilitate the teacher’s and learners’ interactions with the content. The same
content delivered in treatment group classes was delivered in control group
classes but with different instructional tools. Before and after conducting research
activities, a pre-test and a post-test were given to learners from control and
experimental groups to compare their performance.
Table 1 summarizes the sample, research groups, and research activities.
Table 1: Sample and activities design

Sample groups Sample Research activities
size
Learners Time 1 Time 2 Time 3
Group 1: 92 Pre-test IM assisted Post-test
Experimental teaching
group [IM class]
Group 2: Control 102 Pre-test Chalk and Post-test
Group [Traditional talk teaching
class]
The population of this study consisted of primary-5 learners from public and
private schools. The sample size consisted of 202 P5 learners including 83 from
private schools and 119 from public schools. This study took place during the
usual teaching and learning school activities. The scheme of work and the usual
timetable were respected the way they were planned, and research activities were
undertaken along with the first term (January–March) of the 2020 school year,
depending on the topics. While lower grade (P1, P2, P3) learners study for six
periods (one period is equivalent to 40 minutes), there are seven periods per week
of learning in upper grade (P4, P5, P6). Thus, IM supported teaching activities in
grade 5 which was the focus of our study, lasted 7 periods per week.
3.2. Research Tools and Data Collection

This study used quantitative research methods (Cresswell, 2014) whereby data
were collected using pre-tests and post-tests. Japanese mathematics education
experts in the Sakura-Sha project, together with mathematics teachers and the
researchers worked together to design test questions guided by the Rwandan
mathematics syllabus of P5 (REB, 2015). Eight questions in total were developed
for each pre-test and post-test (see appendix 1). The tests focused on integers and
consisted of the following lessons: finding the equivalent fraction, naming the
shaded region or shading a region corresponding to a given fraction, comparing
fractions, and changing the denominators of fractions to a given common
denominator. Test items were similar in the pre-test and post-test with small
differences but measuring the same construct. The purpose was to measure
learners' understanding and consistency in their understanding. Test items were
selected from those suggested in P5 syllabus and P5 learners’ book with respect
to related content and by respecting their formulation. All test items were routine
problems requiring providing a direct answer or short problem-solving working.
The answers and marks of the pre-test and post-test were given to learners two
days after the post-test was done.
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P5 teachers prepared the test items used in the pre-test and the post-test and the
researcher based on the content to be delivered using IM and following their
ordinary way of setting test items. The content taught in P5 focused on the unit
of integers. The lessons delivered were the following: location of positive and
negative numbers on a number line, comparison and ordering of integers,
addition of integers, subtraction of integers and solving problems involving
addition, and subtraction of integers. This content was the only P5 IM
mathematics version available. During the teaching activities, the teachers and the
learners were engaged with the soft content using the wireless mouse and
manipulated the teaching material, working on examples, and learners' exercises
projected on the classroom wall. IM supported teacher presentation was
sometimes interrupted by switching on learners’ individual or group workings
followed by the teacher monitoring of learners’ activities.
3.3. Research clearance and ethical consent

Before collecting data, the researcher was given ethical clearance to go into the
field. In addition, data collection was simultaneously done during the REB-
SAKURASHA IM pilot period. Therefore, REB itself prepared schools that
participated in the IM piloting phase for hosting the piloting and research
activities. The latter took place during the school normal activities and at the exact
time fitting the one planned in the scheme of work of teachers. Henceforth, the
research did not interrupt the normal school calendar. Instead, it
supported/integrated itself into implementing the planned teaching. Before data
collection and the implementation of teaching intervention, school head teachers
signed consent forms and informed the teachers and learners about the research
and project purpose. Teachers were trained and briefed on the traditional and IM
teaching activity. The researcher discussed the units of content they were teaching
and the concepts to be covered during the research activities.
3.4. Data Analysis

In this study, the researchers mainly used SPSS 23.0 to compute the statistical
effect of the teaching interventions provided to analyse data. Class #1 (private
and control) missed three learners (2 missed pre-test while one missed post-test),
Class #2 (public and control) missed one learner that did not do the post-test,
Class #3 (private and experimental) missed two learners (one missed pre-test
while another missed a post-test), and Class #4 missed two learners who both did
not attend post-test. Thus, 45 learners of Class #1, 57 of Class #2, 33 of Class #3,
and 59 of Class #4 were taken for analysis.
Firstly, researchers analysed groups of treatment and test and revealed percent
mean score, standard deviation (Std. Dev), significance, the difference (p-value),
effect size (f), and learning gains (g). The significance was taken at p<.05
(statistically significant), p<.01 (high statistically significant), or p<.001 (very high
statistically significant). The effect size was calculated as f = (Post-test Mean – Pre-
test Mean) / Average Std. Dev while learning gains were calculated as g = (Post-
test Mean – Pre-test Mean) / (100% – Pre-test Mean). Then, histograms showing
the number of learners in range scores were plotted and finally, the school and
gender variables were analysed after the treatment effect. Considering that there
were 8 participant learners who did not sit for both tests, data from 194 (92 in the
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experimental and 102 in the control groups) learners who sat for both pre-test and
post-test were taken to the analysis phase to analyse the change in performance at
individual level.
4. Results
4.1. Primary Five Learners’ General Performance
Descriptive Statistics
Table 2. Descriptive and inferential statistics in testing (pre-and post-test)

Treatment Test Sample Mean Std. Dev p-value f (Test) g
(%) (%)
Traditional Pre-test 102 43.92 25.19 <.001 .52 .22
class Post- 56.71 23.31
test
IM class Pre-test 92 39.56 19.77 <.001 1.32 .41
Post- 64.83 18.46
test
Learners in both traditional and IM classes performed well. Results in Table 2

show that the traditional method improved learners' scores significantly from pre-
test to post-test (p<.001, effect size (f) =.52). The learners gained .22 of learning
(learning gain, g) from this method. Likewise, IM software improved learners'
scores significantly from the pre-test to the post-test (p<.001, f =1.32). The learners
gained .41 of learning (g). Therefore, the IM class descriptively showed a greater
performance than the traditional class, based on the effect size of significance and
learning gains.
Table 3. Descriptive and inferential statistics in teaching intervention (treatment)

Test Treatment Sample Mean Std. Dev p-value f
(%) (%) (Treatment)
Pre- Traditional 102 43.92 25.19 >.5 -.19
test class
IM class 92 39.56 19.77
Post- Traditional 102 56.71 23.31 <.01 .38
test class
IM class 92 64.83 18.46
Table 3 demonstrates the descriptive difference observed in Table 1. Learners in

both traditional and IM classes showed no statistically significant difference
(p>.05, effect size (f) =-19) in the pre-test (before learning), while such significance
was found to be highly significant (p<.01, f=.38) after learning (in post-test) in
favour of IM software. Table 2 shows that learners in the traditional class got an
average score of 56.71%, while those in the IM class got an average score of 64.83.
This shows a statistical mean difference in performance between traditional and
IM supported teaching.
Figures 2 and 3 present the number of learners in a specific range of scores. Figure
2 shows that the number of learners in the pre-test and post-test seem to be at the
same level along with each score range.
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Traditional class
Number of P5 pupils 30
25
20
15
10
0
≥10 11-20% 21-30% 31-40% 41-50% 51-60% 61-70% 71-80% 81-90% 91-100%
Pre-test score Post-test score
Figure 2. Histogram of traditional class
However, Figure 3 shows a different outlook. Many learners are below 50% scores
in the pre-test, while many learners got above 50% on the post-test. Therefore,
descriptive analysis shown by these two histograms shows that the IM class
improved learning more than the traditional class did.
IM class
30
Number of P5 pupils
25
20
15
10
5
0
Pre-test score Post-test score
Figure 3. Histogram of IM class
4.2. Variables Analysis with Repeated Measures ANOVA in General Linear

Models
After analysing the general characteristics of teaching intervention delivered,
researchers opted to look into other different factors, such as the type of schools
(public or private) involved and the gender (male or female) of learners involved
in the treatment. Private schools (N=78) showed a higher level of performance
both before and after learning than public schools (N=116), although public
schools showed a slight improvement in post-test (see Figure 4).
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Figure 4. Interaction between Tests, treatment, and schools [Public and private schools
performance] in a traditional class
In IM class, such a difference was not large as in traditional class. But still private
was higher than public schools, and public schools showed an improvement from
the intervention offered more than private (see Figure 5).
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Figure 5. Interaction between Tests, treatment, and schools in IM class
Similarly, an investigation done on gender differences showed male learners

(N=100) performing higher than their female counterparts (N=94). For instance,
Figure 6 shows that male learners in traditional classes got higher pre and post-
test scores. Interestingly, females showed a will to improve in the post-test,
descriptively, of course.
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Figure 6. Interaction between Tests, treatment, and gender in the traditional class
Figure 7 shows that male learners in IM class got higher scores in both pre-and post-
test, and females showed a will to improve in the post-test.
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Figure 7. Interaction between Tests, treatment, and gender in IM class
From the above figures, one can descriptively depict information related to school
and gender factors. Table 3 presents inferential statistics. Using repeated
measures ANOVA through the general linear model in SPSS, there was a
statistically significant difference (p<.05) between public and private schools in
both pre-and post-test scores despite the treatment offered (traditional method or
IM software). However, such difference was not realized throughout the test
provided and treatment offered.
5. Discussion
5.1. Summary of results
From the analysis of learners' scores, at the beginning of the treatment, the pre-
test administered to both traditional and IM class groups generated no statistically
significant difference (p>.05). Learners’ knowledge from the treatment and
control groups was found equivalent. However, results from the post-test
generated a significant difference (p<.01, f=.38) in learning outcomes between the
treatment and control group in favour of IM software. This is consistent with Beri
and Sharma, (2021)’s study findings about the role of ICT in improving conducive
learning environment. Therefore, our study results showed that the teaching of
mathematics with IM software as a teaching and learning technology support
might promote a conducive learning environment and influence learners’
academic achievement. Comparing performances, IM-assisted class learners
performed better than learners who studied the same content in traditional class
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settings. In addition, statistical analysis found learners learning gain to be higher

in IM-assisted mathematics classes than in traditional mathematics class teaching
and learning. Although learners performed better in the post-test than in the pre-
test for both traditional and IM assisted classes, more learners who scored above
50% were found in IM assisted classes than in traditional classes. Considering the
school statuses, the study found that although private school performance was
higher than public in traditional and IM assisted classes in pre-test and the post-
test, the public school showed a greater improvement in the post-test than in
private. By analysing learners' scores by gender, boys outperformed girls in both
traditional and IM teaching. However, girls in IM-supported teaching manifested
a greater improvement in performance than the boys’ by comparing their pre-test
and post-test scores.
5.2. The Role of Smart Teaching Using Interactive Mathematics Software on

Learners' Performance
According to Orodho et al. (2016), administering a pre-test to the experimental
group and control group is likely a means to measure the groups' equivalence of
knowledge. From our study’s findings, learners in both traditional and IM classes
showed no statistically significant difference (p>.05, effect size (f) =-19) in the pre-
test (before learning), while such significance was found to be highly significant
(p<.01, f=.38) after learning (in post-test) in favour of IM software. Therefore, the
pre-test results showed the equivalence of knowledge in the two groups, while
the post-test results showed an improvement in learners’ performance due to IM
use in teaching and learning. Our study’ results are in line with findings that hold
the view that innovation through technology is one of the ways developing
environments is necessary for effective learning (Delen & Bulut, 2011). This
argument was based on the findings of OECD countries in international
mathematics competitions, which ranked Japan and Singapore among the best
mathematics performers resulting in their use of computer technologies in
mathematics classrooms (Delen & Bulut, 2011). Therefore, using IM in teaching
and learning mathematics at the primary level may be a good start on the journey
of optimizing learning and improving the quality of mathematics education from
early level of education. This confirms De Witte and Rogge, (2014)’s study results
which found a correlation between access to technology and learner achievement.
Considering differences in classroom environments, this study is in line with Rutz,
et al. (2003)’s study which found that learners’ performance improved in
instructional technology methods more than in traditional teaching methods. In
quest of reaching learners’ different learning abilities, the use of IM may be a good
means to help both slow learners and fast learners based on its potentials to attract
learners’ attention and to boost their learning interest. According to Jena (2013), a
smart class learning setting is better for teaching both slow and fast learners than
in traditional classes. In our study, this was confirmed by the results of IM class
compared to control classes.
According to Yang (2015), when learners are presented with interesting teaching
strategies, they develop positive attitudes toward mathematics, which is likely to
contribute to quality learning resulting in good performance. These strategies may
include the using technological tools, like IM used in our study, or applying
mathematics learning models like the one used by Dafid Slamet et al., (2021)’s
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study. Factors of performance in mathematics include learners’ ability to think

critically and solve problems. Dafid Slamet et al.’s (2021) study found that junior
high school learners’ critical thinking abilities developed after using a
mathematical learning model and that dissatisfactory performance results from
learners’ low critical thinking abilities. Effective teaching should not only promote
critical thinking skills but also creative thinking skills. Purwoko et al., (2019)
explained that a comprehensive implementation of PCK model can improve
learners’ creative thinking skills more optimally. Therefore, improved learners
performance may be an indicator of their improved critical thinking abilities.
Henceforth, considering that learners’ performance improved thanks to IM use in
mathematics class, IM software can be ranged among the strategies to promote
learners’ critical thinking skills. This is obvious based on IM settings and features
of feedback whereby the right answer is accompanied by an audio and written
positive reinforcement while a wrong answer is accompanied by a negative
reinforcement. The latter triggers learners thinking critically to dig up to finding
the right answer. We can infer that if IM is used repeatedly and effectively,
teachers’ TPACK knowledge would improve and learners may move from being
critical thinkers to becoming creative thinkers (Purwoko et al., 2019).
Although some studies found that learners working with computer-assisted

instructions are more likely to be low achievers compared to their classmates in
traditional classes (Drigas & Papanastasiou, 2014), other studies highlighted the
potential of ICT to make learning enjoyable and to help learners improve their
performance. For example, Gachinu, (2014)’s study explains that when ICT
components are applied in concretizing abstract mathematics concepts such as 3D
geometry, it may serve as a means to improve performance or test scores.
Likewise, the findings of our study revealed that learners’ scores from the post-
test improved after learning in IM supported class.
Drawing on our study results, the improvement of performance by IM can be

interpreted as resulting in learners’ and teachers’ positive attitudes towards
mathematics and IM software. Therefore, these results seem to be in line with the
UTAUT model with its performance expectancy construct on the outcomes of
technology use in educational settings (Momani, 2020). In addition, the results
may have depended on the teachers’ ability to effectively integrate IM in teaching
and learning as recommended by the curriculum. Our findings confirmed that the
effective use of IM in teaching and learning might result from teachers’ perception
and acceptance of that technology as stipulated by the UTAUT model based on
the performance expectation. This results in the development or improvement of
teachers’ TPACK level, which leads to the effective use of technology as an
instructional tool. During this study, teachers’ TPACK level manifested during IM
assisted lesson through experimentation period when teaching activities were
integrated with ICT skills. From lesson planning stage to IM supported teaching
activities, teachers’ pedagogy was IM enhanced and the content was delivered
using IM enhanced instructions. Teachers themselves were the ones to set the
projector, the computer, wireless mouse and use them to teach or engage learners
in using them to learn. IM content was organised into semi-concrete, quick
exercises and evaluation levels. Teachers managed to take learners through all
these levels using a wireless mouse. In addition to mathematics knowledge,
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teachers helped learners to develop, for the first time and for almost all learners,
basic ICT skills including clicking, cautiously moving the mouse and the curser.
During evaluation, questions were projected for learners to work on them, while
the teacher was moving around to check learners’ working. Using IM software,
evaluation was given in plenary and a specific sound accompanied each right or
wrong answer for reinforcement or correction. The software presented also
checking options which were very interesting to learners. Teachers managed to
use all these IM features to make the lesson understandable and enjoyable to
learners. IM features including ease of use and its motivational features including
different forms of sound, colours and movement influenced teachers’ acceptance
of the tool and their flexibility to integrate it in lessons. Therefore, drawing on
TPACK theory and technology acceptance model, our study confirmed that
technology use in mathematics class can promote effective learning (Delen &
Bulut, 2011) and improve learners’ performance.
5.3. The Role of Interactive Mathematics Software on Public and Private

School Learners' Performance
From the analysis of the variables with repeated measures ANOVA in general
linear models, private school (N=78) showed a higher level of performance both
before and after learning than public schools (N=116). However, the public
schools showed a slight improvement from the intervention offered more than
private schools. Therefore, the use of IM in mathematics teaching influenced
learners’ performance more in public schools than in private schools. This led us
to confirm our argument that the use of IM in public primary schools teaching
promote the learning environment of overpopulated classes resulting in learners’
increase in performance. On the one hand, our results align with Khun-Inkeere’s
(2016) study, which found a difference in private and public school performance
in favour of private schools. This was confirmed by the results, which showed that
private schools’ performance was higher than public schools’ one in both the pre-
test and the post-test. This is obvious as private schools present a conducive
learning environment due to factors including a manageable number of learners
per teacher. In addition, private schools host learners from able families, mostly
educated and having enough financial means and technological tools to help
learners learn effectively both in class and outside class (Khun-Inkeeree, 2016).
For example in Rwanda, it was reported that while one public school teacher
struggles to teach an average of 62 learners, a teacher in a private school teaches
only 35 learners (MINEDUC, 2018).
On the other hand, our findings show that public school learners’ performance
can improve by IM use in class. These findings are in line with Chenoby's (2014)
study, which found the existence of a relationship between access to technology
and learner achievement. Gachinu’s (2014) study explains that when ICT
components are applied in concretizing abstract mathematical concepts such as
3D geometry, it may serve as a means to improve performance or test scores and
to address the teachers’ and learners’ challenges caused by exposure to ICT in
class.
The use of IM influenced teachers’ TPACK level in teaching mathematics, which

also resulted in IM software ease of use and acceptable by teachers. The findings
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show public school performance increased in post-test more than private schools
did. We can say that public school teachers perceived IM as easy to be used in
teaching and manifested acceptance towards it. Therefore, this resulted in better
teaching and learners’ performance. This can be understood using Akturk et al.'s
(2019) study, which explained that TPACK framed lessons have a positive impact
on learning outcomes. In addition, it was found that teachers’ TPACK levels
influence academic achievement (Akturk et al., 2019), especially with appropriate
ICT tools. Our study used IM software developed in accordance with the CBC
framework, which is under its implementation. Therefore, IM is an appropriate
ICT tool to teach mathematics in primary level. It can therefore influence learners’
performance as it influences the development or improvement of teachers’
TPACK levels. Besides, the way teachers perceived IM as easy to be used and their
acceptance to use it while expecting performance, influenced their ability to
integrate it in teaching and learning resulting into learners’ performance.
Therefore, the use of IM in public schools in Rwanda can be a means to overcome
hindrances to achieving quality education which includes poor teaching, crowded
classrooms and teacher heavy load as mentioned by Nizeyimana et al., (2021).
This would result in improving performance in public schools as it was realised
from our study findings. If quality education is to be achieved in public schools of
9YBE and 12YBE statutes, which present many hindrances to quality education
compared to private ones, the learning environment conducive to effective
learning should be set out primarily. Therefore, IM software is an important ICT
tool for primary level schools that should be considered when designing
classroom environments for effective learning (Delen & Bulut, 2011) and that can
contribute to the development of TPACK knowledge of primary level school
teachers.
According to Akturk et al. (2019), TPACK is appropriate for educational settings

of the 21st century for learners and teachers of grade and secondary to support the
development of basic skills, interests, and confidence in learners learning, which
are necessary for lifelong learning. IM software manifested the potentials to
develop teachers’ TPACK knowledge necessary to influence learners’
performance. In addition, teachers’ perception of IM ease of use and its potential
to influence performance affect public school teachers’ TPACK levels. This was
evidenced by the improvement of learners’ performance in the post-test by IM.
5.4. The Role of Interactive Mathematics Software on Male and Female

Learners' Performance
Mathematics education in Rwanda has long been characterized by gender
disparities in enrolment and in performance mostly in favour of males. From the
findings, the use of IM in teaching improved female and male learners’
performance. Although males’ performance remained higher than females’, the
latter showed a will to descriptively improve in post-test. Studies on gender and
performance highlighted many hindrances to girls’ performance in mathematics.
These include low confidence in learning mathematics (Uwineza et al., 2018) and
external factors to learning, including the learning environment (Dev, 2016).
Based on the findings, IM use in mathematics class manifested potential to create

a learning environment suitable to improve both females' and males' performance
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(Khun-Inkeere (2016). Therefore, this study agrees with Dev’s (2016) study, which
found that girls learning and performance depend more on external factors and
less on learning abilities, while boys depend on internal factors. Therefore, the use
of IM in teaching mathematics created a suitable learning environment for all
learners which, however, benefited female’s learning and improved their
performance. It was found that ICT adoption in conservative environments where
females and males learn separately improved the performance of female learners
more than male learners (Basri et al., 2018). However, our study was conducted
in mixed gender learning environments whereby one classroom hosts females and
males who learn together. Therefore, our results are not in line with Basri et al.,
(2018)’s findings as we conducted our study in mixed gender classroom and that
IM benefited both males and females in the same way. Rwanda education system
focuses on education for all (EFA) which promote equality, equity and inclusive
education. Therefore, public schools (of 9YBE and 12YBE statutes) learning
environments in Rwanda are all non-conservatives and promote equal, equitable
and inclusive learning for all learners. However, some secondary private schools’
learning environments are still conservatives. The focus of our study was in
primary school level of public and private schools whose learning environments
were non-conservative. Therefore, IM improved male and female learners’
performance in non-conservative learning environments. As it is pointed out by
Uwineza et al. (2018), teachers play an important role in widening the gap
between male and female learners’ performance. A study about teachers’ TPACK
level in teaching biology and chemistry found no difference between male and
female teachers’ TPACK level (Akturk et al., 2019). Therefore, these findings
together with this study findings are supportive to the fact that the integration of
technology in class activities can benefit both female and male learners. In
addition, as mentioned by Akturk et al.’s, (2019) study that found no difference in
males and females TPACK level, IM influences male and female teachers’ TPACK
knowledge in the same way. It follows that IM use in mathematics class can
contribute to promoting gender equity and equality in class based on our findings.
It can therefore be used to support teachers’ to promote learners’ gender balance
in the learning of mathematics.
6. Conclusion
In quest of improving quality implementation of the CBC and addressing issues
hindering the achievement of quality education in Rwanda, IM software was
developed to support the effective teaching and learning of mathematics at the
primary level. This study focused on the effect of IM supported teaching on grade-
5 learners’ performance. From our findings, IM software used as instructional tool
manifested the potential to design the classroom environment for effective
teaching and learning and to improve learners’ performance. Therefore, IM
software would be more beneficial to public schools in Rwanda to address issues
related to quality education delivery in overpopulated classes. However, this
would depend on teachers’ perception and acceptance of IM software ease of use
with reference to teachers’ and learners’ performance expectations. Teachers
should be able to make a good judgment about IM use in mathematics lessons so
that they can effectively and meaningfully use it in pedagogy. This is in line with
the Ministry of education's policy that stresses the role of the teacher in the
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appropriate pedagogical use of ICT in class to transform teaching and learning

and improve the quality of learning outcomes.
It is worth noting that this study faced different constraints. Some participant
teachers and learners were having very low basic ICT skills at the time of
experimentation. Therefore, they were assisted in some ICT activities like clicking
and projecting content, which was sometimes interrupting the smooth and
effective teaching flow. Since this study was purely quantitative involving
learners, a similar study focusing on the qualitative aspect of IM in mathematics
class and/or teachers’ lived experience in using IM software would bring more
information about the features of IM in quality mathematics teaching and
learning.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the support provided by the African Centre of Excellence for
Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), the
University of Rwanda-College of Education, and the grant provided by the UR-
SIDA Programme.
Declaration
Author contribution:
Innocente Uwineza: Conceptualisation, Writing- Original Draft, Methodology,
Formal Analysis, Editing and Visualization;
Prof. Alphonse Uworwabayeho (Ph.D.): Review & Editing, Validation and

Supervision;
Kenya Yokoyama: Methodology, Software Developer and Trainer
Funding Statement: The University of Rwanda- SIDA Programme and the

African Centre of Excellence in Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics
and Sciences funded this research.
Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest.
Additional information: No additional information available
Public Interest Statement

This article presents a comparative analysis of learners’ performance in traditional
teaching and technology-enhanced teaching in mathematics classes. It focused on
primary-5 learners’ performance using Interactive Mathematics (IM) software as
an instructional tool. IM as a new technological tool under its piloting phase was
developed to support the effective implementation of the Competence Based
Curriculum (CBC) in mathematics at the primary school level in the Rwandan
education system. Considering that the quality of mathematics education faces
hindrances especially in public schools, this study explored the comparative
effects of IM software in public and private schools with a glimpse into gender
issues. It then explained the importance of IM in addressing quality mathematics
education issues at primary school level in Rwanda.
187
7. References
Akturk, A. O., Ozturk, H. S., Ozturk, S., & Tpack, H. T. (2019). Teachers ’ TPACK Levels
and Students ’ Self- efficacy as Predictors of Students ’ Academic Achievement.
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Appendix 1. The test provided to grade-5 learners

Test for P5
Pupils’ name:…………………………………………………………………
Pupil’s number:…………..… Gender: Female:
Male :
1. Fill in the box below with
number.
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 +5 +10 +15 +20
2. Match the right and the left by drawing the

line 4. Write the numbers from greater to
Negative numbers . .+20, +11,+8, +15 smaller in descending order.
Zero . .+17, -9, +25, -31
Positive numbers . .-8, -17, -25, -14 -12, +15, -16, 0, +9
Integers. .0
Answer:
2. Fill in the box with “less” or “greater”.
5. Calculate the following:
+14 is than -18

-15 is than -5 (-6) + (+3) = (+5) – (-5) =
4. Fill in the box with the sign (< or >) (-2) – (-6) = (-3) + (-7) =
-11 +9
6. Fill in the box below with number
-12 -23
(-13) + =0
3. Write the numbers from smaller to

greater in ascending order.
+(+18)=0
-12, +15, -6, +9, -18
Answer: 7. Fill in the box below with number
The inverse of +5 is
The inverse of -8 is
191

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 191-209, January 2023
The Effectiveness of Online Learning during the

Covid-19 Pandemic in Malaysia
Nurhanani Romli*
Faculty of Management and Economics,
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia
Mohd Faiz Mohamed Yusof

Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Yap Tsvey Peng

Faculty of Management and Economics,
Nurul Hila Zainuddin

Faculty of Science and Mathematics,
Abstract. The Movement Control Order (MCO) was implemented in

Malaysia on 18 March 2020. The MCO has changed people’s lifestyle to
some extent because they have been advised to work from home. Due to
this situation, the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE) implemented
online learning methods throughout the MCO period to prevent the
spread of the Covid-19 virus. Therefore, all schools have implemented
online teaching and learning with the instructions of the MOE as a new
norm to ensure that learning sessions are not delayed. The purpose of this
study was to determine the level and factors of effectiveness of online
learning for secondary school students studying economics subjects
during the Covid-19 pandemic. This study used a quantitative research
design employing a questionnaire as data collection instrument. The
results show that the effectiveness of online learning for economics
students is at a high level. The results of the survey illustrate that most
students use mobile phones and laptops to attend classes that take place
online. Furthermore, the study found that teacher factors are the main
factors that influence the effectiveness of online learning among students.
This research has implications for educators to apply online learning
methods as a new normative teaching method to ensure compliance with
the National Education Philosophy and the objectives of the Malaysia
Education Development Plan 2013–2025.
*
Corresponding author: Nurhanani Romli, nurhanani@fpe.upsi.edu.my
©Authors
192
Keywords: Covid-19 pandemic; economics; online learning; teaching and

learning at home
1. Introduction
Online learning and teaching is a new requirement and norm for educational
institutions in Malaysia in the delivery of teaching, especially since the start of the
Covid-19 pandemic. In this era of globalization, the latest technology brings great
meaning in education. There is no denying that information and communication
technology (ICT) plays an important role towards online learning, especially in
the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. Normally, teachers use learning media
applications such as Google Meet, Telegram, Google Classroom, and so on.
However, factors such as internet access and environmental aspects need to be
considered so that online learning can be carried out more smoothly and
effectively. At the same time, these teaching and learning methods have
challenged teachers to face this new normal. According to Hairia’an and
Dzainudin (2020), teachers find it difficult to ensure that all students give feedback
and work well together. Furthermore, to ensure that online teaching and learning
can be implemented effectively, communication between teachers and parents is
very important. With this situation, teachers need to provide organized
information, such as lecture and training notes, as well as use a forum site so that
they can communicate with their students. All this information is very helpful and
important among students for generating a positive mindset towards online
learning. This can directly encourage students to be involved in active learning
and, finally, teaching and learning at home can be carried out more effectively.
The development of ICT has undoubtedly brought about transformation in the

field of education towards digital pedagogy and andragogy (Irma et al., 2021). The
implementation of online teaching and learning has long been done in Malaysia.
For example, the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE) has introduced the use
of the Frog Virtual Learning Environment (Frog VLE) and Digital Learning
Platform. Concurrently, schools need to plan and prepare for the transformation
of the teaching and learning process from this new policy so that the teaching
process is centered on students and ICT. Perceptibly, the implementation of the
policy by the MOE has had some effect in improving online learning. With this
background, this study had the following research questions:
1. What online learning methods were used during the Covid-19 pandemic?
2. What factors affected the effectiveness of online learning during the Covid-19
pandemic?
3. What was the level of effectiveness of online learning during the Covid-19
pandemic?
In their study, Normah et al. (2017) focused on the role of smartphone applications
in learning as a form of collaborative learning. The findings proved that students
are more active and motivated to learn grammar topics in the field of learning and
teaching Arabic with the use of the WhatsApp application. Learning through
WhatsApp should be applied because it has advantages such as saving time and
193
easy access to information. According to Muhammad and Mumtazah (2021), the

Google Meet application has become the main choice of teachers compared to
other applications such as video-recording and Quizizz. However, online learning
methods have posed challenges to teachers in terms of internet access and student
concentration in the classroom. Ainul and Manisah (2021) examined the success
factors of teaching and learning during the Covid-19 pandemic among special
education teachers serving in Selangor. The findings of the study proved that the
knowledge of special education teachers on information technology is a key factor
in the success of the teaching and learning process that takes place online during
this pandemic situation. The use of a variety of information technologies and
multimedia can ensure that teaching and learning at home can be implemented
effectively. A study by Siti et al. (2021) on 229 students at Hulu Langat
Community College found that the level of effectiveness of online learning is very
high. The evaluation of the level of effectiveness of online learning and teaching
is based on five items. These are: motivational strategies used by lecturers,
feedback from lecturers, general appearance of e-learning portals, interactions
during learning, as well as online teaching content. However, any obstacles or
problems that students face must be overcome immediately so that the
effectiveness of online learning can be further enhanced.
Furthermore, a study by Salleh et al. (2021) involving 381 students at Politeknik

Ibrahim Sultan used quantitative methods with a questionnaire instrument. The
results of the study proved that online learning is less effective among students
compared to face-to-face learning. Students are more receptive to face-to-face
learning because they feel that face-to-face learning can improve their
understanding and motivation to learn compared to online learning. However,
online learning can be implemented effectively if the facilities and equipment are
complete and perfect. Meanwhile, Syed (2017) proved that students at the Faculty
of Education and Social Sciences at the University of Selangor have a positive
perspective on e-learning via WhatsApp and Telegram. In addition, students
believe that learning using WhatsApp and Telegram is affordable and improves
the marketability of graduates and enhances the image of the institution. A study
by Che In and Ahmad (2019) proved that online teaching methods, such as the
use of the Kahoot application, is effective in learning. The use of Kahoot in the
form of revisions, online assignments, and drills can stimulate students to learn
the marketing mix. In addition, the findings also showed that this teaching
method can increase students’ interest. As such, teaching by using Kahoot can
increase the effectiveness of online learning. Students using Google Classroom as
a learning platform in Islamic education courses are also positive and satisfied
with using the application in learning. The effective and widespread use of Google
Classroom can help achieve the criteria of the Malaysia Education Development
Plan 2013–2025 (Noorwati et al., 2021).
There are many platforms through which to conduct online learning, yet
implementing it is not as easy as expected. According to Wong and Khairul (2020),
implementation demands commitment and cooperation from all parties,
especially in terms of knowledge and skills related to information technology for
the continuation of the teaching and learning process. Losius (2020) found that
194
29% of teachers are still not proficient in handling online learning due to not being
proficient in using ICT applications. This being the case, the level of knowledge
of teachers in using technology was very important in ensuring that teaching and
learning online ran smoothly and attracted students to undergo the learning
process carried out by teachers during the Movement Control Order (MCO)
period (Hairia’an & Dzainudin, 2020). The level of student readiness to face online
teaching and learning is important because they are the main subjects in the
teaching and learning conducted. According to Muniroh et al. (2020), even though
the teachers are eager to prepare various teaching materials, if there is no
participation from the students, then the learning outcomes or objectives cannot
be achieved perfectly.
According to Mohd et al. (2020), students have a strong desire for learning, but
the online teaching and learning process comes with various obstacles that hinder
the learning process. These are weak internet connection, problems with the
device used, and learning time. Constraints are also faced by students when they
are not able to adapt to online classes due to the different atmosphere from the
daily face-to-face classes. Siti et al. (2021) found that among the obstacles faced by
students in online teaching and learning are poor internet access, a home
environment not conducive to learning, difficulty adapting to e-learning, and the
quality of teacher teaching when implementing teaching and learning online.
Therefore, to attract interest and increase the level of student involvement during
the online teaching and learning process, teachers can use various online teaching
methods in addition to providing interesting and appropriate learning materials,
whether in the form of videos, worksheets, animations, and so on.
3. Methodology
A quantitative approach with a questionnaire as research instrument was
employed to collect data on the perceptions of students regarding online learning
during the Covid-19 pandemic. The selection of respondents focused on Form 4
students taking economics subjects at Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Simpang,
Malaysia. In all, 52 Form 4 students were selected as respondents in the research.
A questionnaire was used to obtain respondents’ perceptions on the effectiveness
of learning conducted online during the pandemic. Respondents were required to
show sincerity and honesty in answering all the questions posed in the
questionnaire. The questionnaire is a popular form of research instrument for
researchers because of its wide coverage and concise content. Through the
questionnaire, respondents can answer the relevant questions according to the
appropriate time. In this study, the questionnaire was employed to determine the
perceptions and views of economics students on the effectiveness of online
learning during the pandemic.
The questionnaire comprised four sections (A–D), where Sections C and D used a
five-point Likert scale (Appendix 1). Section A was concerned with the
demographic information of the respondents. Meanwhile, Section B was related
to the methods used by the respondents to access online learning. Furthermore,
Section C examined the factors that influenced the effectiveness of online learning
during the pandemic situation. The last section, Section D, was related to the level
195
of effectiveness of online learning among the respondents. The questionnaire was

constructed and adapted from past research that is directly relevant to the current
study phenomenon. For Section B, the questions were adapted from the study of
Munirah et al. (2021), while questions for Section C were adapted from Janarthini
et al. (2011). Finally, Section D was adapted from Siti et al. (2021) and Mahizer
(2007).
Reliability involves criteria for determining the consistency of the score of each
item. Therefore, data obtained through a pilot study should be analyzed using
percentages and frequencies to obtain reliability values. This study used
Cronbach’s alpha to determine the reliability value of the questionnaire items.
Azrilah et al. (2008) stated that the validity and reliability of the research
instrument are very important to maintain the accuracy of the instrument in
providing consistent results. These two procedures cannot be ignored and are
interconnected with each other. The higher the validity and reliability, the more
accurate the data obtained to produce quality results. Fraenkel and Wallen (2005)
argued that validity relates to the accuracy, importance, and usability of the
research tool to be able to draw conclusions from the data. Validity is very
important in research. Instrumental validity in research ensures that items are
defensible, accurate, coherent, meaningful, and usable. In general, when research
has high validity, this means that the results obtained are based on evidence and
facts and can provide true justification in the research study. Reliability is a
criterion for determining the consistency of the score of each item. Therefore, the
data obtained through the pilot study need to be analyzed using percentages and
frequencies to obtain a reliability value. In this study, we used Cronbach’s alpha
to determine the reliability value of the pilot study. Cronbach’s alpha is a measure
of consistency of the reliability of a research instrument. Typically, Cronbach’s
alpha values above .60 are said to have a moderate level of reliability and can be
used as indicator to measure the reliability of the instrument. On the other hand,
a Cronbach alpha value lower than .60 is regarded to indicate a low level of
reliability and is unacceptable. Thus, any item with a value lower than .60 needs
to be deleted or modified. Table 1 indicates the size coefficients of Cronbach’s
alpha in the pilot study.
Table 1: Cronbach alpha values obtained in the pilot study

Cronbach
Variable
alpha value
Factors affecting online learning
1. Teacher factors .821
2. Home learning environment factors .778
3. Learning equipment factors .842
4. Teaching content factors .794
5. Learning process factors .883
Level of effectiveness of online learning
1. Online learning content .842
2. Interaction during learning .850
3. Teacher feedback .914
4. Motivation strategies used by teachers .882
5. Appearance of online website portal .853
196
Regarding factors affecting online learning, the Cronbach alpha value for the first
variable, teacher factors, was .821. Meanwhile, the second and third variables,
namely home learning environment factors and learning equipment factors,
recorded Cronbach alpha values of .778 and .842, respectively. Finally, the
Cronbach alpha values for the fourth and fifth variables, namely teaching content
factors and learning process factors, were .794 and .883, respectively.
Then, for factors of level of effectiveness of online learning, the Cronbach alpha
value for the first variable, namely online learning content, was recorded at .842.
The second and third variables, namely interaction during learning and teacher
feedback, obtained Cronbach alpha values of .850 and .914, respectively. Finally,
the motivation strategy variables used by teachers and the general appearance of
the online learning portal recorded Cronbach alpha values of .882 and .853,
respectively. In conclusion, the percentage value of the questionnaire in terms of
validity and reliability was at a high and reliable level. The pilot study showed
that the questionnaire items were clear and easy to understand and achieved the
objectives of the study.
4. Findings
4.1 Descriptive Analysis of Frequencies and Percentages
Table 2 displays the frequencies and percentages of respondents per location of
online learning, with locations being divided into urban and rural. The table
shows that 34 respondents (65.4%) were from urban areas during online learning,
while 18 (34.6%) were from rural areas. It can therefore be concluded that more
students live in urban than in rural areas.
Table 2: Frequencies and percentages of respondents by location of online learning

Online learning Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percentage
location percentage percentage
Urban 34 65.4 65.4 65.4
Rural 18 34.6 34.6 100
Total 52 100 100
Table 3 presents the frequencies and percentages of respondents according to

having their own laptop that can access the internet during online learning. Of the
52 respondents, 47 (90.4%) had their own laptop to access the internet during
online learning. On the other hand, 5 (9.6%) indicated that they did not have their
own laptop to access the internet for online learning during the Covid-19
pandemic period. As such, it can be concluded that most students have their own
laptop.
Table 3: Frequencies and percentages of respondents according to having their own

laptop that can access the internet
Laptop to access Cumulative
Frequency Percentage Valid percentage
internet percentage
Yes 47 90.4 90.4 90.4
No 5 9.6 9.6 100
Total 52 100 100
197
The frequencies and percentages of respondents according to having internet

access problems during online learning are displayed in Table 4. Based on the data
obtained, 31 respondents (59.6%) stated that they faced internet access problems
during online learning. On the other hand, 21 respondents (40.4%) indicated that
they did not face internet access problems during the online learning period.
Table 4: Frequencies and percentages of respondents according to having internet

access problems during online learning
Internet access Valid Cumulative
problems percentage percentage
Yes 31 59.6 59.6 59.6
No 21 40.4 40.4 100
Total 52 100 100
Table 5 shows the frequencies and percentages of respondents as per their level
of ICT knowledge and skills. Respondents could choose between yes or no. The
data showed that 31 respondents (59.6%) indicated that they had a level of
knowledge and skills in the field of ICT, while 21 (40.4%) indicated that they did
not. It can thus be concluded that most economics students have ICT skills.
Table 5: Frequencies and percentages of respondents according to ICT skills

ICT skills Valid Cumulative
percentage percentage
Yes 31 59.6 59.6 59.6
No 21 40.4 40.4 100
Total 52 100 100
Table 6 presents the frequencies and percentages of respondents as per their view
of the need for online learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. Most respondents
(n = 49; 94.2%) agreed that online learning was a particular need during the Covid-
19 pandemic. Contrarily, three respondents (5.8%) felt that online learning was
not required in this situation.
Table 6: Frequencies and percentages of respondents according to their view of the

need for online learning
View of need for Valid Cumulative
online learning percentage percentage
Yes 49 94.2 94.2 94.2
No 3 5.8 5.8 100
Total 52 100 100
Table 7 illustrates the frequencies and percentages of respondents according to

the method of accessing online learning. Respondents could select between eight
categories of methods. These were: (1) computer, (2) laptop, (3) computer and
laptop, (4) mobile phone, (5) mobile phone and computer, (6) mobile phone and
laptop, (7) mobile phone, computer, and laptop, and (8) mobile phone, computer,
laptop, and other.
198
Table 7: Frequencies and percentages of respondents according to the method of

accessing online learning
Method of accessing online Valid Cumulative
learning percentage percentage
1 Computer 0 0 0 0
2 Laptop 7 13.5 13.5 13.5
3 Computer and laptops 3 5.8 5.8 19.2
4 Mobile phone 6 11.5 11.5 30.8
Mobile phone and
5 1 1.9 1.9 32.7
computer
6 Mobile phone and laptop 29 55.8 55.8 88.5
Mobile phone, computer,
7 3 5.8 5.8 94.2
and laptop
Mobile phone, computer,
8 3 5.8 5.8 100
laptop, and other
Total 52 100 100
Based on the analysis of the findings, use of the mobile phone and laptop recorded
the highest score among respondents (n = 29; 55.8%). Thus, the analysis showed
that most respondents used the mobile phone and laptop to access online learning
sessions. This category was followed by the use of the laptop only to access online
learning (n = 7; 13.5%). Furthermore, six respondents (11.5%) indicated using the
mobile phone only to access online learning. The third, seventh, and eighth
categories each recorded the same response, with three respondents (5.8%) for
each category indicating using these methods to access online learning. Only one
respondent (1.9%) used the mobile phone and computer to access e-learning
during the Covid-19 pandemic. On the other hand, no respondents used the
computer alone to access online learning.
4.2 Analysis of Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Online Learning

This study was conducted to examine the factors that influenced the effectiveness
of online learning for students during the Covid-19 pandemic. Table 8 shows the
mean values for the factors that influenced the effectiveness of online learning.
For this study, the following factors were measured as per how they influenced
the effectiveness of online learning as perceived by the respondents: (1) teacher
factors, (2) home learning environment factors, (3) learning equipment factors, (4)
teaching content factors, and (5) learning process factors.
Table 8: Factors influencing the effectiveness of online learning

Variable Mean
1 Teacher factors 4.35
2 Home learning environment factors 3.78
3 Learning equipment factors 4.15
4 Teaching content factors 4.09
5 Learning process factors 3.84
The study found that all factors had a mean score of more than 3. Individual mean
scores were as follows: teacher factors (4.35), home learning environment factors
(3.78), learning equipment factors (4.15), teaching content factors (4.09), and,
finally, learning process factors (3.84). Teacher factors recorded the highest mean
199
score of 4.35. Therefore, teacher factors are a major factor influencing the
effectiveness of online learning, more so than the other factors. This shows that
the teacher’s role is very important to encourage and motivate students towards
the use of online teaching and learning in this new norm. This implies that
teachers played a huge role in respondents accessing online learning. This shows
that most respondents did online learning due to the teaching materials that are
uploaded being easy to understand, the language used by the teacher being
appropriate, and the teacher being a friendly person who is easy to contact in
online learning.
4.3 Analysis of the Level of Effectiveness of Online Learning

This research was conducted to identify the level of effectiveness of online
learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. Table 9 shows the mean scores for the
results on the level of online learning effectiveness. This was measured in five
aspects: (1) online learning content, (2) interaction during learning, (3) teacher
feedback, (4) motivational strategies used by teachers, and (5) general appearance
of online learning portal.
Table 9: Mean scores of levels of effectiveness of online learning

Level of effectiveness of online learning
Variable Mean
1 Online learning content 3.99
2 Interaction during learning 3.78
3 Teacher feedback 4.14
4 Motivational strategies used by teachers 4.06
5 General appearance of online learning portal 4.21
The study found that all factors had a mean score of more than 3. Individual mean
scores were as follows: online learning content (3.99), interaction during learning
(3.78), teacher feedback (4.14), motivational strategies used by teachers (4.06), and
general appearance of online learning portal (4.21). The variable of general
appearance of the online learning portal recorded the highest mean score of 4.21.
This shows that the general appearance of learning portals plays an important role
in online learning to attract students to use them. It can thus be implied that most
students know how to access online learning portals and can access learning
portals easily.
The overall mean score of the results in terms of factors and level of
effectiveness of online learning was very high, exceeding 3.70. Based on the results
of the survey, it can be concluded that the level of effectiveness of online learning
is high. This study used tables to present the data for easy comprehension.
Findings were presented for the demographic data of respondents, methods used
to access online learning, factors influencing the effectiveness of online learning,
as well as the level of effectiveness of online learning during the Covid-19
pandemic. The results of the study illustrated that teacher factors are the main
factors that influence online learning. Furthermore, the general appearance of
online learning portals recorded the highest score for online learning effectiveness
followed by teacher feedback. The level of effectiveness was identified through a
questionnaire instrument, where most student respondents provided positive
feedback on online learning.
200
5. Discussion
In general, the results of the study showed that most respondents used both the
mobile phone and laptop as method of accessing online learning during the
Covid-19 pandemic period. Of the 52 respondents, 29 (55.8%) indicated using this
method. It can thus be concluded that most students have the convenience and
equipment of the mobile phone and laptop at home to follow online classes.
However, good internet access is also important to ensure that online learning can
be carried out more effectively and efficiently. The findings of this study are in
line with that of Munirah et al. (2021), who found that most engineering science
students at Politeknik Ibrahim Sultan use the mobile phone and laptop as method
of accessing learning that takes place online. According to Santoso and Wyn
(2014), the concept of online learning (e-learning) is a transformation process in
the field of education. E-learning is transforming conventional education to digital
forms of education with information technology to improve the quality of
education. This teaching concept is categorized by the use of information
technology and is also a requirement of the approach in the field of education in
this post-independence era (Santoso & Wyn, 2014).
The findings are also supported by the study conducted by Hairia’an and Masayu
(2020), who explained that the use of ICT in education is an effective and efficient
teaching option. This teaching method can make it easier for students, where they
can access learning content anywhere and can repeat studies according to their
own convenience. The announcement of the implementation of teaching and
learning at home has changed the conventional learning method to a method of
using information technology and it can directly improve the quality of education
in Malaysia. According to Nur and Nurfaradilla (2021), online learning can
provide benefits and advantages from the aspect of time freedom as well as the
ease of accessing various online learning and teaching materials. Online learning
can encourage critical and creative thinking, increase knowledge and
interactivity, and generate interest and motivation among students.
The results of the study showed that among the factors that affect the effectiveness
of a student in online learning, teacher factors obtained the highest mean score of
4.35. This shows that the teacher’s role is very important to encourage and
motivate students towards the use of online teaching and learning in this new
norm. Thus, it was found that respondents accessed online learning due to the
teacher functioning at the maximum level. This illustrates that most respondents
did online learning due to the uploaded teaching materials being easy to
understand, the use of the teacher’s language being appropriate, and the teacher
being a friendly person who is easy to contact in online learning. These results can
be supported by that of Kearsley et al. (1995), which showed that teacher
involvement is one of the factors that influences student participation in online
learning. In addition, teacher involvement is also an important element in
influencing students to participate in online learning to ensure that teaching and
learning at home can be carried out effectively and smoothly (Ahmad & Hamzah,
2021).
201
Next, learning equipment factors had the second highest mean score (4.15) for
factors influencing the effectiveness of online learning. This shows that, in
addition to the role of the teacher, the equipment used in online learning is also
very important and necessary. Based on the results of the items in the learning
equipment factors, most respondents can browse the internet easily and have
equipment such as headphones, microphones, and computer screens that are
suitable for online learning. These findings are also supported by Hendrastomo
(2008), who stated that infrastructure such as internet and computer networks are
considered important as components to support the success of online learning.
Furthermore, the overall average score for teaching content factors ranked it third,
with an average of 4.09. Most students participate in online learning because the
teaching content provided is systematic, and because the variety of multimedia
elements, such as tests, quizzes, assignments, etc., helps students to complete their
work. Based on research by Butt (2014), the importance of content in e-learning
websites cannot be denied, because it can have an impact on learning. Teaching
content is an important element to attract students’ interest in online learning
(Tune et al., 2013).
Regarding aspects related to the effectiveness of online learning, the general

appearance of the online learning portal recorded the highest overall mean of 4.21.
This shows that the general appearance of the learning portal plays an important
role in online learning to attract students to use it. This suggests that most students
know how to access the online learning portal and can access the learning portal
easily. These results are consistent with past research conducted by Lynch and
Lodge (2002), who stated that students will be passionate and enthusiastic to
engage in e-learning if the interface is designed in an orderly and attractive
manner. Interaction during learning is very important to improve students’
understanding of learning. The results of this study also agree with the study
conducted by Wu and Hiltz (2004) on 116 students at the New Jersey Institute of
Technology, showing that online learning can be beneficial in improving the
quality of teaching and learning skills among school children.
6. Conclusion
In summary, this study described in detail findings on the demographic data of
respondents, methods used to access online learning, factors influencing the
effectiveness of online learning, as well as the level of effectiveness of online
learning during the Covid-19 pandemic. The results of the study illustrated that
teacher factors are the main factors that influence online learning. Furthermore, in
this study, the general appearance of online learning portals recorded the highest
score for level of effectiveness followed by teacher feedback. The level of
effectiveness was determined through a questionnaire, where most student
respondents provided positive feedback on online learning. Overall, the study
found that the effectiveness of online learning for economics students is at a high
level. Online learning has been a major necessity since the Covid-19 outbreak.
Changes in the teaching and learning process with the use of information
technology must be implemented effectively to create learning in line with 21st
century learning. It is hoped that the findings of this study may influence future
202
researchers positively as well as contribute to improving the quality of education

so that Malaysian education can move in a more advanced direction.
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Appendix 1
Part C: Factors that affect the effectiveness of online learning

Instructions: Mark (/) in the column provided for each item based on the score chart in
the
table below.
LEVEL ABBREVIATIONS SCORE
Strongly disagree STS 1
Do not agree TS 2
Not sure TP 3
Agreed S 4
Strongly Agree SS 5
No. Question Score
1 2 3 4 5
A. Teacher factor
1. Teachers provide teaching

materials using appropriate and
easy-to-understand language in
online learning.
2. Teaching materials uploaded by
teachers in e-learning websites
can help me understand certain
subjects.
3. The teacher is friendly and easy to
contact in online learning.
B. Environmental Factors of Learning at Home
1. The learning environment at

home is comfortable i.e. not too
noisy or quiet.
2. The light is bright enough and
doesn’t interfere with my vision.
3. The arrangement of the facilities
in the learning place is
appropriate and does not
interfere with movement.
C. Learning
Tools
Factor
1. I can surf the internet easily.
2. Equipment such as headphones

and microphones provided can
help in the online learning
process.
206
3. The computer screen provided is

suitable for online learning.
D. Teaching
Content
Factors
1. The variety of multimedia
elements used for the purpose of
delivering learning content online
is effective.
2. The teaching content in online
learning does not trouble or
confuse students.
3. The teaching content provided
can help students in their work
(eg: assignments, quizzes, tests
and others).
E. Learning Process Factors
1. The online learning process can increase

student knowledge.
2. Students can understand difficult
concepts with online learning.
3. I feel comfortable facing the computer
while the online learning is going on.
207
Part D : Level of Effectiveness of Online Learning

Instructions: Mark (/) in the column provided for each item based on the score chart in the
table below.
LEVEL ABBREVIATIONS SCORE

Strongly disagree STS 1
Do not agree TS 2
Not sure TP 3
Agreed Q 4
Strongly Agree SS 5
No Question Score
1 2 3 4 5
A. Online Learning Content
1. The teaching
content delivered
online helped me
understand difficult
things better.
2. Reference materials
(eg: links, notes) are
very helpful in the
course.
3. The content
presented online
increased my level
of understanding.
208
B. Interaction during learning
1. The interaction between

teachers and students online
is very helpful for me.
2. The interaction between
friends during online
learning helped a lot to
improve my understanding.
3. Many of my friends interact

with each other during online
learning.
C. Teacher feedback
1. The teacher gave immediate

and clear feedback to my
questions.
2. The teacher gave the answer I

wanted.
3. I understand the feedback

given by the teacher.
209
D. Motivational strategies used by

teachers
1. Teachers provide motivation

by encouraging all students
to participate in online
learning.
2. The teacher encouraged me to
take part in the discussion
found in online learning.
E. The general appearance of the
online learning portal
1. I know how to access the

online learning portal. (eg:
Google Classroom )
2. I can easily access the online

learning portal.
©Authors
210

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 210-227, January 2023
Received Nov 12, 2022; Revised Jan 21, 2023; Accepted Jan 26, 2023
Flipped Classroom in a Digital Learning Space:

Its Effect on the Students’ Attitude Toward
Mathematics
Anton A. Romero*
Partido State University, Goa, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Edarlyn D. Angeles
Ateneo de Naga University, Naga City, Philippines
Abstract. Mathematical attitudes tend to deteriorate starting at grade 7

level. In this experiment, the impact of flipped learning on the students'
declining attitudes toward mathematics have been investigated. The
effect of the flipped classroom in a digital learning space was determined
by employing a non-equivalent (pretest and posttest) control-group
quasi-experimental design. One hundred sixty-six grade 7 university
students served as the participants of this study, eighty-three (83) each for
the experimental and control groups. The data was gathered using the
Attitude Towards Mathematics Inventory (ATMI) composed of four
constructs. The results were analyzed by employing the Mann-Whitney
U Test, Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test and descriptive statistics. The results
revealed that the overall attitude across the four constructs of ATMI for
the control group declined significantly while the experimental group
maintained their positive attitude after one school year. Also, the
participants in the flipped classroom were better than the participants in
the control group with regard to the overall ATMI and the construct
value, motivation, and enjoyment. It was concluded that the use of a
traditional strategy in digital space negatively affects the attitude of the
students in mathematics. The flipped classroom was able to address the
declining attitude of the secondary students and maintained their joy,
motivation, self-confidence, and value of mathematics. Furthermore, this
study recommends employing the flipped classroom model in a different
mode of learning to improve attitude and academic performance, while
improving the sampling technique, and making it the basis of
administration of policymaking, facilitating the creation of ATMI using
the native language of the country.
Keywords: flipped classroom; attitudes; mathematics; digital learning
*
Corresponding author: Anton A. Romero, antonaromero28@gmail.com
©Authors
1. Introduction
The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic caused the educational sector to shift
from face-to-face to virtual and modular learning which negatively affected the
student's attitude to learning in turn. The attitude towards mathematics
influences and predicts mathematics achievements (Ajisuksmo & Saputri, 2017;
Mazana et al., 2019; Soni & Kumari, 2017; Yaratan & Kasapoğlu, 2012). However,
several studies suggest that learners at lower grade levels have a positive attitude
toward mathematics compared to students at higher levels. Köğce et al. (2009) and
Mazana et al. (2019) found that as the students progressed to a higher level of
schooling, notably secondary school, their attitude toward mathematics began to
deteriorate. Kibrislioglu’s (2015) findings show that sixth-grade pupils have a
relatively positive attitudes toward mathematics while the majority of secondary
learners have a negative one (Joseph, 2013). Hence, it is expected that the students'
attitudes towards learning mathematics will deteriorate when the students enter
the secondary level of education.
The flipped classroom strategy could improve the overall attitude of the learners.
Bergmann and Sams (2014) expounded in their books the many positive attributes
of the flipped classroom such as a student-centered classroom, building rapport
with the students, deep learning and effective assessment, the opportunity for
collaboration, self-paced learning, and many more. A meta-analysis study
showed that the flipped classroom can improve the students’ learning
performance (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2018). A lot of studies regarding the effect of the
flipped classroom on mathematics attitude have been conducted at different
levels and focused on a range of courses. Self-confidence, motivation value, and
enjoyment are commonly used constructs of the Attitude Towards Mathematics
Inventory (ATMI). At the tertiary level, the flipped classroom has a positive effect
on the four ATMI categories (Turra et al., 2019). At the secondary level, a study
showed that the students in the flipped classroom improved their confidence and
enjoyment (Esperanza et al. 2016) and overall attitude (Karadag, & Keskin, 2017).
It was also found to be more effective compared to the traditional teaching
strategy (Casem, 2016). Despite only a few studies having been conducted
involving a flipped classroom and attitudes towards mathematics, Hastuti (2020)
said that the flipped classroom could foster an active, enjoyable, and student-
centered environment.
Based on the literature shown, the ATMI results show a significant decrease
during the transition from elementary to secondary level. Furthermore, most of
the studies about flipped classrooms and attitudes toward mathematics are set in
higher education. Although there are several studies conducted at the secondary
level, it is unclear if the flipped classroom could fill in the gap in terms of the
significant decline in attitude towards mathematics before the learners enter
junior high school, after experiencing high school mathematics for at least a year
in digital space. Research must be conducted to determine whether the flipped
classroom could still be effective at enhancing or maintaining attitude despite the
decreasing trend of the ATMI results based on the literature.
Thus, incorporating the flipped classroom approach into a digital learning space
to improve the students' attitudes toward mathematics could fill a gap in the
research and contribute to the existing literature. Specifically, the findings of this
study will show whether or not the flipped classroom can be an effective strategy
to enhance or maintain the ATMI scores of grade 7 university students. If found
effective, it could also be used by some teachers who are having trouble keeping
their students motivated, who want them to value mathematics, develop their
self-confidence, and enjoy learning. In addition, the results of this study will be
beneficial to other schools and universities that have struggled implementing
effective virtual learning while also being a basis for schools that are still using a
modular approach and planning to implement virtual learning in the future. It
could be a basis for changing their policies in terms of implementing
a/synchronous sessions, the dos and don'ts in virtual learning implementation,
and more. Lastly, the model can help many schools be more systematic when
teaching virtually.
This study intends to ascertain whether the flipped classroom model is successful
at raising or maintaining the students' attitudes. Quantitative data will be
collected utilizing a non-equivalent control-group design (pretest and posttest).
Quantitatively, the pretest and posttest ATMI scores of the participants were
collected from grade 7 university students from Naga City to test the Cognitive-
Affective-Social Theory of Learning in Digital Environments (CASTLE) to assess
whether social cues in digital resources stimulate social schemata which improves
the learners' emotional, metacognitive, and motivational processes.
2. Related Literature
This section discusses the literature on attitude towards mathematics, the flipped
classroom model, and the different findings that transpire in the study of these
variables. Also, the attitude, theoretical framework and hypotheses are discussed.
2.1 Attitude Towards Mathematics

There have been many types of ATMI used for gauging the attitude of students
towards mathematics. They differ in the number of items and the construct being
used. Motivation, value, enjoyment, and self-confidence are among the constructs
of ATMI (Lim & Chapman, 2013; Tapia & Marsh, 2002). Meanwhile, the
Mathematics Attitude Scale (Askar, 1986) is categorized into positive and negative
attitudes and has been used in other studies (Kibrislioglu, 2015; Yaratan &
Kasapoğlu, 2012). The ATMI's constructs included intrinsic motivation, perceived
utility and enjoyment of mathematics, self-confidence in mathematics, and
mathematics anxiety (Fennema & Sherman, 1976; Mazana et al., 2019). Despite
several choices of ATMI in the literature, Tapia and Marsh (2002) adopted it since
it was widely used and had an acceptable Cronbach's alpha.
2.2 Flipped Classroom and Attitude towards Mathematics

There have been a few pieces of research conducted involving flipped classrooms
and ATMI compared to flipped classrooms and the academic performance of the
students. Tekin and Sarikaya (2020) employed the ATMI of Tapia and Marsh
(2004) and found that there was no significant difference before and after carrying
out the flipped classroom and technology-integrated face-to-face classroom
model among grade 10 students in the city of Tokat in Turkey. The study did not
examine the four ATMI components but the students in the flipped classroom had
much higher ATMI scores than those in the other model. The same instrument
was used by Esperanza et al. (2016) on third-year secondary students in the USA
and they looked into the aspects of ATMI. The data gathered showed that the
students in the flipped classroom improved regarding the constructs of enjoyment
and self-confidence. No significant improvement was found for the value of
mathematics and motivation, and employing the traditional classroom in the
control group showed a significant decrease in the value of mathematics.
Mondragon and Acelajado (2018) discovered no significant differences in the
confidence and utility of mathematics using the traditional approach, in contrast.
Turra et al. (2019) adopted an ATMI and employed it with engineering students
at Universidad Católica de Temuco, Araucanía Region, Chile. They found that the
flipped classroom improve the overall attitude of the students as well as their
personal confidence, the usefulness of the subject, their perception of mathematics
as a male domain content, and the teacher’s attitudes. On the contrary, Casem
(2016) found no significant rise in the ATMI score of fourth-year students in the
Philippines before and after implementing the flipped classroom model. The four
modified Fennema-Sherman subscales, measuring mathematics anxiety,
confidence in studying mathematics, attitude towards mathematical achievement,
and the teacher’s perceptions, all yielded the same results. Another interesting
result found in the literature was the comparison between the ATMI posttest
result of the control and experimental groups. The ATMI scores of the learners in
the flipped classroom were better compared to the scores employing different
models or pedagogy (Tekin & Sarikaya, 2020). Meanwhile, most of the students
in Fuchs’s (2021) qualitative review had a favorable opinion of the flipped
classroom, although they had reservations about the added effort for the students,
the vagueness of the desired learning objectives, and the initial barrier to actively
participating.
Most of the experiments involving a flipped classroom and ATMI have employed
on university college students at fourth year and grade 10 level. However, ATMI
level does not decline significantly for those age brackets and grade levels. It was
shown in the literature that the students' overall ATMI scores decline significantly
from primary to secondary and minimally increase from secondary to college.
This paper fills in the gap in the literature specifically by looking into the effects
of implementing a virtual flipped classroom on the students' ATMI scores,
especially at the grade 7 level, where there is a significant ATMI score decline
based on the literature.
2.3 Theoretical Framework

This subsection introduces CASTLE as the theoretical grounding of this study and
how the concepts of this theory relate to the constructs of the ATMI.
2.3.1 CASTLE
CASTLE serves as the theoretical framework of this study. Here, the social cues in
digital resources prompt the learners to activate their social schemata which
improves their emotional, metacognitive, and motivational processes (Schneider
et al., 2021). Both the control and experimental groups of this study have
consumed rich and high quality digital materials throughout the course since pure
online classes were implemented. They have been highly exposed to digital
materials in the form of LMS, video lessons/recordings, text, pictures, etc. A
broad definition of digital learning materials encompasses anything from simple
text and image pairings to interactive media or media that shows information in
a time-dependent way, like films or animations. Interactive media also includes
simulations, educational games, and online quizzes (Schneider et al., 2021).
Hence, the learners in both groups may improve these processes or maintain their
high-level scores given how the literature showed there to be a significant
decrease in attitude between elementary and secondary learners. Consequently,
the improvement of these processes may lead to the improvement of the
components of ATMI.
Figure 1: Theoretical Paradigm
The definition of attitude can be categorized into three. One is the

multidimensional (Affective, Behavior, and Cognitive). The Tripartite model can
be used as the theoretical framework in most studies where attitude can be
classified to Zan and Di Martino’s three categories (Wen & Dubé, 2022; Zan & Di
Martino, 2007). Mazana et al. (2019) used the ABC Model of Attitude with three
categories, affect, behavior, and cognition, which are related to the processes of
CASTLE. Affect is associated with an emotional process (confidence when doing
mathematics), behavior is the way that the learners act or react in relation to a
certain object (joy and motivation when doing mathematics) and is related to the
motivation process, and cognition is the belief and perception of a certain object
(mathematics), related to the metacognition process.
2.3.2 Attitude
A person's learned tendency to react favorably or unfavorably to an object,
circumstance, idea or other person is referred to as their attitude (Mazana et al.,
2019). Although attitude is an abstract concept, it can be observed in terms of
emotion, motivation, and metacognition. Emotion is the way that the learners
handle their feelings (self-confidence). Motivation is the driving force or the
reason for someone to act in a particular way (Motivation to Learn Mathematics
and Enjoyment of Learning Mathematics). Metacognition is the recognition and
evaluation of something's significance (Value of Mathematics).
2.3.3 Attitude Aspects

This subsection shows the connection between the attitude constructs of ATMI
and the concepts of the proposition of CASTLE.
Emotional
Self-confidence. Confidence is the extent to which the students believe they can
handle the challenges of mathematics and achieve a specific level of expertise
(Wen & Dubé, 2022). Self-confidence in mathematics is the students’ ideas
regarding their capacity to learn and perform well in mathematics, as well as their
judgments of themselves as mathematics learners (Adelson & McCoach, 2011;
Mazana et al., 2019). The mindset that they can perform well inside the classroom
will improve their self-esteem. They can actively participate in different activities
and share their thoughts and ideas with little hesitation.
Motivation
Motivation. Motivation refers to one's desire to continue learning mathematics
and their level of interest in the subject (Tapia & Marsh, 2004). Intrinsic motivation
is the desire and interest to learn mathematics (Guy et al., 2015; Mazana et al.,
2019). Once the learners are motivated to learn, they will give more than what is
expected of them.
Enjoyment. The degree to which the students enjoy practicing, appreciating and
learning mathematics is known as the enjoyment of mathematics (Kupari &
Nissinen, 2013; Tapia & Marsh, 2004). Enjoyment is the students’ satisfaction
when solving a mathematics problem as well as their happiness in a mathematics
class compared to any other class (Anastasiadis & Zirinoglou, 2022). When the
learning environment is nurturing, the learners can enjoy learning mathematics
and their feeling of anxiety and fear is less.
Metacognitive
Value of Mathematics. The value of mathematics refers to one's opinion
regarding the value, relevance, and utility of mathematics (Tapia & Marsh, 2004).
The perceived usefulness of mathematics is the extrinsic utility of the value of
mathematics and its applicability to the individual’s current and future goals in
life (Adelson & McCoach, 2011: Mazana et al., 2019; Yáñez-Marquina & Villardón-
Gallego, 2016). If the learners found mathematics useful and determined that it
will affect their lives, they will value and give importance to it.
2.4 Hypotheses
With the presence of digital materials in both the flipped and traditional
classroom, based on CASTLE, this study proposes that both the experimental and
control groups activate social schemata and enhance their motivation, value,
enjoyment, and self-confidence in mathematics. In this study, it was expected that
neither the experimental nor control groups' attitudes towards mathematics were
significantly differed from one another and that both groups would improve or
maintain their ATMI scores.
3. Methodology
This section outlines the research's design, the strategy for choosing the
participants, the research tool and how it will be examined, as well as the research
process and any ethical considerations.
3.1 Research Design
To test the objective hypotheses, quantitative research was used to look at the
relationships between the different variables (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). This
study used a nonequivalent (pretest and posttest) quasi-experimental control-
group design. In quasi-experimental designs, the participants are randomly
assigned to levels of a controlled variable of interest with the researcher having
only limited (or no) influence over this process (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
However, Danday (2021) used another term concerning the design of his paper.
In this study, the flipped classroom intervention was implemented in the
experimental group while the traditional lecture teaching strategy was used in the
control group.
Experimental Group 0----------------X------------------0
Control Group 0------------------------------------0

Figure 2: Non-Equivalent (Pretest and Posttest) Control Group Design
3.2 Participants
This study has one-hundred hundred sixty-six (166) participants, eighty-three (83)
each for the control and experimental groups. The participants were all grade
seven university students. They were chosen conveniently to ensure that the
pretest of both groups was similar at the beginning of the experiment for all ATMI
constructs. A quasi-experimental design normally uses this kind of sampling
method (Leavy, 2017). She also mentioned that creating similar scores in the
pretest could be done through the process of matching, placing one pair in the
control group and the other one in the experimental group.
3.3 Sampling
There are three universities in Naga City and one of them represents the
population of this study. In the second phase, convenience sampling was used to
ensure that the two groups were comparable before the implementation of the
intervention. According to Leavy (2017), there are two stages to cluster sampling.
The first is choosing from the preexisting clusters (University), followed by
selecting samples from the chosen cluster or including all elements in the cluster.
Creswell and Creswell (2017) suggested the use of G* power in the power analysis.
In the studies by Casem (2016) and Tekin and Sarikaya (2020), the d-values were
.82 and .90, respectively. Using the G* Power software, the actual computed
powers were both .81, requiring only twenty-six (26) and twenty-two (22) samples
for each group, respectively. One of the disadvantages of oversampling is putting
more participants at risk in a clinical study. Conversely, this is not true in research
in education and the social sciences. To further verify the computed power, Power
and Precision 4 software was used. The computed power using eighty-three
samples for both groups was 1.00. This is close to 100% and yields a significant
effect.

This study adopted Tapia and Marsh's Attitudes Toward Mathematics Inventory
(ATMI) (2002). The same instrument was used for the pretest and posttest. The
ATMI is a list of statements about the attitudes towards mathematics and is
comprised of 40 items on a Likert scale. The 40-item questionnaire measures four
constructs: self-confidence (15 items), motivation to learn mathematics (5 items),
value of mathematics (10 items), and enjoyment of mathematics (10 items). The
questions had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient interval ranging from .88 to .95. Since
the instrument was adopted from another country, the interval of the internal
consistency in Naga City was tested and ranged from .85 to .97 with an overall of
.98.
3.5 Data Analysis

This study employed SPSS version 20 to analyze the quantitative data and the
Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon-Signed Rank tests to check for differences in the
scores between and within groups, respectively. The value of (r) was used to
estimate the effect size of the parametric test. Specifically, Glass rank-biserial
correlation for the Mann-Whitney U-statistic test and rank-biserial correlation for
the Wilcoxon signed ranks test (Tomczak & Tomczak, 2014). The r-values were
converted to d-values (Ellis, 2010) and classified as d (.01) = very small, d (.2) =
little, d (.5) = medium, d (.8) = large, d (1.2) = very large, and d (2.0) = huge when
interpreted using the updated rules of thumb for effect sizes (Sawilowsky, 2009).
The conversion formulas are listed below.
𝟐𝒓 𝒅
𝒅= 𝒓=
√𝟏−𝒓𝟐 √𝒅𝟐 +𝟒
3.6 Procedures and Ethics

This study was conducted during the academic year 2021 - 2022. The first step that
the researcher did was to seek the permission of the school to conduct the
research. A consent letter was sent to the parents of the participants, then the
pretest was conducted afterward using Google Forms. The researchers monitored
the teacher’s implementation of the intervention to ensure that the model was
properly executed. At the end of the school year, a posttest of the ATMI was
conducted using the same platform and the researcher ensured that the identity
of the participants would remain confidential. Lastly, the results were reported to
the teachers and administrators of the three universities in Naga City. Figure 3
shows the flipped classroom model in online learning that was implemented in
this study (Romero & Angeles, 2021). The intervention implemented in this study
is the flipped classroom strategy. This is an inverted classroom in which out of
class time is maximized to help the students learn the necessary concepts.
Meanwhile, the in-class time is used for mastery and in-depth learning.
Figure 3: Flipped Classroom Model
4. Results
This section contains the findings following the analysis of the data. The tables
present the pretest and posttest results as well as the results between the two
groups.
4.1 Pre-study Attitudes Towards Mathematics

Before beginning the intervention, a pretest looking into the participants' attitudes
towards mathematics was given on the first day of the school year. As can be seen,
the Attitude Towards Mathematics Inventory (ATMI) has a maximum score of
five (5) points and a minimum score of one (1). According to Table 1, the
experimental group (Mn=3.46, 69.2%) performed lower than the control group
(Mn=3.48, 69.6) in terms of the test scores. When the median scores were
examined, the same outcome was seen.
Table 1: Results of the ATMI's Pretest

Test/Group N Md (Max=5) Mn (Max=5) SD
Pretest
Experimental 83 3.38(67.6%) 3.46(69.2%) .592
Control 83 3.57(71.4%) 3.48(69.6%) .623
Total 166 3.45(69.0%) 3.51(70.2%) .609
It was shown that the control group had higher scores for both the mean and
median comparison. However, the pretest scores from Table 2 show that there
was no difference (p=.357) and that the effect size (r=.08) was very small. This
shows that prior to participating in the study, the experimental and control groups
were similar.
Table 2: Pretest ATMI - Mann-Whitney U test
Test/Group N Mean Mann- Z P r(ES)
Rank Whitney
U
Pretest
Experimental 83 80.07 3159.50 -.921 .357 .08
Control 83 86.93
Note: *p<.05; **p<.01
The pretest results for the four attitudes towards mathematics constructs are
shown in Table 3. In terms of motivation, value, enjoyment, and self-confidence,
the control group outperformed the experimental group by a small margin. Given
how the p-values (p=.412, p=.600, p=.181, and p=.297) were higher than p=.05,
there were no differences between the group scores for any of the constructs with
a very small effect size (r=.07, r=.05, r=.09) and small effect size (r=.12). This
outcome demonstrates that before participating in the study, the two groups’
attitude towards the mathematics constructs were almost equivalent.
Table 3: Pretest of the ATMI Constructs - Mann-Whitney U test

ATMI Experimental Control
Component
Mn Mean Mn Mean M-W- Z p r(ES
(Max=5) Rank (Max=5) Rank U )
Motivation 3.32(66.4%) 80.46 3.44(68.8%) 86.54 3192.0 -.82 .412 .07
Value 4.07(81.4%) 81.55 4.13(82.6%) 85.45 3282.5 -.53 .600 .05
Enjoyment 3.46(69.2%) 78.52 3.57(71.4%) 88.48 3031.0 -1.34 .181 .12
Self- 2.99(59.8%) 79.61 3.14(62.8%) 87.39 3122.0 -1.04 .297 .09
Confidence
Note: *p<.05; **p<.01
4.2 Results for the Attitude Towards Mathematics Inventory (ATMI) Posttest
One day after the intervention, the Attitude Towards Mathematics Inventory
(ATMI) was administered as a posttest. Table 4 displays the mean, median, and
standard deviations. This time, an opposite result occurred where the
experimental group gained higher mean and median scores (Mn=3.48, 69.6%;
Md=3.48, 69.6%) compared to the control group (Mn=3.24, 64.8%; Md=3.24,
64.8%). Also, the experimental group got a lower standard deviation (SD=.46)
compared to the control group (SD=.52). This demonstrates that the experimental
group's scores were closer than those of the control group's members.
Table 4: Posttest Results of the ATMI
Test/Group N Md (Max=5) Mn (Max=5) SD

Posttest
Experimental 83 3.48(69.6%) 3.48(69.6%) .46
Control 83 3.24(64.8%) 3.24(64.8) .52
Total 166 3.38(67.6%) 3.36(67.2%) .50
The impact of the intervention on the overall attitude toward mathematics was
evaluated using the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test. It compared the results of the
groups' pretest and posttest. Table 5 exposed that, with a very small effect size
(r=.04), the experimental group only slightly improved their posttest scores
compared to their pretest scores (p=.728). Conversely, the posttest scores of the
participants in the control group, significantly (p=.000) and with a very large
effect size (r=.50), declined in relation to their pretest scores. This reveals that there
has been considerable deterioration in the participants' attitude in the control
group.
Table 5: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Overall ATMI of Two Groups

Group N Z p r(ES)
Experimental 83 -.347 .728 .04
Control 83 -4.08 .000** .50
Note: *p<.05; **p<.01
To determine the effect of the interventions on the participants’ attitudes toward
mathematics, further analysis was done. The difference between the two groups'
posttest results were examined using the Mann-Whitney U test. With a medium
effect size (r=.27), Table 6 revealed that individuals in the experimental group had
a higher mean score (p=.002) than the control group. This suggests that the
intervention implemented in the experimental group was better than that in the
control group.
Table 6: Posttest ATMI Mann-Whitney U test
Test/Group N Mean Mann- Z p r(ES)
Rank Whitney
U
Posttest
Experimental 83 94.83 2504.00 -3.04 .002** .27
Control 83 72.17
Note: *p<.05; **p<.01
The mean scores of the two groups for each construct of the ATMI are shown in
Table 7. It clearly shows that the mean scores of the participants in the
experimental group across all constructs (3.42, 68.4; 3.99, 79.8; 3.51, 70.2; 3.0, 60.0)
were higher than those of the control group (3.03, 60.6; 3.85, 77.0; 3.25, 65.0; 2.85,
57.0). This suggests that in every ATMI construct, the experimental group
outperformed the control group.
Table 7: Constructs of the ATMI Posttest

ATMI Component Experimental Control
Mn(Max=5) Mn(Max=5)
Motivation 3.42(68.4%) 3.03(60.6%)
Value 3.99(79.8%) 3.85(77.0%)
Enjoyment 3.51(70.2%) 3.25(65.0%)
Self-confidence 3.00(60.0%) 2.85(57.0%)
The pretest and posttest scores of the two groups for each construct were
compared by employing the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test. It is revealed in Table 8
that the control group obtained significantly lower mean scores across all
constructs (p=.000, p=.000, p=.000, p=.018). The effect sizes for motivation, value,
and enjoyment were large (r=.40, r=.47, r=.46) while there was a medium effect
size (r=.27) found for self-confidence. On the contrary, the differences before and
after the implementation of the intervention across all constructs (p=.123, .235,
p=.812, p=.746) were not significant in the experimental group. The effect sizes for
motivation and value were small (r=.18, r=.14) while they were very small for
enjoyment and self-confidence (r=.03, r=.04). Hence, it could be assumed that the
intervention made in the experimental group is effective at maintaining the
positive attitude of the participants.
Table 8: Per Construct of the ATMI Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test

ATMI Group N Z P r(ES)
Component
Motivation Experimental 83 -1.543 .123 .18
Control 83 -4.229 .000** .40
Value Experimental 83 -1.188 .235 .14
Control 83 -4.145 .000** .47
Enjoyment Experimental 83 -.238 .812 .03
Control 83 -3.661 .000** .46
Self- Experimental 83 -.324 .746 .04
confidence Control 83 -2.369 .018* .27
Note: *p<.05; **p<.01
The posttest was compared between the two groups using the Mann-Whitney U
test in line with the ATMI constructs. The experimental group's mean ratings for
motivation, value, and enjoyment were seen to be significantly higher (p=.000,
p=.04, and p=.046), whereas self-confidence was greater but not significantly so
(p=.161). Furthermore, the effect size for motivation was large (r=.40) and small
along with value, enjoyment, and self-confidence (r=.18, r=.18, r=.13). Except for
the self-confidence construct, it could be assumed that the experimental group's
intervention performed better than the control group's intervention.
Table 9: Per Construct of the ATMI Posttest Mann-Whitney U test

ATMI Group Posttest
Component Mean Rank M-W-U P r(ES)
Motivation Experimental 100.25 2054.00 .000** .40
Control 66.75
Value Experimental 91.14 2810.50 .04* .18
Control 75.86
Enjoyment Experimental 90.93 2828.00 .046* .18
Control 76.07
Self- Experimental 88.72 3011.50 .161 .13
confidence Control 78.28
Note: *p<.05; **p<.01
5. Discussion
The results show that after one year of using a traditional classroom strategy at
the secondary level, all constructs and the control group's overall attitude toward
mathematics drastically declined, especially the constructs of motivation, value,
and enjoyment where the effect sizes are large. Esperanza et al. (2016) found that the
value of mathematics among the students exposed to traditional lessons declined
significantly. Conversely, the flipped classroom model implemented in the
experimental group maintained a positive attitude toward mathematics among
the participants across all constructs of ATMI as well as overall attitude. The
studies by Köğce et al. (2009), Mata et al. (2012), and Mazana et al. (2019) revealed
that as the students get to a higher level in school, their attitude toward
mathematics deteriorates. Also, Kibrislioglu (2015) found that sixth grade
students have a relatively positive attitude towards mathematics while secondary
students have a negative attitude (Joseph, 2013). Lastly, Casem (2016) found there
to be no significant increase in the ATMI score of fourth-year students before and
after implementing the flipped classroom model. These findings show that the
flipped classroom intervention is effective at maintaining a positive attitude
toward mathematics among the participants compared to the traditional strategy
teaching in a digital space.
Additional intriguing findings indicated that the control group's overall pretest
score, which took into account the four ATMI constructs, was marginally higher
than that of the experimental group. The experimental group posttest revealed
that overall ATMI, motivation, value, and enjoyment were significantly higher
than that of the control group. Even though, between the two groups, the
difference was not statistically significant in terms of self-confidence, the
experimental group scored higher. Interestingly, the effect size on the motivation
construct is large. These results are consistent with what Tekin and Sarikaya
(2020) found in their investigation, where they declared that the flipped classroom
was better compared to employing a different model of pedagogy and that the
flipped classroom was more effective at improving the attitude towards
mathematics compared to a traditional teaching strategy (Casem, 2016). The
findings manifested that a flipped classroom is a better strategy compared to a
traditional classroom for improving the student’s attitude towards mathematics
in a virtual setting. Since attitude towards mathematics predicts academic
performance (Yaratan & Kasapoğlu, 2012; Soni & Kumari, 2017; Ajisuksmo &
Saputri, 2017; Mazana et al., 2019), the flipped classroom could potentially
improve the academic performance of the learners.
6. Conclusions and Recommendations

It could be inferred that the participants in the flipped classroom are motivated
and enjoyed learning mathematics compared to the traditional strategy. The
traditional strategy negatively affects the attitude of the students and makes them
less motivated, lowering their self-confidence, making them bored and value
mathematics less. In addition, the flipped classroom addressed the declining
attitude in mathematics among secondary learners, particularly in grade seven.
The findings of this study refute the CASTLE which postulates that social cues in
digital materials activate social schemata in learners leading to enhance
metacognitive, emotional, and motivational processes. Thus, the significant
decrease in the four constructs of ATMI was only observed in the control group
which means that there was a significant decline in the participants’ motivational,
emotional, and metacognitive processes. It is suggested that social cues in digital
materials alone do not ensure social schemata activation, and that the use of an
appropriate strategy on how to use these digital materials is a big factor. The
findings of the study imply that teachers must adapt to education 4.0 practices
such as the flipped classroom strategy to maintain a positive attitude towards
mathematics among the learners, improving their mathematics proficiency.
Furthermore, the findings of this study suggest the modification of the CASTLE.
Specifically, digital social cues and effective and appropriate teaching strategies
help learners activate their social schemata which improves their emotional,
metacognitive, and motivational processes. Thus, this paper recommends
replicating this study in a digital space, face-to-face settings, and hybrid learning
spaces using the model of a flipped classroom as well as implementing the model
in several schools/universities to ensure the generalizability of the findings,
applying the model to improve the academic performance of the learners. Also,
creating the ATMI using the student’s native language is highly recommended to
remove the language barrier, especially for young learners. To the administrators,
it is recommended to ensure that asynchronous time is given to the learners
regardless of the mode of learning applied and ensuring the readiness of the
teachers when implementing the flipped classroom.
6.1 Limitations and Future Research

This study found several limitations. A manipulation check measure was not
implemented in this study which could have added the comparison of the control
and experimental groups using other factors related to ATMI prior to conducting
this study. Also, to ensure that the two groups were comparable, random
sampling was not used when determining the participants. Hence, removing the
bias in the selection of the participants is not ensured. Although the ATMI used
in this study had an acceptable Cronbach’s alpha, choosing the best ATMI (better
Cronbach’s alpha, shorter in terms of the number of items, etc.) available is
another limitation. Lastly, this study does not further explain the quantitative
results using a qualitative database such as engaging with a mixed-method
experimental core design. To confirm that the two groups are comparable,
researchers may replicate this investigation in future studies with better results
by using manipulation check measures before administering the pretest. These
measures could include motivation inventories, emotional intelligence constructs,
and other measurements that are related to the attitudes toward mathematics.
Furthermore, it is strongly encouraged to use ATMI with a higher reliability score
and qualitative database.
7. Acknowledgments
The Vice-President for Research, Extension, and Knowledge Management Office
at Partido State University (ParSU), which provided financial and professional
support to the schools, participants, and pool of experts who validated the key
elements of this study, the expertise the primary author acquired with the help of
a DOST scholarship, is acknowledged by the authors.
8. References
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APPENDIX 1: Guide to using the Flipped Classroom Model
Stage 1: Plan
The teacher plans the number of days allotted for each competency, the activity, and
strategy used, and the number of summative assessments, quizzes, and worksheets.
Stage 2: Prepare
The teacher creates and chooses the video lessons, modules, learning packages, quizzes,
summative tests, anecdotal records, formats for the tentative grades, mini tasks and
performance tasks, worksheets, LMS, and other learning materials needed.
Stage 3: Share
The teacher distributes the learning package and shares the video lesson via Youtube and
other learning resources through LMS.
Stage 4: Pre-class
The students are expected to utilize the materials provided by the teacher and complete
the activity at the end of the video lesson.
Stage 5: Gauging
The teacher assesses the students' learning and understanding and makes sure that all
students grasp the lesson and the problem given.
Stage 6: Grouping
The teacher creates a venue for the learners to collaborate, practice, master the lessons,
then plan and prepare for the deepening stage.
Stage 7: Deepening
The teacher assesses the students’ mastery and in-depth understanding of the lesson.
Stage 8: Summative Assessment

The teacher gives a test after each term or chapter.
APPENDIX 2: The adopted ATMI.
Directions: This inventory consists of statements about your attitude toward mathematics.
There are no correct or incorrect responses. Read each item carefully. Please think about
how you feel about each item. Darken the circle that most closely corresponds to how the
statements best describes your feelings. Use the following response scale to respond to
each item.
PLEASE USE THESE RESPONSE CODES:

A – Strongly Disagree, B – Disagree, C – Neutral, D – Agree, E – Strongly Agree
1. Mathematics is a very worthwhile and necessary subject.

2. I want to develop my mathematical skills.
3. I get a great deal of satisfaction out of solving a mathematics problem.
4. Mathematics helps develop the mind and teaches a person to think.
5. Mathematics is important in everyday life.
6. Mathematics is one of the most important subjects for people to study.
7. High school math courses would be very helpful no matter what I decide to study.
8. I can think of many ways that I use math outside of school.
9. Mathematics is one of my most dreaded subjects.
10. My mind goes blank and I am unable to think clearly when working with mathematics.
11. Studying mathematics makes me feel nervous.
12. Mathematics makes me feel uncomfortable.
13. I am always under a terrible strain in a math class.
14. When I hear the word mathematics, I have a feeling of dislike.
15. It makes me nervous to even think about having to do a mathematics problem.
16. Mathematics does not scare me at all.
17. I have a lot of self-confidence when it comes to mathematics
18. I am able to solve mathematics problems without too much difficulty.
19. I expect to do fairly well in any math class I take.
20. I am always confused in my mathematics class.
21. I feel a sense of insecurity when attempting mathematics.
22. I learn mathematics easily.
23. I am confident that I could learn advanced mathematics.
24. I have usually enjoyed studying mathematics in school.
25. Mathematics is dull and boring.
26. I like to solve new problems in mathematics.
27. I would prefer to do an assignment in math than to write an essay.
28. I would like to avoid using mathematics in college.
29. I really like mathematics.
30. I am happier in a math class than in any other class.
31. Mathematics is a very interesting subject.
32. I am willing to take more than the required amount of mathematics.
33. I plan to take as much mathematics as I can during my education.
34. The challenge of math appeals to me.
35. I think studying advanced mathematics is useful.
36. I believe studying math helps me with problem solving in other areas.
37. I am comfortable expressing my own ideas on how to look for solutions to a difficult
problem in
math.
38. I am comfortable answering questions in math class.
39. A strong math background could help me in my professional life.
40. I believe I am good at solving math problems.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 228-246, January 2023
Exploring Foreign Teachers’ Perceptions of

Communication with Students in Online
Learning in China: A Case Study
Jing Guo
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Adelina Asmawi*
Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract. Under the influence of the Covid-19 pandemic, and with the
widespread use of online learning, the way in which teachers
communicate with students via the internet has attracted great
attention. Online communication bears unique challenges, such as the
absence of nonverbal cues and lack of social interaction, both of which
are necessary to enrich and assist learning in an online setting. This
paper aims to explore foreign teachers’ perceptions of online
communications for learning and to examine the communication
challenges in that environment. Set in China, this study adopts a
qualitative design using semi-structured online interviews as data
collection instrument. Seven foreign teachers (non-Chinese) (three
females and four males) participated in this research. The thematic
analysis method was adopted for data analysis. Results showed
that four themes were generated, which were effectiveness, emotional
feelings, means of communication, and communication skills. In
addition, three themes were discussed in terms of communication
challenges in online learning, such as technical obstacles, cultural issues,
as well as communication problems. Teachers are encouraged to be
prepared to deal with these problems. This research brings new and
practical thoughts to learners and instructors in order to optimize the
effect of online learning and makes recommendations for future
projects.
Keywords: foreign teacher (non-Chinese); communication; online

learning; challenges and prospects
1. Introduction
Online learning can be traced back to the 1980s. With the advancement of
*
Corresponding author: Adelina Asmawi, adelina@um.edu.my
©Authors
229
technology and the emergence of this new form of education, how people learn
and how human beings communicate when studying have manifested crucial
changes. Reports reveal that there has been a significant growth in online
programmes in colleges and universities (Albrahim, 2020). This is mainly
because online learning offers more flexibility and convenience for instruction
and the development of materials at any time and place. A great many
university courses have been designed to be delivered fully online. This trend is
expected to rise, with increasing numbers of colleges and universities initiating
online courses.
In 2020, students and lecturers in universities were critically impacted by the

unprecedented Covid-19 pandemic (Chung et al., 2020). At the time of writing,
Covid-19 has affected over 220 countries and regions, infected more than
177,400,000 people and killed more than 3,838,000 people globally. To limit the
spread of Covid-19, and prevent students from being infected and to ensure
continuity of education, the traditional face-to-face learning has been fully
replaced by online learning in many prestigious universities around the world
(Chung et al., 2020). As a result, online learning has become normalized and is
deemed by many to be the best solution for the “new norm”.
In response to the above, the Ministry of Education (the MOE, 2020) of China
announced that all public and private universities in China are to conduct
teaching and learning activities via online learning for the spring semester.
Initial findings reveal that online learning accounts for 91% of the total courses
in higher education, with the teachers’ and the students’ satisfaction rates being
80% and 85% respectively, suggesting positive experiences and communication
via online learning. In addition, the downloads of online tutoring applications
soared five to 30 times the numbers seen before the outbreak. It is reported by
major Chinese online learning providers that there were more than 20 million
new users during the second half of February 2020.
According to Teo (2019), communication, cooperation and critical thinking are

among the “real global skills” critical for the 21st century. Communication is a
skill entailing the subdomains of reading, writing, speaking, and listening,
which can occur in various circumstances, take various forms, and serve various
purposes (Metusalem et al., 2017). There are three essential components of
communication: verbal (the words we choose), nonverbal (our body language)
and paraverbal (how we say the words) (Windle and Warren, 2013, as cited in
Garcés & Olivera, 2014). They are needed to clarify and specify the messages we
send and to precisely comprehend the information we get. To perform effective
communication, the messages need to be precisely decoded, and online
communication skills are key at this point. Online communication must be clear,
concise, concrete, correct, coherent, complete, and courteous for success in
learning.
In the educational field, teaching is generally considered as 50% imparting

knowledge and 50% interpersonal or communication skills. Teachers and
students exchange information, ideas and emotions through effective classroom
230
communication. Therefore, for teachers, communication skills should be

regarded as being equally as important as the subjects they teach.
As communication skills are perceived to be the most significant generic skills

for university students, they are crucial not only for their professional
development but also for their personal development as a whole. It is important
to note the kind of issues and challenges faced in relation to underdeveloped
communication skills. Reports have shown that the consequences of
communication breakdown can lead to loss of interest of students, negative
effects on academic achievements (Yavuz & Guzel, 2020), increase of stress
(Allen and Lawless, 2003), and worse, increased student drop-out rates (Betts,
2017). Therefore, communication in online education matters more as online
communication bears unique challenges, such as the absence of nonverbal cues
and lack of social interaction, both of which are necessary to enrich and assist
learning in the face-to-face classroom (Mukhtar et al., 2020). Communication can
in fact take place without any verbal exchange in a face-to-face classroom.
However, online learning may rely heavily on words, particularly through
written communication. This is especially the case for students without the right
gadgets for learning; for example, those without access to a video camera or a
stable network that allows video streaming. Lexicon, semantics, and syntax can
exert great influence over the way in which a written message is expressed and
interpreted. According to Alawamleh et al. (2020), online communication
between faculty and students is an important factor influencing the quality of
online education. It is therefore essential to prepare teachers as well as students
with the necessary communication skills to fulfil their responsibilities in the
virtual environment.
It can not be denied that modern technology, as a significant component of the

essence of communication, has played a vital role in the modern classroom
(Khan et al., 2019; Shahbaz et al., 2016). In addition, several studies also show
that a lack of communication skills can cause far more difficult problems than
the technical obstacles and that communication breakdowns are inclined to
cause serious problems that technology can not fix (Sorensen, 2002). Compared
with technical obstacles, ill-structured and poorly planned subject domain
delivery, group-oriented pedagogies, the lack of body language, and the absence
of compensation under the virtual environment have led to serious
communication challenges that have affected online learning (Levinsen, 2007).
So far, little priority has been given to exploring online communication skills,
even though studies have indicated that communication skills are a critical
parameter for the quality of online learning (Alawamleh et al, 2020; Levinsen,
2007). Alawamleh et al. (2020) studied the effect of online learning on
communication between instructors and students during the Covid-19
pandemic. Yuliansyah and Ayu (2021) reported that project-based assignments
in online learning are beneficial for the development of communication skills.
Chiablaem (2021) investigated English communication skills using Google apps
for education and announced that there had been little research on
communication skills in online learning environments with English as a
231
communication tool. This is especially true in China, where both communication

as well as online learning has gained insufficient attention, although cases are
increasing amid challenges faced by teachers in this new form of learning post
pandemic.
This paper aims at exploring foreign teachers’ perceptions of their

communication with students and the communication challenges faced in an
online learning environment. Specifically it deals with the following research
questions: RQ1: How do foreign teachers perceive their communication with
students in an online learning environment? RQ2: What are the challenges for
communication in an online learning environment?
2. Significance of the study

With the rapid development of online learning in this new era, the questions of
how learners can benefit more from this mode of learning become a hot issue.
Among the various factors affecting the quality of online learning,
communication between learners and instructors accounts for the greater part
(Brooks, 2003). It is anticipated that the finding of this research will provide new
and practical lessons to learners and instructors as they experience the reality of
trial and error in various online learning environments. It may shed some lights
on the teaching of communication skills for online learning and thus facilitate
the communication, both teacher-student and student-student, with the purpose
of optimizing the effect of online learning.
3. Method
3.1 Research locale
This study was conducted in Taiyuan University of Technology (TYUT). TYUT
is the only university that is enlisted in the national “211 programme” and
national “double-first-class” plan in Shanxi Province, China. The 211
programme plan initiated in 1995 by the Ministry of Education of the People's
Republic of China, was a project aiming at building approximately 100
institutions of higher education with cutting-edge research standards and
national priority. In total, 112 universities are involved in the 211 programme
plan. The national “double-first-class” plan, designed by the government of the
People's Republic of China in 2015, refers to the goal of creating the World’s First
Class University and First Class Academic Disciplines by the end of 2050. This
project will run in a five-year cycle, with approximately 100 disciplines being
supported. TYUT began to employ online learning from March 2020 and apps
such as DingTalk, QQ, WeChat, and Superstar were utilized to facilitate online
teaching and learning. Now, as a result of the proper control of the pandemic,
only a few lessons are offered online in TYUT and these are courses taught by
foreign teachers who are held back at their home country and unable to be in
China. These courses are generally related to foreign languages, such as English,
Russian, Japanese, Spanish, and culture. The focus on languages being taught
online leads to the research problem on the development of communication
skills in an online learning environment.
232
3.2 Research design

This study adopts a qualitative design (see Figure 1) to achieve the research aims
and objectives. The qualitative design was chosen as it offers detailed, in-depth
descriptions of ideas, thoughts and experiences (Rahman, 2017). According to
Chalhoub-Deville and Deville (2008), there is a general preference for using
qualitative approaches in research studies related to administering, interpreting
language, and assessing the quality of communication to gain profound insights.
In this study, the purposive sampling method was adopted with seven foreign-
teachers being participants. Semi-structured online interviews were used as data
collection instruments. Thematic analysis was applied for data analysis,
followed by a detailed report and discussion of the findings.
Figure 1: The flowchart of the key components of the research design
3.3 Research participants

The sample of this study was purposefully recruited and selected. Invitations
were sent via WeChat to foreign teachers who are conducting online courses at
TYUT stating the purposes of the study and providing a consent form. Seven
foreign teachers (non-Chinese) (three females and four males) who teach
undergraduates languages courses agreed to participate. These included four
English teachers from the United States of America and England, one Japanese
teacher, one Spanish teacher and one Russian teacher. They have between 1-3
years experiences in online teaching and teach language skills and culture. Table
1 shows the demographic information of the participants.
Table 1. Participant demographic information
Participants Gender Age Nationality Language of Teaching
teaching experiences
(years)
P1 Male 45-55 English English 3
P2 Female 25-35 American English 2
P3 Male 35-45 Japanese Japanese 2
P4 Male 45-55 American English 1
P5 Female 35-45 Russian Russian 2
P6 Male 35-45 American English 2
P7 Female 25-35 Mexican Spanish 1
3.4 Research instruments and data collection

Semi-structured online interviews were conducted to collect data. The interview
questions (see Appendix 1) were designed collaboratively by the authors with a
reference to Albalawi and Nadeem (2020), who investigated the formal
communication between teachers and students, and Albrahim (2020), who
elaborated extensively on online teaching and communication skills, as well as
Mtusalem et al. (2017), who offered detailed definition and classification for
233
communication skills. The questions were mainly related to communication

with students online and participants were encouraged to describe their
perception, feelings, attitudes and experiences in concrete terms. There were ten
questions in total and they were validated by two experts in this field. The
interviews were conducted and recorded via Google meeting and the calls were
tested for good audio and visual quality prior to conducting the research. The
interviewees had the freedom to choose their preferred day and time for their
interview. For those who could not be interviewed via google meeting, interview
questions were posed via WeChat, and the participants were given
approximately one week to complete and submit their responses. All the
participants were informed of the nature of the study. They were clearly told
that their participation was voluntary. Interview transcripts were also sent to the
interviewees for confirmation.
3.5 Data analysis

This study adopts a thematic analysis method for data analysis, which provides
an in-depth description of the qualitative data set (Tates et al., 2009). The
inductive approach is applied and the themes are determined based on the data
collected. The two authors completed their coding independently (see Table 2)
then compared and discussed with each other to reached a consensus when
generating themes (see Table 3). The data were compiled, disassembled,
reassembled and interpreted by the authors collaboratively. Emerging themes
from the data were categorized based on the main objectives of the study, which
are to explore foreign teachers’ perceptions of their communication with
students and the challenges faced.
Table 2. Coding qualitative data

Interview extract Codes
“Communication is equally important in online or face-to-face learning. Importance
It’s crucial that you allow the student to work collectively with their
classmates, and look to create knowledge and meaning together through Collaboration
the process of collaboration. Body language plays an important part in the
classroom; it allows communication to flow easily with or without using Body language
too much dialogue to explain things. However, sometimes the absence of
body language communication in [the] online environment is regarded as
a drawback which leads to less effectiveness of communication. What’s
more, the immediate response would be face-to-face, because the classroom
is a place that inspires learners, and has hands-on activities. Besides, it’s
something we all know! The traditional classroom can allow teachers the Immediate
time to evaluate strengths and weaknesses much better through the direct feedback
sharing of queries, questions, and answers between the teacher and
student. Furthermore, it’s a continuous interaction which helps rid
students of their fears and doubts, regardless of what is going on around
Evaluation
them. The online experience cannot deal with the additional needs of
students, such as feelings of isolation and potential problems accessing
resources. Therefore, the classroom offers that immediate response through
Interaction
supervision and added motivation.”
Feeling of isolation
234
Table 3. Turning codes into themes

Codes Themes Research
questions
More effective ... make progress Effectiveness RQ 1
Convenient and effective
Lack of body language
Lack of immediate feedback
Students feeling less committed to
study
Feeling of isolation Emotional feelings
Lack of motivation
Relaxed
Nervous
Typing Means of communication
speaking
Verbal and nonverbal Communication skills
communication skills
Four language skills
Internet service Technical obstacles RQ 2
Technology breakdown
Poor transmissions
Reserved and quiet Cultural issues
Sense of community
Socialization
Feeling isolated Communication problems
Difficult to organize conversation-
based activities
Misunderstanding
Lack of non-verbal cues
Unwillingness to express
4. Findings and discussion

4.1 Foreign teachers’ perceptions towards communication with students in an
online learning environment
Four themes emerged in response to research question 1: How do foreign
teachers perceive their communication with students in an online learning
environment? The themes are effectiveness, emotional feelings, means of
communication, and communication skills.
4.1.1 Effectiveness
Most teachers perceive that online learning is not as effective as traditional
learning. For instance, P6 stated:
“Online is more convenient but in person or face-to-face teaching is more
effective.”
According to P3:
“It is more effective to have face-to-face lessons and students can make progress
easier in traditional learning.”
235
The lower effectiveness of communication in online learning can be attributed to

the following three factors: lack of body language, lack of immediate feedback
and students feeling less committed to study. According to P1:
“body language plays an important part in the classroom; it allows
communication to flow easily, with or without using too much dialogue
to explain things. However, sometimes the absence of body language
communication in [the] online environment is regarded as a drawback,
which leads to less effectiveness of communication.”
Most Chinese students are reluctant to turn the camera on during online
learning; thus, teachers have difficulty without seeing their facial expression or
other minor gestures that may give a hint of their comprehension of the learning
contents. The absence of body language in online learning may hinder the
understanding of each other and weaken the intimacy among participants. This
echoes the findings of Oliveira et al. (2021), who found that communication and
interaction in an online course are hampered by the absence of facial expressions
and real-time cues generated during face-to-face interactions. Researchers have
indicated that body language - including facial expressions, eye contacts,
gestures and closeness - is vitally important for language teachers when they are
sending and receiving messages in the classroom (Pan, 2014; Sutiyatno, 2018).
Relevant excerpts below are included to support this above claim.
“What’s more, the immediate response would be face-to face. The
traditional classroom can allow teachers the time to evaluate strengths
and weaknesses much better through the direct sharing of queries,
questions, and answers between the teacher and student.” (P1).
P7 also said:
“Communication is a challenge in online learning. In class, when a
student has problems, the teacher can solve these immediately, but in an
online lesson, the students have the idea that they can inquire later but
usually they forget.”
Lack of immediate feedback is also a barrier to effective communication in an

online learning environment. It is easier for teachers to give direct comments
through supervision or hands-on activities in the face-to-face learning
environment. However, teachers and students are not urged to provide an
immediate answer in online learning, as more often than not, they are allowed to
offer delayed responses and this leads to less-effective communication in online
learning. Chinese students are more reserved in asking questions during the
lesson or in front of classmates. In face-to-face classes, teachers may get a hint
from their facial expression or subconsciously raised hands that the students
may have inquiries and they can call on them individually to explain. For online
learning, many students prefer to keep the questions for after class, since they
get a feeling that they can communicate with teachers online anytime. Therefore,
there is no urge to solve problems immediately, and this may also be sometimes
forgotten. In 2010, Serhan investigated the students’ perspectives of online
learning and they concluded that the lack of immediate feedback accounts for
51% of the disadvantages of online learning. Auld et al. (2010) proposed that
feedback should be given immediately and opined that offering immediate
236
feedback may boost students’ motivation in speaking the English language

(Sallang & Ling, 2019). Immediate feedback is crucial in a virtual learning
environment because it has the potential to promote autonomy, motivation, self-
learning and help academic performance (Aubin, 2021).
“The idea of commitment and responsibility is not well taken by the
students.” (P7).
This is perhaps because the teacher presence is not felt enough for the students
to feel the pressure to pay attention or get to work as they would in a face-to-
face class. The students may feel that the time and activities are too flexible in
online learning and they can finish the activities according to their own time,
unlike in a two-hour face-to-face class. Furthermore, this may lead to less-
willingness to communicate during the lesson or the decreased effectiveness of
that communication.
However, some other teachers suggest that the effectiveness of communication

depends on factors such as the subject being taught, class size, and so on. P2
claimed:
“For this course (listening), the communication is better online. There is
actually more interaction and I can track their progress a lot easier [in
online learning].”
This might be because in China, English listening courses and other English
courses (reading, writing and speaking) are not delivered in the same classroom.
For a listening course, the students are each equipped with a computer and they
could easily hide themselves behind the screens, making it difficult for teachers
to call on each student and observe their performance. Nevertheless, in online
learning, they cannot hide as they are right there, facing the teacher and their
peers. Everyone has to do the same assignments and activities, so they need to
communicate with the teacher more since they are “closer”in a virtual way. In
other words, for courses that require greater attention and only necessary
communication, the online environment actually offers more activities and a
better space for interaction between students and teachers. It is also easier to
track the progress and make assessments with digital recordings too. However,
for courses that demand a lot of cooperation and verbal communication, such as
speaking lessons, online learning seems to be less effective than traditional
learning.
P5 stated:
“Face-to-face can be a good option to work with big groups and an
online lesson can work well with small groups.”
P1 added:
“Online can be effective. It can be flexible with time and location, and it
can also allow for a diverse and enriching experience for students to
access a catalogue of digital content [when it’s allowed].”
With proper design, communication in online leaning can be facilitated. For

example, teachers can build an online learning environment that supports
237
engagement, inquiry and connection, and make the content interesting and
relevant to motivate students in the course.
4.1.2 Emotional feelings

4.1.2.1 Feeling of isolation
Based on the analysis of data, students may experience a feeling of isolation
while learning online, thus leading to a lack of motivation in communication. P1
said:
“the online experience cannot deal with the additional needs of students
such as feelings of isolation...”
Students may have a sense of isolation while taking online courses during which
they cannot have face-to-face interaction with their instructors or other students.
This aligns with the findings of Alawamleh et al. (2020), who revealed that most
participants of their study perceived online courses as limiting interaction with
others and students reported feeling disconnected with their instructors, the
course content, and their fellow classmates. Serhan (2010) also concluded that
the lack of live interaction accounts for 46% of the disadvantages of online
learning. Feeling isolated may exert a negative impact on students’ learning
capability. Students with a sense of connectivity and psychological closeness
tend to achieve higher-order thinking and further develop their knowledge
(Fuller & Yu, 2014).
4.1.2.2 Relaxing or nervous

Two teachers stated that the students were more nervous when communicating
online, as follows:
“I think they are scared to communicate in general with low confidence
in their English skills.” (P6).
“Students are generally nervous, or shy most of the time wherever the
class takes place. It’s all about motivation and reassurance for the
student, I think.” (P1).
This is in accordance with researchers who advocate that communication

anxiety is prevalent in life and the reasons accounting for this are complex,
personalized and unstable. The potential for negative evaluation from an
audience can make us feel anxious, whether physically or virtually present.
However, the screen does form barriers for non-verbal cues and thus hinders
communications online (Irvine, 2020).
However, interestingly P2, P4, P3, P7 and P5 all perceive that students are more
relaxed when communicating online.
“It is more relaxed for students to communicate online.” (P3).
“I feel students are actually more relaxed, because they do not sense they
are being observed by their peers when they participate.” (P4).
“Um… I think, I think that they are a little more relaxed online cause
they are not in front of all those people, and it is easier for them to
express their idea when they are separated.” (P2).
238
They explained this phenomenon from the psychological perspective that the
isolation formed a protection for them and they did not feel as if they were being
observed, and this therefore lowered their nervousness or anxiety.
4.1.3 Means of communication

Almost all of the teachers were in agreement in this aspect. In their view,
students prefer typing to speaking in online learning. They stated:
“Unless required, they use typing more willingly.” (P5).
“Type…Sometimes I require them to speak, but they much prefer
typing.” (P2).
“Type… sometimes speaking, and I would say that a consistency is
lacking.” (P1).
This can be attributed to personal characteristics such as efficacy, language

proficiency and anxiety. Typing allows time to think; thus students can form
grammatically and lexically correct sentences which can build their confidence
in learning the language. As is indicated by Albalawi and Nadeem (2020) and
Tutkun (2015), vocabulary and tense use, as well as lack of grammatical
knowledge, are all crucial factors for effective communication.
4.1.4 Teacher communication skills

In respect to communication skills, all of the seven teachers proclaim that they
are in possession of most of the communication skills and they have endeavored
to incorporate as many communication skills as possible in their online courses.
The following are some of their responses.

“My major was Communications, so, I took many courses on verbal and
nonverbal communication skills.” (P4).
“I am aware of them.” (P5).
“I’m familiar with them. They are vital especially for teachers that need
to work with international students and teach a foreign language to
transmit as many our ideas and messages as possible.” (P7).
“Yes, I do. I’ve delivered lessons using these verbal skills, and I always
endeavor to cover some aspects of these four language skills during my
lesson.” (P1).
Teaching and learning processes can not take place without communication, and
communicating effectively will help instructors to establish a presence in the
classroom that can motivate students and encourages learning. Having a good
grasp of communication skills can facilitate online teaching in terms of lesson
planning, content design and course delivery.
These teachers have emphasized the importance of non-verbal skills, for instance,
P1 stated:
“I think non-verbal skills are often overlooked, and when you look
closely at one’s body language, for example, you forget that it can be a
powerful tool. Alongside one’s gestures, and voice, a better relationship
with your student exists, and it’s both personal and professional.
Instinctively rather than consciously, the interaction with others can
239
send strong messages, to the point of silence, which is still

communicating non-verbally. It’s an unconscious language that can
reveal true feelings and intentions, and like any other communication
skill, it’s just as important as the verbal skills you execute as a teacher”.
He pointed out that teachers might sometimes neglect the effects of non-verbal
skills since on many occasions, non-verbal communication takes place
subconsciously. Meanwhile, he emphasized the important role of non-verbal
communication in expressing one’s feelings, as well as to establish good
relationship with students and promote students’ professional development.
Non-verbal skills are proven to have a significant positive effect on students’
English achievements (Sutiyatno, 2018). Teachers with greater non-verbal
communication skills will be more efficacious in teaching; furthermore, students’
academic progress and their mood are closely related to non-verbal skills
(Bambaeeroo & Shokrpour, 2017).
Nevertheless, all of the seven teachers concur that the students are unclear about
communication skills and sometimes find them difficult to actually implement.
According to P4:
“I feel the students have a vague understanding of both verbal and non-
verbal skills.”
P5 stated:
“... but my students are not [aware of them]”
P3 argued:
“I think they [the students] are not so familiar [with communication
skills] especially in the online learning environment. I think teachers
should emphasize and teach them skills for effective communication in
this new area.”
P1 stated:
“I think the majority of students do recognize these skills, but they have
difficulties applying them. As a teacher, you are a facilitator, and you
seek out the positives and empower students to use their interpersonal
skills.”
This is in line with the results of Sahbaz et al. (2014), which revealed that
Engineering students perceived themselves to have a low ability in
communicating with others. However, numerous studies on the communication
skills of undergraduates have demonstrated that they have a good level or even
high level of command of communication skills (Ismet, 2018; Tan & Tan, 2016).
Nevertheless, for Chinese students, especially the Engineering majors, these
skills are still beyond their mastery.
When discussing which verbal skills are applied most frequently in the lessons,
the teachers offered various answers. It may depend on the course contents or
requirements. However, the four skills (listening, writing, speaking and reading)
share an equal importance in online learning.
240
4.2 Challenges for communication in online learning

Three themes emerged to answer research question 2: What are the challenges
for communication in an online learning environment? The themes are technical
obstacles, cultural issues and communication problems.
4.2.1 Technical obstacles

Plenty of complaints about technological problems are raised during online
learning. Some teachers claim that the apps intended for online learning are not
very user-friendly in terms of their Chinese instructions for operation; also, the
internet is not stable for many students, thus causing poor transmission, and
poor communication.
P7 stated:
“For some students their location doesn’t have good internet service.
And we need to prepare for technology breakdown; for example, make
back-up plans.”
P2 said:
“Yeah, there are some, especially a year ago, when I actually first
started, yeah, I had a lot of problems with just getting used to the
technology, learning how to use it, and especially because the apps were
in Chinese, so I had to learn all those settings, but by now it is much
better because I understand. I am used to them. I know how to use them
and I know what I want to do with them.”
P4 claimed:
“However, I did experience technological problems. Sometimes the
transmissions were poor which made hearing for both the students and I
difficult.”
P5 stated:
“Bad internet connection, less control for the text.”
P1 argued:
“Meanwhile, technology has its own set of problems, which can frustrate
and disrupt the flow of a lesson in its stride. I’d say technology is a real
challenge, because it’s unexpected failure to deliver is always there.”
It is a common experience to suffer from technical breakdowns during online

lessons, for instance, electricity blackout, internet breakdown, connection
disruption, computer crash and other technical parameters. This is especially
evident in synchronous classrooms in the case of videoconferencing and virtual
meetings (Vanhorn et al., 2008). Teachers are advised to make back-up plans for
these situations.
4.2.2 Cultural issues

There is an argument that Chinese students are more reluctant to express
themselves due to their cultural background. They are more conservative and
many are reluctant to communicate. According to P7:
“Most students are reluctant to express their ideas, and this may be to
some extent attributed to cultural reasons. Chinese students tend to be
reserved and quiet.”
241
However, there seems to be no issues of cultural differences. This may be

because students and teachers are respectful of each other’s cultural
backgrounds and make great efforts to understand and avoid sensitive topics.
P1 stated:
“Cultural encounters always exist, but I think the relationship between
teacher-student is unique. I think it goes without saying that the
interactions between teachers and students should be encouraged, so the
problems encountered from a cultural perspective are really a
misunderstanding, and nothing more.”
P7 added:
“I have to pay attention to the different cultural interactions between the
students. It is also important for educators to think long and hard about
how to create a sense of community and provide opportunities for
socialization between students.”
4.2.3 Communication problems

In terms of communication in an online learning environment, as we have
mentioned above, there are many obstacles, such as feeling isolated, difficulty in
organizing conversation-based activities, misunderstanding owning to a lack of
non-verbal cues, large class sizes, and the unwillingness of students to express
themselves.
P7 stated:
“I think online learning focuses a lot on independent or individual
learning, which hinders the interaction or interpersonal communication.
Students may feel isolated from their peers and teachers. Most tasks are
text-based; it is more difficult to organize activities that demand too
much discussion.”
P5 said:
“Sometimes online learning requires a higher command of the
communication skills and that sometimes even with the good technology
skill, the online instructors may still fail to properly apply all the
communications skills.”
It is difficult for teachers to design cooperative activities that will encourage

communication in online courses. Untrained teachers and students who are
without necessary communication skills may hinder teacher-student
communication in an online learning environment. This is just as Mukhtar et al.,
(2020) mentioned that online learning environment is challenging due to the lack
of social interaction and nonverbal cues and that faculties need to fill in the
knowledge gaps, acquire new technology, teach with new methods, as well as
carry out research with new approaches to keep pace with the innovation of
higher education.
When discussing the prospect of online learning, some teachers are optimistic
because they see its convenience and popularity. Online learning permits
opening channels for synchronous and asynchronous communication and
interaction, providing flexible learning experiences, and access to learning
resources in various forms (Mukhtar et al., 2020). Online learning enables wider
242
access to experts and resources around the globe. According to Keengwe et al.
(2014), students gained the cross-cultural learning and communication
experiences through collaborative assignments and discussion on online
platforms. However, others state that online learning may be merely an
alternative or supplement for traditional learning and only with the proper
equipment and necessary skills can online learning become more widespread.
As Palloff and Pratt (2013) highlighted, online learning is by no means a
replacement for face-to-face education. In other words, there is no sole online
learning format that is suitable for all faculties and students.
5. Conclusion
In summary, this paper aimed to investigate the teachers’ perceptions of online
learning and, in particular, their communication with students. Based on the
findings, the following conclusions are yielded. First, most teachers tend to
believe that face-to-face learning is better to build a communication-friendly
environment compared with online learning, which in many circumstances lack
nonverbal cues, immediate feedback and a sense of commitment. A few teachers
suggest that effective communication relies on the subject being taught on the
online platform. Second, students experience a feeling of isolation in online
learning and interestingly, compared with face-to-face learning, most teachers
perceive the students to be more relaxed when speaking online. Third, Chinese
students prefer typing to speaking when communicating online and this may be
due to their language proficiency, self-efficacy or anxiety. Fourth, most teachers
are aware of and can apply the communication skills in online teaching, but they
believe there is a deep gap in the knowledge as well as practice of
communication skills for the students. Fifth, many challenges are encountered
during online learning, be they technical, cultural or communicative. Teachers
are encouraged to be prepared to deal with these problems. Finally, whether
online learning will become a trend is still in debate. It is popular as a result of
its convenience, flexibility and rich resources, but it is by no means a substitute
for traditional education.
6. Implications
This paper may shed some light on how teachers can improve their teaching
through effective communication with their students. Teachers are encouraged
to offer more speaking space or cooperation opportunities for students to foster
a closer relationship with each other. Various types of learning activities should
be implemented to enhance student engagement and encourage students to
speak more rather than just typing when communicating online. Since most
students are short of communication skills or strategies, which are essential and
effective for communication and interaction, it is worth the effort to provide
some training in these aspects. Technology is a common concern when it comes
to online learning, therefore, the government and community need to enhance
the infrastructure to guarantee a stable internet connection.
7. Limitations and recommendations

This paper bears the following limitations. First, the sample was relatively small.
It only involved seven teachers, therefore, the conclusion may not be
243
comprehensive and there may be other factors or challenges that were not
covered in this paper. Second, the paper only focused on language learning
courses, thus, how online learning affects the communication between teachers
and students in other subjects is not known. Third, the paper only examined the
attitudes and perceptions of non-Chinese teachers. Hence, little is known
regarding the students’ perspectives or Chinese teachers’ attitudes. For future
studies, it is recommended that more teachers from other majors are recruited as
participants. In addition, research can be conducted with students to examine
how they feel about their communication with teachers during online learning.
Moreover, future studies can also focus on how to improve online
communication between students and teachers, and the teaching of
communication skills or strategies with a view to achieving optimal attainment
in online learning.
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Acknowledgement: the authors would like to acknowledge the participants for their
time and contribution.
Declarations:
Funding: No funding was received for this study.
Conflicts of interest: There is no conflict of interest.
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Availability of data and material: Data were collected by the authors. All materials
(videos) are available upon request.
Code availability: NA
Ethics approval statement: All participants are volunteers and agreed to participate in
this study. There is no question or language that causes discomfort to the participants.
The text is written in American English.
Appendix 1. Sample interview questions

1. How long have you been teaching online? Which grades and what subject are
you teaching online? What is the major of the students?
2. What do you think of the communication between the teacher and students
online? Is it different from face-to-face? (hints: language used, feedback, attitude
and etc.) Are the students willing to speak or communicate during online
learning?
3. In your perspective, which is more convenient and effective, online or face-to-
face communication? Why?
4. Do you think the students are more relaxed or nervous to communicate with
each other and with teachers online, compared to face-to-face? Please explain.
5. What do you know about communication skills, like verbal skills, nonverbal
skills.
Note: Writing and speaking (clear, confident, correct, appropriate...) Listening
and reading (anticipation, concentration, analysis, summary...) Intercultural
skills (idioms, communication style, cultural differences...) Are students familiar
with these skills?
6. In terms of communication skills for online learning, are you familiar with the
netiquette, such as appropriate level of formality, tone of voice and pace, clear
and concise, avoid negativity and so on.
7. Which skills do you think are more effective for online learning? How do you
use communication skills to achieve your goal or teaching objectives in online
courses? Give an example.
8. During online learning, when communicating, do the students prefer
speaking or typing the words? Can you describe an example from your class?
9. Were there any challenges encountered during online teaching? Were the
problems cultural or technological? Is language the major barrier for
communication challenges in online learning? Are there any factors that you
think are very significant and affecting communication in online learning? Is
there any problems that you think is specific to foreign teachers？
10. What are some features of online learning that promote communication
between teacher and students and among students? How?
247

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 247-267, January 2023
Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on Accounting

Students’ Capability to Use Technology
Mujeeb Saif Mohsen Al-Absy
Accounting and Financial Science Department, College of Administrative and
Financial Science, Gulf University, Sanad 26489, Kingdom of Bahrain
Abstract. The study aims to examine accounting students’ perceptions

of: (i) the importance of using technology during the COVID-19
pandemic; (ii) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the extent of
their use of technology; (iii) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on
their capability to use technology; and (iv) their satisfaction with using
the Tally software program during the COVID-19 pandemic. A
quantitative method was used in which a questionnaire was distributed
to students at a higher education institution; specifically, students in the
Accounting and Finance Department at Gulf University. The results
showed that among the responding students there was a high level of
agreement on the importance of using technology during the COVID-19
pandemic. Respondents highly agreed on the significant impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on the extent of students’ use of technology.
Moreover, findings indicated that there was a high level of agreement
on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the students’ capability to
use technology. Lastly, the results pointed out a high level of satisfaction
with using the Tally software program during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The study contributes to the body of knowledge by providing empirical
evidence on the issue of using technology in education during COVID-
19. The results provide evidence that students are now more competent
in using most educational technologies. Hence the study helps
policymakers and educational institutions appreciate the importance of
technological tools in education, and will therefore encourage them to
apply technological tools that can improve student performance.
Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic; technology; education; HEI; Gulf

University; Bahrain
1. Introduction
Quality education is a key component of a country’s strategy for development,
and digital technology has emerged as a critical instrument for achieving this
objective (Haleem, Javaid, Qadri, & Suman, 2022). Technology has become an
integral part of modern life, with an impact on every aspect of life, including
education (Alfiras & Bojiah, 2020). Technology is an integral aspect of education
©Author
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in the twenty-first century (Hardman, 2005; Onyema et al., 2020), and these
technologies and their development have had a significant influence on
education (Gcabashe & Ndlovu, 2023; Haleem et al., 2022).
The use of technology in the classroom has proven to be effective and to

improve student performance by dramatically increasing teaching and learning
capacity (Carstens, Mallon, Bataineh, & Al-Bataineh, 2021). Furthermore,
technology can empower teachers and students, motivate change, and help
students build twenty-first-century abilities. To meet the demands of users,
educational institutions must adapt their teaching techniques technology and
the internet in a conducive learning environment where classrooms are
becoming more technologically advanced (Carstens et al., 2021; Saadé, He, &
Kira, 2007). Students’ lives have been made simpler as a result of technological
advancements in schooling (Haleem et al., 2022).
With today’s student demographics, educational institutions are prepared to

meet the needs of the new student by producing multimedia learning materials
for computerised classrooms (Saadé et al., 2007). According to AlAmmary
(2012), educational technology has motivated students to become more active
and involved in learning activities, resulting in their becoming more active and
interested in learning. Instead of utilising pen and paper for presentations and
projects, students increasingly employ a variety of software and digital tools. An
iPad is quite light when compared to a stack of notebooks. Reading an e-book is
easier than reading a heavy textbook (Haleem et al., 2022).
Educators today use several channels to communicate with their students and
receive feedback on coursework and other obligations. Students use mobile
devices such as smartphones, iPads, and notebook computers to ask questions
and write answers on the move (Onyema, Ogechukwu, Anthonia, & Deborah,
2019). Furthermore, faculty lecturers feel that embracing technology will
improve their relationships with students, reduce the stress caused by course
material preparation, and ensure that lecture content is available during
discussions (AlAmmary, 2012). Technology may help to alleviate the growing
problem, e.g., access high-quality, current information, by allowing for changes
in pedagogical practices and, as a consequence, perhaps improving students’
learning (Hardman, 2005; Muafiah, Desrani, Ritonga, & Hakim, 2022).
Since December 2019, the world has been living in the shadow of the COVID-19
pandemic (Khalifa et al., 2020; Qubail & Al-Absy, 2021). Due to the mandatory
closure of institutions during the COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent
difficulty of full-time teaching, university lecturers were obliged to seek
alternative communication tactics with students via internet platforms and in
daily academic activities (Hurajova, Kollarova, & Huraj, 2022). The pandemic
has solidified the use of digital technology in educational settings (Haleem et al.,
2022).
With all types of educational establishments compelled to close their doors

because of the COVID-19 outbreak, higher education institutions (HEIs)
249
underwent a drastic shift from face-to-face to online learning (Ahmad et al.,

2022; Alfiras, Nagi, Bojiah, & Sherwani, 2021; Roy & Al-Absy, 2022), allowing
students from all around the world and in different time zones to easily attend
online classes (Alfiras, Bojiah, & Yassin, 2020). The perceived efficacy of the
currently used online learning platforms is an essential consideration, especially
considering the lack of any physical classrooms (Pal & Vanijja, 2020). Even
though the decision to close schools seemed to be the right one in the face of the
pandemic, the unplanned closure of educational establishments had huge global
repercussions (Onyema et al., 2020). Modern digital technologies contribute to
the long-term viability of the learning system during public health emergencies
and will continue to be a vital element of higher education even after the
pandemic is over (Hurajova et al., 2022).
The outbreak of COVID-19 in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the Kingdom
of Bahrain was discovered in early March 2020, and large-scale containment
efforts were initiated by the middle of March (Alabdulkarim, Alsultan, & Bashir,
2020). COVID-19 has generated educational interruptions and public health
concerns that have been demonstrated to be extraordinarily difficult for
government agencies to regulate and control. Countries were put on lockdown,
many people lost their jobs, and all businesses were affected, with some forced
to close (Khalifa et al., 2022). Figure 1 shows the daily worldwide COVID-19
cases from the beginning of the pandemic until the end of December 2020;
during this period, COVID-19 cases were still high.
Figure 1. Daily COVID-19 cases (https://g.co/kgs/na1vCb)
In general, e-learning is a web-based learning system that uses technology to

teach students (Hurajova et al., 2022). There is a lot of evidence that online
learning is just as effective as traditional learning. When compared to traditional
formats, several studies have demonstrated that online or hybrid formats have a
statistically significant positive impact on student learning results. Among the
favourable outcomes are improved learning, increased student participation in
class, and improved learning quality, which may lessen the issue of withdrawal
or failure (Nguyen, 2015).
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During the COVID-19 outbreak, online learning was extensively promoted to

replace conventional schooling (Dong, Cao, & Li, 2020; Haleem et al., 2022;
Hurajova et al., 2022; Pal & Vanijja, 2020). Since the advent of the pandemic, e-
learning platforms have played a key role in online learning, enabling simple
access to instructional content and teaching resources on the one hand, and
lower costs on the other.
Since the introduction of social networking and mobile learning in 2005, the
dynamics of online learning have altered significantly, resulting in a wide
variety of pedagogical techniques. Through blended, hybrid, or entirely online
delivery methods, online learning has increased educational options for all
people in this age of digitisation (Roy & Al-Absy, 2022). Following the shift from
face-to-face to online communication, the use of technology expanded (Aguilera-
Hermida, 2020); usability studies of commonly used technology for e-learning
are vital, particularly because education has changed to “online-only” learning
(Pal & Vanijja, 2020). Learning technology has become an important factor in
ensuring the effectiveness and usefulness of online learning for students (Pal &
Vanijja, 2020).
Hence, the aim of this study is to examine students’ perceptions of: (i) the
importance of using technology during the COVID-19 pandemic; (ii) the impact
of the COVID-19 pandemic on the extent of their use of technology; (iii) the
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their capability to use technology; and (iv)
their satisfaction with using the Tally software program during the COVID-19
pandemic. To the best knowledge of the researcher, this study is the first one
that views students’ perceptions of the importance of using technology, the
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the extent of their use of technology, their
capability to use technology, and their satisfaction with using the Tally software
program. The study will help policymakers in ministries of higher education
and leaders of educational institutions to enhance the use of technology in
education.
2.1 Technology in Education
Before the pandemic, education’s globalisation was already compelling the use
of digital technology (Haleem et al., 2022; Muafiah et al., 2022). In this digital
world, online learning has broadened educational opportunities through
blended, hybrid, or entirely online delivery modes (Roy & Al-Absy, 2022).
Mobile wireless technologies such as smartphones and tablets are increasingly
used to deliver online education. These benefits of these devices include their
portability and speed (Cook & Sonnenberg, 2014). The advent of technology in
education has increased connectivity, interaction, and productivity.
As a result, technology has the potential to significantly improve teaching and

learning capacities, resulting in increased student performance. The increased
use of technology in education has meant that teachers’ methods have moved
from a traditional strategy in which they function as information dispensers to a
more flexible strategy in which they work as facilitators, motivators, and
251
mentors to encourage students to interact and learn (Onyema et al., 2019).

Indeed, some studies have indicated that hybrid or online formats outperform
traditional face-to-face formats in terms of student learning outcomes (Nguyen,
2015).
According to AlAmmary (2012), educational technology is employed to improve

teaching and learning processes, resulting in improved student achievement. As
technology and the internet improve, HEIs are adapting their teaching
methodologies to match the expectations of their students, in order to provide
the most effective learning environment possible (Xu & Ebojoh, 2007).
Furthermore, the proliferation of mobile devices might bring in a new era of
online education (Cook & Sonnenberg, 2014).
Students have become more motivated and participate more in learning

activities because of educational technology. Furthermore, faculty lecturers feel
that employing technology increases their engagement with students, lessens the
strain on instructors from course preparation, and makes course information
available during the learning process (AlAmmary, 2012). Technology enhances
the teaching and learning process, as well as content creation, course delivery,
assessment, and feedback (Onyema et al., 2020).
Educational institutions are working hard to meet the needs of today’s students
by developing and adopting virtual learning technologies to enhance computer-
assisted education (Saadé et al., 2007). Further, they are striving to ensure that
students are capable of putting the knowledge and skills they have learned in
the programs into practice (Hu, Venketsamy, & Pellow, 2022). Various virtual
educational tools and platforms are available to help with online classes,
especially during public health emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic, such
as Zoom (zoom.us), GoToMeeting.com, Skype.com, Google Hangouts, Google
Classroom/Open Online Education, ClassDojo, YouTube , Schoology,
Blackboard.com, Edmodo, udemy.com, whyville.net, coursera.org,
funbrain.com, memory.com, memrise.com, alison.com, lessonpaths.com,
edx.org, iTunes U free courses, easyclass.com, academicearth.org, vedamo.com,
thinkific.com , Khanacademy.org, TED-Ed Codecademy.com, MOOC.org, and
Stanford (Onyema et al., 2020).
Educational institutions that deliver accounting programs have attempted to

incorporate several types of accounting software into their courses so that
students can practise using and become familiar with this software. Currently,
software is used for the recording of financial transactions, to monitor
companies’ financial situation easily and precisely. A variety of accounting
software is available, such as FreshBooks, Zoho Books, QuickBooks, Sage, Wave,
Odoo, and Tally.
2.2 The COVID-19 Pandemic and the Use of Technology in Education

The unplanned closure of educational establishments throughout the world
validated the need to introduce and utilise cutting-edge technology in learning.
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The COVID-19 outbreak raised global demand for online education (Pal &
Vanijja, 2020). Education may now be accessed from any location, including
one’s own home (Onyema et al., 2020). In order to keep students studying at
home during the COVID-19 pandemic, virtual education was extensively
marketed as a potential alternative to regular face-to-face schooling (Dong et al.,
2020).
Hence, instructors must comprehend pedagogical and material knowledge

through the integration of information and communication technologies in order
to ensure that learning continues during the COVID-19 pandemic (Astutik &
Setiawan, 2022). According to Nguyen (2015), about 92 per cent of all distance
and online education studies have concluded that distance and online education
are at least as successful as traditional education, if not more so.
The COVID-19 outbreak has had a profound impact on all levels of education,
including higher education. Some closures started in January 2020, but the
majority happened in March, when the virus had spread to practically every
country on Earth (Hussein, Daoud, Alrabaiah, & Badawi, 2020). As a result, face-
to-face sessions were almost entirely discontinued , and educational institutions
throughout the world were pressured to embrace an “online-only” model for
teaching and learning (Haleem et al., 2022; Hussein et al., 2020; Pal & Vanijja,
2020). As the world strives to prevent further COVID-19 outbreaks, educational
institutions, faculty speakers, and students have become increasingly reliant on
digital educational platforms (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020; Onyema et al., 2020; Pal
& Vanijja, 2020).
Microsoft Teams is one example of a technological platform. It provides an

outstanding solution in this area since it not only allows teachers to use it as a
Learning Management System (LMS), but also supports both asynchronous and
synchronous learning. For example, much as a physical classroom has a regular
schedule, this application allows numerous students to join in live online
sessions at set times (Pal & Vanijja, 2020). However, students have expressed
concerns regarding online learning, as well as reporting difficulty in completing
tasks (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020). Many professors and students who had little (if
any) prior experience with online learning were compelled to do it with no or
very little guidance (Hussein et al., 2020).
The internet is used in the classrooms of most educational institutions, usually

through LMSs. LMSs have grown in popularity in recent years and now have a
substantial influence on the education process, particularly in higher education
(Cerezo, Sánchez-Santillán, Paule-Ruiz, & Núñez, 2016). LMSs may assist
students in learning by providing content online and including features like
quizzes, slideshows, and screencasts, as well as assignments and forums. LMSs
also make it easy for professors to share and administrate these resources.
Because all action in an LMS is logged and monitored, it is possible to gain
insight into students’ online behaviour, which may subsequently be used to
improve learning and teaching. The phrase “learning analytics” refers to the
examination of LMS data. It is defined by Siemens, Dawson, and Lynch (2013) as
253
“the measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of data about learners and
their surrounds in order to understand and optimise learning and the settings in
which it occurs.”
Dong et al. (2020) found that most parents (92.7%) reported that their children
had online learning experiences during the pandemic, with the majority (84.6%)
consuming less than half an hour each day. Parents overwhelmingly opposed
the objectives and benefits of online courses, preferring traditional learning in
early childhood programmes. They opposed and even refused distance classes
for three primary reasons: distance courses’ deficiencies, young children’s lack
of self-regulation, and their limited time and necessary experience for aiding
their children to complete online courses. Furthermore, the COVID-19 outbreak
forced them to suffer, making them hostile to home-based remote learning.
According to the data, families found it challenging to integrate online learning
throughout the pandemic. Many Chinese parents, for example, lacked the
essential education and were unprepared to adopt online education (Dong et al.,
2020).
3. Research Methodology
This quantitative research employed a questionnaire derived from prior studies,
such as Das and Mishra (2016a, 2016b); Pal and Vanijja (2020). The questionnaire
includes five sections; (i) demographic information (e.g. gender, age, year of
study); (ii) the importance of using technology during the COVID-19 pandemic
(9 questions with 5-point Likert scale); (iii) the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on the extent of their use of technology (10 questions with 5-point
Likert scale); (iv) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their capability to
use technology (10 questions with 5-point Likert scale); and (v) their satisfaction
with using the Tally software program during the COVID-19 pandemic (8
questions with 5-point Likert scale). The questionnaire was check and reviewed
by three experts in the area.
The study’s sample population consisted of all 110 students in the Accounting
and Finance Department at Gulf University. Because of the small number of
students in the department, all the students were chosen to participate. The
study was limited to this department since one element of the survey was about
accounting software that is used only by these students. Author used the
method of convenience sampling which is one type of non-probability sampling.
An electronic questionnaire was generated by the authors and distributed to
students via email and WhatsApp. The response rate was 25% (authors received
28 completed questionnaires out of the 110 that were sent). The SPSS program
was used to analyse the data. In terms of demographic information, 78.6% of
respondents are female while 21.4% are male. Age of most of them are from 21
to 25 years while other are from 26 to 30 years and Below 20 years. Regarding
the year of study of respondents, 46.4% are in fourth years, 35.7% in the third
years, 14.3 in second years and 3.6% in the first year.
254
4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Importance of Using Technology During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Table 1 shows the students’ perceptions on the importance of using technology
during the COVID-19 pandemic. On average, there was a high level of
agreement among the responding students (4.02 out of 5) on the importance of
using technology during the COVID-19 pandemic. The questionnaire contained
nine questions to collect the students’ views (see Table 1 and Figure 2).
From the answer to question 1, respondents agreed that the widespread use of
technology during the pandemic helped them understand the course material
better and in more depth; the average level of agreement was 3.79 out of 5 and
the majority of students (64.29%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement.
Responses to question 2 showed a high average level of agreement (4.29 out of
5); students strongly agreed that using technology during the pandemic was
extremely useful to them in completing their work for all their courses in a more
convenient manner. The majority of students (82.15%) strongly agreed or agreed
with the statement.
Regarding question 3, students on average agreed that the use of technology

during the pandemic was needed to motivate them to explore many topics
unknown to them, with an average level of agreement of 4.04 out of 5 and the
majority of students (75%) strongly agreeing or agreeing with that. Concerning
question 4, respondents agreed that the use of technology during the pandemic
provided the opportunity to collaborate with others easily, both on and off the
campus; the average level of agreement was 4 out of 5 and the majority of
students (75%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement.
In answer to question 5, there was a high level of agreement among the students
that the widespread use of technology during the pandemic enhanced their
digital skills. The majority of the students (78.57%) strongly agreed or agreed
with the statement, with an average agreement of 4.11 out of 5. Regarding
question 6, students on average agreed that the use of technology during the
pandemic played an important role allowing them to perform better in their
courses; the average level of agreement was 4 out of 5, with the majority of
students (78.57%) strongly agreeing or agreeing.
For question 7, the average agreement was 4.07 out of 5, with a high percentage
of responders (78.57%) strongly agreeing or agreeing that the use of technology
during the pandemic was a must to improve their employability skills and/or
career opportunities. Further, the answers to question 8 showed that the
majority of students (71.43%) strongly agreed or agreed, with an average
agreement of 3.89 out of 5, that the use of technology during the pandemic
allowed for more flexibility in learning in terms of time, resources, and effort.
Lastly, the answers to question 9 indicated that during the COVID-19 pandemic,
widespread use of technology was a must to increase access to education and
overcome challenges therein; the average level of agreement with the statement
255
was 4 out of 5, and the majority of students (75%) either strongly agreed or
agreed.
Table 1: Importance of Using Technology During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Strongly Strongly
Agree Undecided Disagree Average
Agree Disagree
Statements
N % N % N % N % N %
Widespread use of technology during
the pandemic is must to help me
11 39.29 7 25.00 6 21.43 1 3.57 3 10.71 3.79
understand the course material better
and in depth
Use of technology during the pandemic
is extremely useful to complete work in
19 67.86 4 14.29 2 7.14 0 0 3 7.14 4.29
all the courses in more convenient
manner
is needed to motivate me in exploring 13 46.43 8 28.57 4 14.29 1 3.57 2 7.14 4.04
many topics unknown to me
provides opportunity to collaborate
14 50.00 7 25.00 3 10.71 1 3.57 3 10.71 4.00
with others easily, both in and outside
the campus
Widespread use of technology during
the pandemic enhanced my digital 14 50.00 8 28.57 3 10.71 1 3.57 2 7.14 4.11
skills
plays an important role to perform 13 46.43 9 32.14 2 7.14 1 3.57 3 10.71 4.00
better in my enrolled courses
is must to improve my employability 13 46.43 9 32.14 3 10.71 1 3.57 2 7.14 4.07
skills and/career opportunities
allows for more flexibility in learning in 12 42.86 8 28.57 4 14.29 1 3.57 3 10.71 3.89
terms of time, resources, and effort
During Corona pandemic, widespread
use of technology is must to increase
13 46.43 8 28.57 4 14.29 0 0 3 10.71 4.00
access to education and overcome
challenges therein
Total average 4.02
Note: Average of 4 to 5 show a strong agreement, 3 to 3.99 show agreement, 2 to 2.99 show 78.57,
1 to 1.99 show disagreement; 0 to 0.99 show a strong disagreement.
256
Average
4.29
4.11
4.07
4.04
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.89
3.79
Widespread Use of Use of Use of Widespread Use of Use of Use of During Corona
use of technology technology technology use of technology technology technology pandemic,
technology during the during the during the technology during the during the during the widespread
during the pandemic is pandemic is pandemic during the pandemic pandemic is pandemic use of
pandemic is extremely needed to provides pandemic plays an must to allows for technology is
must to help useful to motivate me in opportunity to enhanced my important role improve my more flexibility must to
me understand complete work exploring collaborate digital skills to perform employability in learning in increase access
the course in all the many topics with others better in my skills terms of time, to education
material better courses in unknown to easily, both in enrolled and/career resources, and and overcome
and in depth more me and outside the courses opportunities effort challenges
convenient campus therein
manner
Figure 2: Importance of Using Technology During the COVID-19 Pandemic
4.2 The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Extent of Students’ Use of
Technology
Table 2 shows the students’ perceptions on the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on the extent of their use of technology. On average, there was a high
level of agreement (4.09 out of 5) on the significant impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on the extent of their use of technology. The questionnaire contained
10 questions to gather the views of the students (see Table 2 and Figure 3). From
the answers to question 1, respondents agreed that there was a significant
increase in the extent of their use of mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets)
during the pandemic compared to before it; the average level of agreement was
4.18 out of 5 and the majority of students (82.14%) strongly agreed or agreed
with the statement. Responses to question 2 showed a high average level of
agreement (4.39 out of 5); the students strongly agreed that there was a
significant increase in the extent of their use of Microsoft (MS) Word, Excel, and
PowerPoint during the pandemic compared to before. The majority of students
(82.14%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement.
Regarding question 3, students on average agreed that there was a significant

increase in the extent of their use of online collaboration tools (e.g. Adobe
Connect, Google Docs) during the pandemic compared to before it, with an
average level of agreement of 4.21 out of 5, and the majority of students (82.14%)
strongly agreeing or agreeing with that. Concerning question 4, respondents
agreed that the there was a significant increase in their level of use of search
engines during the pandemic compared to before it; the average level of
agreement was 4.11 out of 5 and the majority of students (82.15%) strongly
agreed or agreed with the statement.
257
Responses to question 5 showed a high level of agreement among the students

that there was a significant increase in their use of the Gulf University digital
library (e-books/online databases) during the pandemic compared to before it.
The majority of the students (64.28%) strongly agreed or agreed with the
statement, with an average agreement of 3.68 out of 5. Regarding question 6,
students on average agreed that there was a significant increase in the level of
their use of LMSs (MOODLE, Canvas, Blackboard) during the pandemic
compared to before; the average level of agreement was 4.18 out of 5 and the
majority of students (82.14%) strongly agreed or agreed with that.
In response to question 7, the average agreement was 4.18 out of 5, with a high
percentage of students (82.14%) strongly agreeing or agreeing that the use of
online video/audio material increased significantly during the pandemic
compared to before. Further, the answers to question 8 showed that the majority
of students (75%) strongly agreed or agreed, with an average agreement of 3.89
out of 5, that the use of gamification/simulations increased in the field of
education during the pandemic compared to before.
Answers to question 9 indicated that there was a significant increase in the level
of use of digital tools for online lectures during the pandemic compared to
before, where the average level of agreement with the statement was 4.07 out of
5 and the majority of students (82.14%) either strongly agreed or agreed with
that. Lastly, for question 10, students on average agreed that there was a
significant increase in the use of learning tools (YouTube, forum, chat, etc.) and
social media (blogs, wikis, WhatsApp, etc.) in academics during the pandemic
compared to before; the level of agreement was 4.04 out of 5 and the majority of
students (78.57%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement.
Table 2: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Extent of Students’ Use of
Technology.
Strongly Strongly
Agree Undecided Disagree
Statements Agree Disagree Average
N % N % N % N % N %
There is a significant increase in the
extent of using mobile devices (e.g.,
Desktop computer, laptop, 16 57.14 7 25.00 1 3.57 2 7.14 2 7.14 4.18
smartphone, tablet) during the
pandemic than before.
extent of using MS word, Excel and
20 71.43 3 10.71 3 10.71 - - 2 7.14 4.39
Power point during the pandemic than
before.
extent of using online collaboration
tools (e.g., Adobe Connect, Google 16 57.14 7 25.00 2 7.14 1 3.57 2 7.14 4.21
Docs) during the pandemic than
before.
level of using search engines during 12 42.86 11 39.29 3 10.71 - - 2 7.14 4.11
the pandemic than before.
258
There is a significant increase in using

GU digital library in terms of
10 35.71 8 28.57 5 17.86 1 3.57 4 14.29 3.68
eBooks/online database during the
level of using LMS (MOODLE,
16 57.14 7 25.00 2 7.14 - - 3 10.71 4.18
Canvas, Blackboard) during the
Use of online video/audio material
has been increased significantly during 16 57.14 7 25.00 1 3.57 2 7.14 2 7.14 4.18
the pandemic than before.
Use of gamification/simulations has
increased in the field of education 8 28.57 13 46.43 5 17.86 - - 2 7.14 3.89
during the pandemic than before.
level of using digital tools for online
14 50.00 9 32.14 1 3.57 1 3.57 3 10.71 4.07
lecture during the pandemic than
before.
There is a significant increase in terms
of using learning tools (YouTube,
forum, chat, etc..) and social media
13 46.43 9 32.14 3 10.71 - - 3 10.71 4.04
(blogs, wikis, WhatsApp, etc..) in
academics during the pandemic than
before
Total average 4.09
4.39
4.21
4.18 4.18 4.18
4.11
4.07
4.04
3.89
3.68
There is a significant There is a significant There is a significant There is a significant There is a significant There is a significant Use of online video/audio Use of There is a significant There is a significant
increase in the extent of increase in the extent of increase in the extent of increase in the level of using increase in using GU digital increase in the level of using material has been increased gamification/simulations increase in the level of using increase in terms of using
using mobile devices (e.g., using MS word, Excel and using online collaboration search engines during the library in terms of LMS (MOODLE, Canvas, significantly during the has increased in the field of digital tools for online learning tools and social
Desktop computer, laptop, Power point during the tools (e.g., Adobe Connect, pandemic than before. eBooks/online database Blackboard) during the pandemic than before. education during the lecture during the pandemic media in academics during
smartphone, tablet) during pandemic than before. Google Docs) during the during the pandemic than pandemic than before. pandemic than before. than before. the pandemic than before
the pandemic than before. pandemic than before. before.
Figure 3: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Extent of Students’ Use of
Technology.
4.3 The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Students’ Capability to Use
Technology
Table 3 shows the perceptions of the students on the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on their capability to use technology. On average, there was a high
259
level of agreement (4.03 out of 5) on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on

the students’ capability to use technology (see Table 3 and Figure 4).
The questionnaire contained 10 questions to collect the views of the students.

From the answers to question 1, respondents agreed that during the COVID-19
pandemic, their capability to use mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets) was
significantly enhanced; the average level of agreement was 4.18 out of 5 and the
majority of students (82.14%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement.
Responses to question 2 showed a high average level of agreement (4.18 out of
5); the students strongly agreed that during the COVID-19 pandemic, their skills
in using MS Word, Excel, and PowerPoint were significantly enhanced. The
Regarding question 3, students on average agreed that during the COVID-19

pandemic, their capability to use online collaboration tools (e.g. Adobe Connect,
Google Docs) was significantly enhanced; the average level of agreement was
4.04 out of 5 and the majority of students (78.57%) strongly agreed or agreed.
Concerning question 4, respondents agreed that with the COVID-19 pandemic,
their ability to use search engines was significantly enhanced; the average level
of agreement was 4.04 out of 5 and the majority of students (82.15%) strongly
In answer to question 5, there was a high level of agreement among the students
that during the COVID-19 pandemic, they were using e-books/textbooks and
online databases more effectively in their learning. The majority of the students
(71.43%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement, with an average
agreement of 3.71 out of 5. Regarding question 6, students on average agreed
that during the COVID-19 pandemic, their tenacity in utilising the LMS
(MOODLE) was enhanced significantly; the average level of agreement was 4.11
out of 5 and the majority of students (82.14%) strongly agreed or agreed.
(82.15%) of students strongly agreeing or agreeing that during the COVID-19
pandemic, they became better able to effectively use online learning tools
(audio-visual) in their courses. Further, answers to question 8 showed that the
majority of students (78.57%) strongly agreed or agreed, with an average
agreement of 4.04 out of 5, that during the COVID-19 pandemic, they became
better able to effectively use educational games/simulations in the field of
education.
Answers to question 9 indicated that during the COVID-19 pandemic, the

students became better able to effectively use digital tools for online lectures; the
average level of agreement with the statement was 4.04 out of 5 and the majority
of students (78.58%) either strongly agreed or agreed. Lastly, in response to
question 10, students on average agreed that during the COVID-19 pandemic,
their ability to use active learning tools (e.g. YouTube, forums, chat) and social
260
media (e.g. blogs, wikis) was significantly enhanced; the average level of
agreement was 4.00 out of 5 and the majority of students (75%) strongly agreed
or agreed with the statement.
Table 3: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Students’ Capability to Use
Technology.
Statements Strongly Strongly Average
Agree Undecided Disagree
Agree Disagree
N % N % N % N % N %
During corona pandemic, my
capability in using mobile devices
(e.g., Desktop computer, laptop, 15 53.57 8 28.57 2 7.14 1 3.57 2 7.14 4.18
smartphone, tablet) has been
significantly enhanced
During corona pandemic, my skill in
using MS word, Excel and Power point 14 50.00 9 32.14 3 10.71 - - 2 7.14 4.18
has been significantly enhanced
During corona pandemic, my
capability in using online collaboration
13 46.43 9 32.14 2 7.14 2 7.14 2 7.14 4.04
tools (e.g., Adobe Connect, Google
Docs) has been significantly enhanced
During Corona pandemic, my ability
to use search engines has been 11 39.29 12 42.86 2 7.14 1 3.57 2 7.14 4.04
significantly enhanced
During corona pandemic, I was using
eBooks/textbooks and online bases 9 32.14 11 39.29 3 10.71 1 3.57 4 14.29 3.71
more effectively in my learning
During corona pandemic, my tenacity
in utilizing Learning Management
14 50.00 9 32.14 2 7.14 - - 3 10.71 4.11
System (MOODLE) has been enhanced
significantly
During corona pandemic, I become
able to effectively use more online
11 39.29 12 42.86 1 3.57 2 7.14 2 7.14 4.00
learning tools (audio-visual) in my
courses
able to effectively use educational
12 42.86 10 35.71 3 10.71 1 3.57 2 7.14 4.04
games/simulations more in the field of
education
able to effectively use digital tools for 11 39.29 11 39.29 4 14.29 - - 2 7.14 4.04
online lecture
During corona pandemic, my ability to
use active learning tools (YouTube,
13 46.43 8 28.57 4 14.29 - - 3 10.71 4.00
forum, chat) and social media (blogs,
wikis) has been significantly enhanced
Total average 4.03
261
Average
4.18 4.18
4.11
4.04 4.04 4.00 4.04 4.04 4.00
3.71
During corona During corona During corona During Corona During corona During corona During corona During corona During corona During corona
pandemic, my pandemic, my skill in pandemic, my pandemic, my ability pandemic, I was pandemic, my pandemic, I become pandemic, I become pandemic, I become pandemic, my ability
capability in using using MS word, Excel capability in using to use search engines using tenacity in utilizing able to effectively use able to effectively use able to effectively use to use active learning
mobile devices (e.g., and Power point has online collaboration has been significantly eBooks/textbooks Learning more online learning educational digital tools for tools (YouTube,
Desktop computer, been significantly tools (e.g., Adobe enhanced and online bases Management System tools (audio-visual) games/simulations online lecture forum, chat) and
laptop, smartphone, enhanced Connect, Google more effectively in (MOODLE) has been in my courses more in the field of social media (blogs,
tablet) has been Docs) has been my learning enhanced education wikis) has been
significantly significantly significantly significantly
enhanced enhanced enhanced
Figure 4: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Students’ Capability to Use
Technology.
4.4 Satisfaction with Using the Tally Software Program During the COVID-19
Pandemic
In this section, the authors aimed to comprehend the students’ level of
satisfaction with using software programs during the COVID-19 pandemic. To
achieve that, the authors started by asking the students whether or not they used
the Tally software program during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tally is a software
program used to automatic record the financial transaction and introduce the
financial reporting. Those respondents who had used Tally were requested to
give their perceptions of the ease of using the program, and their confidence in
using it.
4.4.1 Using the Tally Software Program During the COVID-19 Pandemic
The results show that 19 out of the 28 respondents had remote access to the Tally
software program during the COVID-19 pandemic (see Table 4 and Figure 5).
Hence, they used the Tally software program during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Table 4: Using the Tally Software Program During the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Yes No
Statement
N % N %
Have you used the Tally software program
19 67.86 9 32.14
during the Corona pandemic?
Have you used the Tally software program during the Corona
pandemic?
67.86%
32.14%
Yes No
Figure 5: Using the Tally Software Program During the COVID-19 Pandemic.
262
4.4.2 Satisfaction with Using the Tally Software Program During the COVID-19
Pandemic
Table 5 shows the students’ level of satisfaction with using the Tally software
program during the COVID-19 pandemic. On average, there was a high level of
satisfaction (4.34 out of 5) with using the Tally software program during the
COVID-19 pandemic. The questionnaire contained eight questions to gather the
views of the students (see Table 5 and Figure 6).
From the answers to question 1, respondents agreed that they felt very confident
using the Tally software program during the COVID-19 pandemic; the average
level of agreement was 4.16 out of 5 and the majority of students (73.69%)
strongly agreed or agreed with the statement. Responses to question 2 showed a
high average level of agreement (4.42 out of 5). The students strongly agreed
that the Tally software program was easy to use during online learning. The
Regarding question 3, students on average agreed that the Tally software
program facilitated their learning in terms of completion of tasks assigned to
them during the COVID-19 pandemic; the average level of agreement was 4.53
out of 5 and the majority of students (89.48%) strongly agreed or agreed with
that. Concerning question 4, respondents agreed that they found it easy to get
the Tally software program to do what they wanted it to do during the COVID-
19 pandemic, with an average level of agreement of 4.26 out of 5 and the
majority of students (78.95%) strongly agreeing or agreeing with the statement.
For question 5, there was a high level of agreement among the students that they
received clear instruction and guidance from the instructor while using the Tally
software program during the COVID-19 pandemic. The majority of the students
(84.21%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement, with a high average
agreement of 4.47 out of 5. Regarding question 6, students on average agreed
that they were comfortable communicating with the instructor and received his
support in using the Tally software program during the COVID-19 pandemic;
the average level of agreement was 4.32 out of 5 and the majority of students
(78.95%) strongly agreed or agreed with that.
of students (73.67%) who strongly agreed or agreed that they found the Tally
software program to be flexible for completing relevant tasks in their courses
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lastly, in response to question 8, students on
average agreed that it was easy for them to become skilful at using the Tally
software program during the COVID-19 pandemic; the average level of
agreement was 4.37 out of 5 and the majority of students (78.94%) strongly
263
Table 5: Satisfaction with Using the Tally Software Program During the COVID-19
Pandemic
Statements Strongly Strongly
Agree Undecided Disagree Average
Agree Disagree
N % N % N % N % N %
I felt very confident using Tally software
8 42.11 6 31.58 5 26.32 - - - - 4.16
program during the Corona pandemic
Tally software program was easy to be
11 57.89 5 26.32 3 15.79 - - - - 4.42
use during the online learning
Tally program software facilitated my
learning in terms of completion of tasks
12 63.16 5 26.32 2 10.53 - - - - 4.53
assigned to me during the Corona
pandemic
I found it easy to get Tally software
program to do what I wanted it to do 9 47.37 6 31.58 4 21.05 - - - - 4.26
during the Corona pandemic
I received clear instruction and
guidance from the instructor while
12 63.16 4 21.05 3 15.79 - - - - 4.47
using this Tally software program
during the Corona pandemic
I was comfortable to communicate with
the instructor and received his support
10 52.63 5 26.32 4 21.05 - - - - 4.32
in using Tally software program during
the Corona pandemic
I found Tally software program to be
flexible to practice in preparing relevant
9 47.37 5 26.3 4 21.05 1 5.26 - - 4.16
tasks in my courses during the Corona
pandemic
It was easy for me to become skillful at
using Tally software program during 11 57.89 4 21.05 4 21.05 - - - - 4.37
the Corona pandemic
Total average 4.34
Note: Average of 4 to 5 show a strong agreement, 3 to 3.99 show agreement, 2 to 2.99 show
78.57, 1 to 1.99 show disagreement; 0 to 0.99 show a strong disagreement.
Average
4.53
4.47
4.42
4.37
4.32
4.26
4.16
4.16
I felt very confident Tally software Tally program I found it easy to get I received clear I was comfortable to I found Tally It was easy for me to
using Tally software program was easy to software facilitated Tally software instruction and communicate with software program to become skillful at
program during the be use during the my learning in terms program to do what guidance from the the instructor and be flexible to using Tally software
Corona pandemic online learning of completion of I wanted it to do instructor while received his supportpractice in preparing program during the
tasks assigned to me during the Corona using this Tally in using Tally relevant tasks in my Corona pandemic
during the Corona pandemic software program software program courses during the
pandemic during the Corona during the Corona Corona pandemic
pandemic pandemic
Figure 6: Satisfaction with Using the Tally Software Program During the COVID-19
Pandemic.
264
5. Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a serious impact on education; during it, the
value of education technology has expanded. This study aims to examine
students’ perceptions of: (i) the importance of using technology during the
COVID-19 pandemic; (ii) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the extent of
their use of technology; (iii) the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their
capability to use technology; and (iv) their satisfaction with using the Tally
software program during the COVID-19 pandemic.
According to the findings, there was a high degree of agreement (4.02 out of 5)
among respondents on the need to employ technology during the pandemic.
Furthermore, the results demonstrated a high degree of agreement (4.09 out of 5)
on the considerable influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on the extent to which
technology is used. Furthermore, the findings showed that there was a high
degree of agreement (4.03 out of 5) on the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic
on the students’ capability to use technology. Finally, the findings showed a
high level of satisfaction (4.34 out of 5) with the Tally software program during
the COVID-19 pandemic.
The study’s practical contributions come in many different forms. Firstly, the
results may help institutions, policymakers, and regulatory bodies to appreciate
the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the extent of technology use and
students’ capability to use technology, including accounting software programs
such as Tally. Secondly, they may help institutions, policymakers, and
regulatory bodies to re-evaluate the effectiveness of education during the
COVID-19 pandemic, which will help them to improve education during the
COVID-19 pandemic and in the future.
The authors recommend that policymakers encourage educational institutions to

invest more in technological tools and infrastructure, as technology is a very
important component in improving the performance of students, whether
during the pandemic or after it. The authors recommend that researchers
undertake an international study, including a number of countries, to examine
the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the widespread use of technology to
revolutionise education in HEIs.
The current study, like many others, has many limitations. Firstly, this study
focused on Gulf University’s students in the Accounting and Finance
Department. Therefore, the results of the current study should be used with
caution in making generalisations about other universities and countries.
Secondly, the study had a low number of respondents due to the low numbers
of students at Gulf University. The findings may have been different with high
numbers of respondents. Therefore, research is needed on the same topic with a
larger sample size, in different universities in Bahrain and abroad.
265
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268

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 268-282, January 2023
Received Sep 23, 2022; Revised Jan 11, 2023; Accepted Jan 29, 2023
Implementing the Engage, Study, Activate

Approach Using Technological Tools in Higher
Education
Paola Cabrera-Solano , Cesar Ochoa-Cueva and Luz Castillo-Cuesta
Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador
Abstract. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of the “engage,

study, activate” (ESA) approach using interactive technological tools at a
private university in southern Ecuador. The participants were 67
undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled in two English as a
foreign language (EFL) programs. The study was conducted over a period
of ten weeks in three different courses, in which the ESA approach was
implemented in an online remote learning environment due to the
Covid-19 pandemic. The research instruments included an online
diagnostic questionnaire, an observation checklist, an online perceptions
questionnaire, and semi-structured interview. In each stage of the ESA
approach, activities focusing on developing students’ knowledge were
designed using interactive technological tools such as Zoom, Canvas,
Quizizz, Canva, and Padlet. The results show that in the engage stage,
participants felt comfortable, relaxed, and motivated about learning
something new. In addition, dialogues and groupwork were the favorite
activities during the study stage, where participants shared their ideas
with one another. The use of ICT tools was especially effective in the
activate stage, because it allowed participants to work collaboratively and
receive feedback. All the stages of the ESA approach helped the
participants improve their linguistic and pedagogical skills since the use
of technological tools allowed them to be actively involved in the learning
process.
Keywords: activate; EFL teaching; engage; study; technological tools
1. Introduction
English is considered a global language, since most of the world’s
communications are developed in this language; certainly, English is widely used
in scientific research, business, and education (Rao, 2019). English as a foreign
language (EFL) learning in higher education is essential for university students
(Chávez-Zambano et al., 2017), especially for future teachers of this language. For
this reason, it is important for English teachers to look for new educational
alternatives aimed at promoting and developing the communicative competence
of their students (Ortega-Auquilla et al., 2020). In this sense, one way to guarantee
©Authors
269
innovation in teacher training is through the use of information and

communication technologies (ICTs). As stated by Ala-Mutka et al. (2008),
technologies provide new education and training opportunities since they
promote collaboration, innovation, and creativity. In this regard, there are
different approaches that integrate ICT into the teaching process which can be
incorporated to develop EFL skills. Some of these approaches are substitution,
augmentation, modification, and redefinition (SAMR) (Puentedura, 2012);
technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) by Koehler et al. (2013);
blended learning (b-learning) by Sharma and Barrett (2008); technology-enhanced
language learning (TELL) by Walker and White (2013); and engage, study,
activate (ESA) by Harmer (2001). These approaches seek to generate meaningful
and active learning environments.
In this study, the ESA approach designed by Harmer (2001) was implemented.
ESA is an effective alternative to arouse students’ interest, curiosity, and emotions
for learning something new, attract their attention, and motivate them to
participate. Tomlinson (2013) stated that ESA is a very useful approach for
fostering students’ interest. However, he suggested that the teacher must be
responsible enough to motivate students during each of its stages; that is, the
didactic sequence must be adjusted according to students’ age, previous
knowledge, and motivation level (Ayiz, 2014).
In relation to the three stages that constitute the ESA approach, the engage stage
seeks to attract students’ interest at the beginning of the lesson, which is achieved
through the use of teaching resources such as images, games, music, discussions,
anecdotes, and videos, among other resources (Arifani et al., 2019; Weller, 2021).
In the study stage, the teacher focuses on the main topic of the lesson, explaining
and making the students participate and develop certain activities based on the
topic raised. According to Harmer (2001), in this stage, the teacher asks students
to put into practice what they have learned through the development of different
activities. The aim of this stage is to consolidate learning and improve students’
performance (Khoshsima & Shokri, 2016). Regarding the activate stage, Harmer
(2001) defined it as the stage in which the teacher designs activities and exercises,
such as dialogues, debates, and discussions. In this way, students use the target
language to communicate, thereby improving their level of involvement.
However, for the proper implementation of each of the aforementioned stages, it
is necessary to have up-to-date technological tools that support the teaching-
learning process.
The ESA approach has been implemented in several studies in different training
fields in which its potential has been highlighted. For example, in the study by
Khoshsima and Shokri (2017), the impact of the implementation of ESA elements
on EFL students’ motivation to develop speaking skills was investigated.
Likewise, Shokri (2017) analyzed the effect of the ESA approach on strengthening
students’ reading comprehension, thus demonstrating positive results. Similarly,
Katemba and Sinuhaji (2021) proved the effectiveness of the ESA approach
through Quizizz to improve English high school students’ knowledge.
270
Considering the relevance of implementing such approach, this paper will shed
light on the following research questions:
• Research question 1: How effective are the engage, study, and activate stages
when implementing the ESA approach through the use of ICT tools?
• Research question 2: What are students’ perceptions about the effectiveness of
the ESA approach in EFL learning?
2.1 EFL Teaching and Learning
As a result of globalization and technological progress, the English language
continues to be widely taught and learned. In this sense, Richards and Rodgers
(2014) asserted that during the last three decades, the development of the field of
EFL teaching has significantly progressed. For instance, there has been an
improvement in the quality of teaching as well as of learning by focusing on
students’ needs, their motivation, the strategies they use to learn, and the
processes they go through in learning. In addition, the teachers’ roles as course
designers, the methods they utilize to transfer knowledge, and the resources they
employ to promote understanding cannot be neglected. Similarly, Renandya and
Widodo (2016) claimed that English teaching is as dynamic nowadays as it has
been in the past due to some reasons. One of these reasons is that English is
currently used internationally by many people for communication in diverse
environments. Another reason is that in many countries, English has become the
language of business and social interactions, which implies that the language will
be more important in the future.
In the same regard as described above, Bakhreddinovna (2020) explained that

today, the English language is very important since many people need it to study
and obtain higher education degrees. Moreover, global connections are offered
and supported by means of sharing scientific, technical, and cultural data. Under
these circumstances, the teaching of EFL as a subject is of paramount importance;
therefore, foreign language teachers should successfully contribute to instructing
students. Thus, there are some effective approaches to teaching EFL; their function
in the upbringing of all generations is crucial.
2.2 Innovation in EFL Teaching and Learning

A recent innovation in teaching is the use of the flipped classroom, which is
considered a leading learning approach. Bergmann and Sams (2012) asserted that
this approach involves providing students with preliminary resources before
teaching a class so that learners use class time to build their learning. In this
regard, Chen Hsieh et al. (2017) stated that flipped instruction for teaching EFL
has formative profits and results in beneficial outcomes, since students are
engaged in the classroom activities provided by the teacher in which they can
actively participate.
Another novel teaching approach is blended learning, which involves the

implementation of innovative learning environments (Zhang & Zhu, 2018). In
fact, Ghazizadeh and Fatemipour (2017) believed that the blended learning
approach offers a dynamic learning setting for students and instructors.
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Moreover, Oweis (2018) indicated that blended learning motivates students to

practice the language more authentically since it provides learners with facilities
to apply it in different settings.
A different approach is gamification, which includes games as part of the

language instruction. In this regard, Hung et al. (2018) indicated that game-based
language learning provides benefits regarding learners’ affective conditions and
academic results. Furthermore, using games in the classroom promotes learners’
motivation to be more involved in diverse tasks by lowering their speaking
anxiety (Hung, 2018).
2.3 The ESA Approach

The ESA approach is an effective teaching methodology that implies students’
participation as a key factor for language learning success (Ikhrom et al., 2018).
Furthermore, Ikhrom et al. (2018) stated that ESA requires the participation of
learners in different communicative situations so that they have the opportunity
to practice listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills of the target language
through a great variety of activities and resources.
According to Harmer (2007), in the engage stage, teachers need to arouse learners’
curiosity, involvement, attention, emotion, and interest so that they can be ready
to start a new lesson. In this stage, teachers can also use gamification, storytelling,
and descriptions, among other methods. During the study stage, some tasks are
designed to help learners use the language and construct new knowledge. In this
way, students subconsciously acquire the target language. In other words, this
stage focuses on using communicative tasks, constructing new knowledge,
discovering grammar structures, and eliciting grammar knowledge from learners.
Finally, in the activate stage, students are involved in more communicative
activities and they feel free to use the language. In addition, the practice of fluency
is promoted rather than language accuracy.
2.4 ICT Tools in EFL Teaching

The use of ICT has increased in all academic fields around the world, especially
during the last decade. In EFL education, technological tools have a positive
impact on supporting teachers and learners (Guetl et al., 2013; Razak et al., 2019).
EFL instructors can take advantage of several approaches and technological
resources for teaching language skills. The use of ICT attracts students’ attention,
promotes their motivation, and helps teachers design language-teaching activities
that encourage learners to improve their skills (Leliani et al., 2014). In addition,
the use of technological tools supports foreign language teaching because
instructors can easily adapt authentic materials on the web to the learners’ level
and needs (Isisag, 2012).
There are many technological tools that can be used for teaching EFL skills. In this
respect, some of the most popular resources include wikis, weblogs, YouTube,
Educaplay, Jamboard, Padlet, Socrative, Mentimeter, augmented reality apps,
online gamification tools, and social networks such as Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, and WhatsApp. For instance, Jamboard, which is part of Google
products, is an interactive tool that allows users to brainstorm ideas and share
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labels, images, and other elements synchronously (Pinzón, 2020). In fact,

Jamboard motivates learners to work collaboratively and innovatively (García et
al., 2020). Regarding online games, Korkmaz (2012) affirmed that they are useful
for promoting social interaction, sustaining students’ interest when learning a
language, and encouraging learners to take risks when working with other
classmates. Another useful tool is Padlet, which has been defined as a digital wall
in which teachers and students can easily share and edit comments, files, images,
hyperlinks, and other elements that motivate active learning (Ellis, 2015).
Furthermore, Socrative is an interactive web-based student-response system that
is suitable for formative evaluation (Robertson et al., 2019). It allows teachers to
assess learners’ understanding and progress in real time through quizzes that can
include multiple-choice, true/false, or short-answer questions.
2.5 Previous Studies

Khoshsima and Shokri (2017) conducted a study with the purpose to investigate
teachers’ perceptions of teaching-learning techniques using the ESA elements
involved in the teaching of tasks in intermediate EFL learners’ speaking skills. Ten
experienced EFL teachers were involved in the study. To analyze the data, a
descriptive survey method was employed. A questionnaire containing 37 five-
point Likert-type items, including closed-ended items, was utilized to analyze
teachers’ understanding and perceptions of teaching speaking through the
application of the ESA approach on tasks. A checklist was used for classroom
observation focused on instructional activities or techniques employed by
teachers, the role teachers and learners played, and instructional materials used
in the teaching-learning process. The results revealed that most of the teachers
held a positive perception of implementing ESA elements in their classroom
settings as an instructional approach to boosting the speaking ability of EFL
learners.
Another study implemented by Herdi and Ningsih (2018) aimed to improve

students’ vocabulary mastery by using the ESA approach. Thirty Eighth Grade
students participated in this classroom action research. Qualitative and
quantitative data gathered from tests, observation checklists, field notes, and
interviews were analyzed. The results showed that students improved their
vocabulary knowledge since they were engaged in activities, had fun, and were
active in the learning process. The ESA approach allowed students to understand
the topics and materials easily, thus encouraging students to speak in the target
language without being afraid or anxious.
In the study conducted by Ikhrom et al. (2018), the ESA approach was
implemented in an English program for teachers. The study was conducted using
a qualitative approach with a collaborative participatory model. The participants
were 19 men and 6 women. The findings of this study revealed that the
participants’ English skills increased through the ESA approach, which was used
to maximize their learning achievement. Another factor that must be considered
is that the teachers had high motivation when being part of the activities. They
also had a strong commitment to learning English, which had a positive effect on
the improvement of learning performance.
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Katemba and Sinuhaji (2021) carried out a quantitative research study to

determine if the use of the ESA method through Quizizz can enhance EFL
students’ vocabulary knowledge. This study included 65 junior high public school
students who were divided into control and experimental groups. Data were
collected using questionnaires. The findings indicated that both groups enhanced
their vocabulary knowledge; however, there was a significant difference between
the experimental and the control group. In addition, the participants’ responses
demonstrated that they liked the ESA model. Therefore, the researchers
concluded that the ESA methodology through Quizizz games is effective for
teaching vocabulary; furthermore, Quizizz can be used at all academic levels since
students enjoy learning vocabulary through this model.
Even though the aforementioned studies focused on the use of the ESA approach
in the EFL context through use of ICT tools, the present research makes use of
interactive technological tools to enhance learners’ linguistic and pedagogical
skills in a higher education setting.
3. Method
3.1 Setting and Participants
This study was conducted at a private university in southern Ecuador. There were
67 participants, of which 23 were male and 44 were female. Participants were
students enrolled in three different courses of an English major, and a course of a
Teaching English as a Foreign Language master’s program. The participants’ ages
ranged from 17 to 45 years. The participants’ proficiency levels ranged from A1 to
B2, according to the Common European Framework of References for Languages
(Council of Europe, 2020).
3.2 Research Instruments

Several research instruments were used to gather data. First, an online diagnostic
questionnaire was administered to determine the participants’ learning
expectations and needs regarding the ESA stages of an English lesson. This
questionnaire included 12 closed-ended questions and 1 open question.
Furthermore, an observation checklist was used to determine the participants’
attitudes during the three stages of the ESA approach. Then, an online perceptions
questionnaire was employed to determine the participants’ views regarding the
effectiveness of the types of activities supported by ICT tools when implementing
the ESA approach in their learning. This questionnaire had 16 closed-ended
questions and 2 open questions. Finally, a semi-structured interview was applied
to confirm the participants’ perceptions of the ESA approach. This instrument
consisted of 10 open questions.
3.3 Research Design

A mixed-methods approach was used in this study, in which qualitative and
quantitative data were collected and analyzed. According to Creswell and
Creswell (2017), this method combines quantitative and qualitative elements,
which allows for a better understanding of a research issue than either method
alone.
274
3.4 Procedure and Data Analysis

This study followed a methodological procedure in which the research
instruments were administered to gather data before, during, and after the
implementation process (Figure 1). The first step consisted of applying a
diagnostic questionnaire, which was used with the purpose of gathering
information on the participants’ learning expectations and needs regarding the
use of the ESA approach. After analyzing the diagnostic survey results, activities
for implementing the ESA approach were designed using ICT tools. This step was
carried out for a period of 10 weeks in all the courses in which the ESA approach
activities were used to involve students in EFL learning. It is important to
highlight that those courses were delivered in an online remote learning
environment due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In the first ESA stage (engage),
students received appropriate input to draw their attention and motivate them to
learn a new topic. During the study stage, activities focused on developing
students’ knowledge were designed. Finally, in the activate stage, students had
the opportunity to practice the new knowledge acquired. Along this process, 30
lessons were observed and students’ attitudes were registered through an
observation checklist. After finishing the instruction, the online perceptions
questionnaire and the semi-structured interview were employed.
ESA approach
Diagnostic Perceptions Semi-structured
implementat- Observation
questionnaire questionnaire interview
ion
Figure 1: Research procedure
It is necessary to emphasize that all the instruments were piloted and validated
before their final administration. For this purpose, Cronbach’s alpha was used to
measure the internal consistency of the items, yielding a positive coefficient result
of .7.
4. Results
The following section includes the findings that address the research questions
dealing with the effectiveness of the ESA approach through the use of ICT tools
and the participants’ perceptions about this method in EFL learning. The results
of the observation and those of the interview are summarized in Tables 1 and 2,
respectively.
At the diagnostic phase, it was identified that 59.3% of the participants had good
skills in using technological tools, and 79.7% were not familiar with the ESA
approach, as it had not been previously used in other courses. It is worth
mentioning that the participants’ opinions with respect to the different stages of
275
this approach were diverse. In fact, the participants suggested that in the engage
stage, they wanted their teachers to use videos (67.8%), pictures (61%), and games
(55.9%). As for the study stage, the participants’ preferences were distributed into
games (57.6%), samples (54.2%), and dialogues (49.2%). In relation to the activate
stage, the participants preferred discussions and role-play activities (50.8%),
individual tasks (44.1%), and debates (39%).
Regarding the online perceptions questionnaire, 100% of the participants felt

comfortable in the engage stage, 98.4% were interested, 87.3% relaxed, and 95.2%
motivated. It is worth mentioning that the observation revealed that the
participants were willing to participate in the lesson, felt enthusiastic, paid
attention to the topics, asked and responded to questions, and enjoyed the
resources and ICT tools used by the teacher when introducing the lesson (see
Table 1). The participants’ interviews evidenced that they actively participated in
class and valued the implementation of different activities and resources (see
Table 2), which helped them understand the contents of the course.
For the study stage, the participants indicated that dialogues (69.2%), oral
exercises (55.4%), presentation of examples (47.7%), and games (44.6%) were the
types of activities they preferred when studying a new subject. In addition, 64.6%
of the participants indicated that when studying a new topic, they preferred direct
feedback. Participant observation showed that participants actively participated
in the activities by responding to the teacher’s elicitation, asking questions about
the contents, and thus constructing new knowledge (see Table 1). With respect to
the interview (see Table 2), participants expressed their positive perceptions
regarding groupwork activities, the design of tasks to practice, and the way
feedback was provided.
Regarding the activate stage, the types of activities that participants preferred
when practicing what their teacher taught them were group activities (69.2%), the
presentation of infographics (63.1%), oral presentations (53.8%), discussions
(52.3%), and written exercises (33.8%). As for the observation (see Table 1), it was
noted that most of the participants enjoyed the activities used by the teacher to
practice the topics studied. In addition, participants had the opportunity to
rehearse what they had learned and were willing to receive and ask for feedback.
In the interviews (see Table 2), the participants expressed that group discussions
helped them practice the contents studied, and they felt less anxious to express
their ideas in front of their partners. It is worth mentioning that the course design
allowed participants to work collaboratively, which was a factor that promoted
commitment and motivation.
The implementation of the three stages of the ESA approach included a variety of
ICT tools. In this respect, a majority of the participants liked to use Zoom (66.2%)
and the institutional Canvas platform (61.5%). Similarly, the majority indicated
that they preferred free access tools such as Quizizz (58.5%), Canva (58.5%), and
Padlet (56.9%). Finally, the interviews revealed that participants liked the ESA
approach because it allowed them to generate significant learning, be creative,
understand the topics, and also improve their EFL learning and teaching skills.
276
Table 1: Observation results
Very much
Somewhat
Very little
Not at all
Items
Engage stage
Students are willing to participate in the lesson. 0% 7% 23% 70%
Students look enthusiastic at the beginning of the lesson. 0% 0% 20% 80%
Students pay attention to the topics that will be discussed in
0% 0% 20% 80%
the lesson.
Students answer or respond to questions based on activities
0% 3% 20% 77%
and resources used by the teacher.
Students like the ICT tools used by the teacher when
0% 0% 37% 63%
presenting the lesson.
Students like the resources used by the teacher when
introducing the lesson: PowerPoint presentations, pictures, 0% 0% 20% 80%
realia, games, videos, songs, and others.
Study stage
Students respond to the teacher’s elicitations. 0% 6% 27% 67%
Students ask questions based on the contents of the lesson. 0% 10% 40% 50%
Students actively participate in the activities. 0% 4% 23% 73%
Students construct new knowledge. 0% 7% 13% 80%
Students like the activities used by the teacher: dialogues,
text analysis, examples, oral exercises, written exercises, and 0% 0% 20% 80%
games.
Students like the type of feedback they received to improve
their knowledge: group feedback, individual feedback, 0% 0% 43% 57%
direct feedback, and indirect feedback.
Activate stage
Students feel free to use the target language. 0% 13% 40% 47%
Students rehearse what they have learned in the study stage. 0% 3% 14% 83%
Students are willing to receive and ask for feedback. 0% 3% 14% 83%
Students like the activities used by the teacher to practice the
0% 0% 13% 87%
topics studied.
Table 2: Results of the participant interviews
Stage Participants’ perceptions in the interview
Engage • Students were willing to participate in class.

• Pair work and groupwork helped students learn.
• Students were engaged and focused on the topic.
• The use of different tools and resources helped the students
understand the contents of the course.
• The technological resources were appealing.
277
Study • Groupwork activities helped students to understand the

contents.
• The content presented by the teacher motivated students.
• Students were able to express their opinions and ideas.
• Students felt connected to the whole content of the lesson.
• Timely feedback provided by the teacher was effective.
Activate • Discussions in groups helped students practice the contents

studied.
• The course design allowed learners to work collaboratively.
• Activities helped students to be interested in learning.
• Students were less anxious to express their ideas in front of
their partners.
• Students were more committed and motivated to learn.
ESA approach • Students liked the approach for introducing topics and
generating significant learning.
• The approach allowed the students to be more creative when
doing the tasks designed by the teacher.
• Through this approach, students could understand some
topics that were difficult for them.
• ESA helped students to improve their language and teaching
skills through ICT tools.
5. Discussion
This research was designed to determine how effective the ESA stages were when
implementing this approach using ICT tools. The process started with a diagnostic
questionnaire, which revealed the participants’ needs and preferences with
respect to the types of activities and resources to be used during the intervention.
These results demonstrate that the majority of participants were interested in
learning through this methodology to improve their linguistic and pedagogical
skills, as well as practice the target language interactively and acquire new
knowledge about its implementation. These findings are similar to recent research
that demonstrates learners’ improvement in their English skills (vocabulary), thus
proving the ESA approach is appropriate to maximize students’ learning
(Rahmat, 2019; Vikasari, 2019).
In relation to the effectiveness of the ESA approach, the results show that the
participants felt more comfortable developing collaborative activities and sharing
their opinions through oral and written activities as was perceived during the
observation of lessons. These findings are aligned with previous research
evidencing students’ positive perceptions towards working in different situations
with their peers, as they were able to share their ideas and learn from one another
in a community of practice (Matyakhan & Sukavatee, 2021; Özüdogru &
Özüdogru, 2017). In fact, promoting collaborative work in the digital era enhances
students’ language learning in the EFL classroom (Zhanga & Chen, 2022). In this
regard, Demirci and Düzenli (2017) asserted that the use of active learning
strategies makes students interact with each other, which means that in the ESA
approach, learners feel involved in the EFL instructional process. On the other
278
hand, the implementation of the three stages of the ESA approach in this study
included a variety of ICT tools. The majority of the participants preferred using
Zoom and the institutional Canvas platform. In addition, they favored the use of
Quizizz, Canva, and Padlet. These results show the participants’ interest to be
actively involved in learning tasks using the aforementioned technological tools,
as evidenced in the observation process. As Rehman and Fatima (2021) asserted,
active learning promotes positive reinforcement in the classroom.
As for the participants’ perceptions about the effectiveness of the ESA approach
in EFL learning, the majority of the participants were enthusiastically engaged in
each of the topics planned in class, which favors the teaching-learning process in
higher education. In this respect, Harmer (2007) emphasized that in the ESA
approach, the engage stage is crucial, because it has a communicative dimension
in which adequate input should be provided to activate students’ cognitive
abilities and emotions. In the study stage, most of the participants preferred using
dialogues and oral exercises, presenting examples, and playing games, which,
according to Khoshsima and Shokri (2016), are effective to consolidate learning
and improve student performance. Finally, in the activate stage, the most common
types of activities were groupwork, the design of infographics, oral presentations,
discussions, and written exercises. In this regard, Harmer (2001) asserted that in
this stage, students use the target language to communicate, which improves their
level of involvement. Furthermore, most of the participants expressed that the
ESA approach allowed them to generate significant learning, spark creativity,
enhance comprehension of content, and also improve their linguistic and
pedagogical skills. These results are aligned with those by Arifani et al. (2020),
whose findings evidenced that the ESA approach helps learners enhance their
writing skills.
6. Conclusions
The ESA approach has been proven to be an effective methodology because it
allowed the participating EFL students to be involved in the learning process
through use of ICT tools. In the engage stage, the participants felt comfortable and
interested in acquiring new knowledge, as most of them indicated that they felt
relaxed and motivated about learning something new. This shows that there was
no fear or anxiety before starting a new topic. Participants were enthusiastically
engaged in this stage; certainly, videos, pictures, and games were the resources
and activities that participants liked the most when the teacher introduced a new
topic.
With respect to the study stage, dialogue was the most preferred type of activity
according to the participants’ perceptions. In addition, oral exercises, the
presentation of examples, and games had an essential role in learning of a new
topic. Participants preferred direct feedback and actively participated in the tasks
constructing new knowledge through groupwork, which allowed them to share
their ideas and learn from one another.
As for the implementation of the activate stage, the use of technological tools was
positively effective to involve participants in learning the EFL linguistic and
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pedagogical skills. Group activities, the presentation of infographics, oral practice,

discussions, and written exercises were the most common types of activities
preferred by the participants. In addition, the participants were committed to
working collaboratively, receiving feedback, and rehearsing what they had
learned. This implies the importance of collaborative work and visual stimulation
when planning exercises that involve this type of activity in remote learning
conditions.
Finally, during the implementation of the three stages of the ESA approach, the
most significant ICT tools included Zoom, the institutional Canvas platform,
Quizizz, Canva, and Padlet, because they allowed participants to improve their
teaching and learning competencies. Technological tools permitted the
participants to be actively involved in the learning process, generate significant
learning, be creative, and understand the topics. Since this study was conducted
using a mixed-methods approach, further research might consider an
experimental method to determine the effectiveness of the ESA approach by using
other technological tools with a larger sample.
7. Acknowledgements
The authors want to acknowledge the authorities of Universidad Tecnica
Particular de Loja and the ELF Learning, Teaching and Technology research
group for their financial and academic support.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 283-301, January 2023
Examining the Relationship Between

Components of the MUSIC Model of Motivation
and Student Achievement in Computer
Programming
Ali Alshammari
University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
Abstract. Computer programming is often perceived as being difficult to

teach and learn. Many researchers have investigated the most effective
approaches to teaching computer programming, and the results of such
investigations are inconsistent. Despite ongoing investigations into
teaching approaches, researchers have not yet focused their studies on
determining on which factors affecting student academic motivation
educational researchers should focus when they implement pedagogical
interventions. The research takes this inquiry forward by investigating
the impact of student perceptions of the MUSIC model (i.e.,
empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring) on learning
programming, and by testing for any gender-based differences in those
processes and outcomes. The participant body in this study comprised
primarily of 97 ‘freshmen’ male and female computer science majors and
non-majors, gathered from three 8-week long project-based
programming workshops. All of the participants took a coding test and
filled out the MUSIC inventory before and after the programming
workshops. Although all the motivation-related components of the
MUSIC model are important, this study found that students’ perceptions
of usefulness, caring, and interest are significantly predictive of their
learning successes. With regard to gender, the study found that there
were no significant gender-based differences in their perceptions of the
motivation-related components of the MUSIC model at the end of the
study, while there were significant gender gaps in students’ perceptions
of success and caring at the beginning of the study. Recommendations for
the design and implementation of computer programming courses are
provided.
Keywords: pedagogical issues; gender studies; programming; MUSIC

model; motivation
©Author
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1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
There is no doubt that computer programming is one of the most important skills
for students to learn in order to succeed in the 21st Century. Despite this, learning
computer programming is often perceived as being difficult and challenging, even
for computer science (CS) majors (Ali & Smith, 2014; Alshammari, 2018), and
university introductory programming courses consistently have high dropout
rates, especially from female students (Kanbul & Uzunboylu, 2017). The challenge
arises from several factors with ‘student interest and motivation’ in learning
programming being one of the most important (Piteira & Haddad, 2011). Learning
computer programming requires a high level of motivation due to the challenges
posed by abstraction in programming logic (Baist & Pamungkas, 2017; Gomes &
Mendes, 2007), as well as the need to enhance student’s conceptual, operational,
and procedural knowledge (Çakıroğlu & Er, 2020).
In response to the challenges posed to computer programming students,

educational researchers have investigated the most effective approaches to
teaching computer programming. Such approaches include flowchart-based
programing environments (Xinogalos, 2013); block-based programming
languages (Adler & Kim 2018; Hsu et al., 2018); game-based learning (Combéfis
et al., 2016); afterschool programs (Mouza et al., 2016); and robotics studies
(Yamanishi et al., 2015). However, despite the different teaching approaches, there
is still a need to determine on which factors in student academic motivation
educational researchers need to focus when they implement an intervention.
There is a strong relationship between motivation and academic performance, as
motivation has a significant effect on learning discipline (Buzdar et al., 2017; Chik
& Abdullah, 2018). Jones (2009) assumed that targeting the motivation-related
components of the MUSIC model increases students’ motivation, which leads to
an increase in the quality of their learning. In computer science, computer
programming is perceived to be difficult to teach and learn. Researchers in
computer science education have used several theoretical models to maximize
student levels of motivation in different learning settings. This study aims to
investigate the relationships between students’ academic motivation and their
performance in learning computer programming. While many researchers seek
answers about what makes the design of particular computer programming
courses effective, this study takes the inquiry into computer science education one
step further by investigating the relationship between students’ academic
motivation-related factors and their learning, to see which factors can be
predictive of their learning outcomes.
2.1 Importance of Learning Programming
Learning computer programming is a fundamental aspect of computer
application development (Cardoso et al., 2018), and it is an especially important
skill in today's computerized world as it has been proven to improve students’
creativity, planning skills, logic, and collaboration (Abesadze & Nozadze, 2020).
In their study, Erümit et al. (2019) listed a set of advantages of learning
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programming, including developing problem-solving skills, enhancing cognitive

learning and high-level thinking skills, increasing motivation, and improving
creative thinking. Moreover, computer programming prompts the development
of concepts, such as algorithms, and understanding the syntax, semantics, and
complexity of a set of different languages (Piedade et al., 2020). However, despite
the importance of learning computer programming, it is still perceived to be
difficult and challenging for computer and non-computer science majors alike.
2.2 Motivation and Academic Performance

Students’ motivation is associated with their academic achievement (Raman et al.,
2018). According to Santana et al. (2018), student motivation is important to foster
effective learning. Due to the importance of motivation in students' academic
achievement, the literature includes different examples of initiatives in the field
of computer science education that aim to enhance students learning of and
motivation in computer programming. For example, Emre and Kiyici (2022)
conducted a study on university students using robotics programming education
and found it effective in enhancing their academic success and motivation.
Papadakis (2020) found the use of App Inventor programming and game
development as an alternative approach to have a positive impact on students’
basic programming skills achievements, and motivation in a CS course. While
using a mix of languages and tools, Santana et al. (2018) were able to raise
students’ motivation for non-major CS students.
The previously mentioned studies have shown research-based evidence of the

impact of different instructional tools and strategies on students’ motivation but
have not investigated the impact of motivation-related factors that would make
the use of each strategy effective. This article uses the MUSIC model of motivation
as a theoretical framework to better understand on which factors CS instructors
and educational researchers should focus when they implement pedagogical
interventions.
2.3 Gender-Based Differences in Programming

When it comes to gender, the literature shows no gender gap in students’ ability
to learn computer programming, and some related topics, such as robotics
(Alshammari, 2018; McDowell et al., 2003; Nourbakhsh, et al., 2004; Pioro, 2004).
However, females across many countries are known to underestimate their
abilities and rate themselves lower than males, despite the fact they perform better
in some computer science topics (Finlayson, 2020). The perceived difficulty of
programming often leads female students to lose their competence and sense of
confidence (He & Freeman, 2010). Therefore, in addition to understanding
students’ motivation-related perceptions, there is a need to explore the roles that
gender plays and its effect on students’ perceptions of motivation and
achievement in computer programming.
2.4 The MUSIC Model

The MUSIC model of motivation was designed by Jones (2009) to describe the
implementation of academic motivation in instruction (Jones & Skaggs, 2016;
Parkes et al., 2015). The model was developed based on multiple theories of
motivation, and it consists of five components: eMpowerment, Usefulness,
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Success, Interest, and Caring, which forms the acronym MUSIC. Supporting
students’ efforts to develop positive perceptions toward these components is
expected to support and further engage them in the learning process (Gardner &
Jones, 2016; Jones, 2009). The literature includes several studies that validate the
MUSIC model of academic motivation inventory and the relationships between
perceptions and learning (Chittum et al., 2019; Jones & Wilkins, 2022; Jones et al.,
2020, 2021, 2022; Li et al., 2022; Munz & Jones, 2021). By understanding students’
motivation-related perceptions, the MUSIC model can be used to help educational
researchers re-design their courses, and select the most effective teaching
strategies and tools to support student learning and motivation within an
educational subject (Jones et al., 2019).
2.4.1 Empowerment
The first component of the MUSIC model is empowerment, which addresses
student perceptions of the amount of control that they have over their learning
(Williams, 2013). This component is strongly linked with student autonomy (Jones
& Skaggs, 2016), as defined by Ryan and Deci (2000). What distinguishes
empowered students from others is the perception that they have the ability to
practice educational agency, or to make decisions and choices about their learning
and the interactions in their learning environment (Gardner & Jones, 2016). Any
suggested solution to enhance students’ programming skills, within this model,
needs to be well considered and flexible, allowing students to control the direction
and pace of their learning. There are several factors that play a critical role in the
process of developing perceptions of empowerment, including task difficulty,
ability, and prior knowledge and experiences (Jones, 2009). It is important to
clarify, however, that empowerment needs to be felt and perceived by the
students themselves— not by the instructors. It does not matter if instructors think
that they allow their students to have control over their learning if students
themselves do not perceive that or believe that they are able to make decisions.
2.4.2 Usefulness
Computer programming pedagogy needs to connect the field with real-world
applications. Students need to feel that what they are learning is useful for their
future and connected to the real world around them (Jones, 2009). In computer
programming, students need to see the results of their learning applied in real
world cases (Voštinár, 2020). This requires attention to learning through action,
where students develop products that address and create solutions to real world
problems and situations (Vahldick et al., 2020). In some courses, students do not
see the value of taking the course and are not sure if it will be useful to their
interests and applicable to the real world (Gardner & Jones, 2016). A student
might wonder, for example, why a computer science student would need to study
calculus. Establishing relevancy and applicability in student perceptions will
address this issue. The second component of the MUSIC model refers to the
common perception among students that the instructional materials that they are
learning, and instructional activities that they are performing, are relevant to their
short- and long-term goals (Williams, 2013). It is important to mention that
students are more engaged when they see the usefulness of learning to their long-
term goals rather than simply to their short-term goals (Simons et al., 2004). One
effective way to accomplish that is to connect learning content and activities to
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their future careers (Jones & Skaggs, 2016). In motivation, usefulness is related to
utility value and instrumentality.
2.4.3 Success
Enhancing students’ learning of computer programming requires finding an
approach that supports their beliefs in their self-efficacy and success; they need to
believe that they are not less than others and that they can succeed if they put in
the effort required. Success is an important component in the MUSIC model that
is strongly linked with expectancy for success, self-efficacy, and competence
(Jones & Skaggs, 2016). It refers to the belief that people can succeed if they put in
the effort required. Having this belief is assumed to encourage students to engage
and perform well in future activities. Female students in computer science
underestimate their skills, and sometimes they believe that, no matter how hard
they work, they cannot perform better than men. Success requires that students
need to believe that they will be able to complete a task successfully if they acquire
the required knowledge and skills (Jones, 2009). Such an approach needs to make
expectations from students clear, encourage students to work together on team-
based projects, and provide students with feedback regularly, instead of post-
project feedback (Gardner & Jones, 2016). Moreover, this approach needs to create
balance in the level of difficulty of learning so that content and activities are
neither boring nor overly challenging (Williams, 2013).
2.4.4 Interest
Students need to be interested in their learning environment, including the
instructional activities and materials. Interest is defined as “liking and willful
engagement in a cognitive activity” (Schraw & Lehman, 2001, p. 23). This
component is linked to situational interest, intrinsic motivation, intrinsic interest
value, and flow (Jones & Skaggs, 2016). Effective motivational strategies can
support the two major types of interest: situational and individual (Johns, 2009).
Situational interest is context-specific and environmentally activated, which can
be fostered by making the learning environment attractive to students. This type
of interest is helpful in motivating students to engage in a specific activity. The
second type of interest, which is the focus of this study, is individual interest, or a
context-specific and “relatively stable affective-evaluative orientation toward
certain subject areas or objects” (Schiefele, 2009, p.198).
Individuals typically have a list of activities in a domain or subject area that they
are most interested in performing. For example, in educational settings, “even
those students who generally are highly motivated to achieve would have
interests only for a discrete set of the specific content area” (Schunk &
Zimmerman, 2012, p.86). Situational interest can increase or develop individual
interest (Williams, 2013). As such, there is a need for an immersive learning
environment that stimulates students’ situational and individual interests by
relating the instructional content to students’ backgrounds and providing them
with hands-on activities related to those backgrounds and interests.
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2.4.5 Caring
The final component of the MUSIC model addresses the importance of creating a
caring environment in which students feel that the instructor and other
individuals involved in the learning process care about them and their learning
(Gardner & Jones, 2016). Although it is very important, caring does not necessarily
mean that the instructor needs to be friendly. Instead, it refers to the importance
of showing students that the instructor cares about their learning experience
(Jones, 2009). This component is strongly linked with belongingness, relatedness,
and attachment (Jones & Skaggs, 2016). Caring plays an important role in
supporting students’ intrinsic motivation and self-determination, which increases
the likelihood that they will participate in more activities in a particular domain
or subject area (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This is evident in all-female computer science
courses, where women feel more comfortable and welcomed.
3. Research Questions
RQ1: Do students’ perceptions of the MUSIC model’s components significantly
predict students’ programming learning outcomes?
RQ2: Are there any statistically significant differences between males and
females in their perceptions of the MUSIC components?
4. Methods
This study aimed to understand the relationships among factors assumed to
influence student motivation and achievement. Since students’ perceptions of the
MUSIC model are expected to influence their motivation, this paper aims to show
which of the motivation-related components of the MUSIC model are predictive
of students’ learning of computer programming. The study also analyses those
gender-based differences in students’ perceptions of the MUSIC model that were
shown to be significant. The study followed a pre-post-test design in which
participants took the MUSIC inventory and the coding test at the beginning and
at the end of the three workshops.
4.1 Participants
The participant body in this study was comprised primarily of 97 freshmen male
and female computer science majors and non-majors from a public university in
the United States. The participants included 49 females and 48 males, and they
were gathered from three project-based programming workshops that were
taught at the same time for the same length. All the three 8-week long workshops
were taught by the same instructor and covered the same fundamental aspects of
programming. The workshops consisted of three main components: learning,
application, and reflection. The workshops were project-based and designed to
teach computer programming in a contextually relevant approach and to connect
the activities to real world uses. Participants were randomly selected and assigned
to one of the three project-based programming workshops. All participants took
a coding test and filled out the MUSIC inventory before and after the
programming workshops. A pre- and post-test design was used to compare
participants’ perceptions of the MUSIC model components at the beginning and
end of each workshop. The purpose of the post-test was to assess any changes in
the students’ perceptions that were related to their academic performance.
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4.2 Data Collection

4.2.1 The MUSIC Inventory
The MUSIC inventory is a scale that assesses learners’ empowerment, usefulness,
success, interests, and caring. The inventory comes in different versions to assess
student perceptions of the five components of the MUSIC model, in different
educational settings. The college students’ version, the one that was used in this
study, has been tested in different studies, and the results show high reliability.
Jones and Skaggs (2016) used different statistical tests to prove the validity and
reliability of this inventory. The study showed high validity and reliability with
Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.91 for empowerment, 0.96 for usefulness, 0.93 for
success, 0.95 for interest, and 0.93 for caring.
4.2.2 Coding Skills Test
To assess students’ coding skills, a coding test was developed to appraise the
essential skills in programming, including input/output, operations, arrays,
condition statements, loop statements, and functions. The test was reviewed by
multiple computer science instructors. The reliability of the instrument was
tested, and it returned α = .785.
5. Data Analysis and Results

The analysis of the research questions went through two phases: 1) checking the
assumptions of all statistical tests and 2) analysis of the statistical relationships
between the variables of each research question.
5.1 Phase #1: Checking Assumptions

The male-female ratio was relatively balanced across CS majors and non-CS
majors (Figure 1). Confirming this, a Chi-square test was performed and showed
no statistically significant differences between the groups (X-squared = 0.11721,
df = 1, p-value = 0.7321). Based on these results, the null hypothesis, that there
were no significant gender differences between CS majors and non-CS majors,
was accepted.
The assumptions of the multiple linear regression were checked, including

outliers, normality of residuals, homoscedasticity, collinearity, and auto-
correlated errors. An assessment of the linear model assumptions, using the global
test on 4 degrees of freedom, produced a level of significance p< 0.05. The plots
(Figure 2) showed no violations of any of the assumptions. The Shapiro-Wilk test
was performed to check the normality assumption. The null hypothesis was that
the data came from a normally distributed population. The Shapiro-Wilk test
(Table 1) returned W = 0.99015, p-value = 0.7029. Based on this, it is reasonable to
assume the data came from a normal distribution.
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Figure 1: Bar Plot of Gender for CS Majors and Non-Majors
Figure 2: Q-Q Plots of Multiple Linear Regression
Table 1. Shapiro-Wilk Normality Test for the Multiple Linear Regression

Shapiro-Wilk normality test
Normality test W 0.98844
p-value 0.5632
5.2 Phase #2: Answering the Research Questions

The first research question investigated the importance of students’ perceptions
of the MUSIC model in predicting their success at learning computer
programming. In response to this question, a multiple linear regression was
conducted to test the following statistical model:
Learning Programming=β0 + β1Major + β2Gender+ β3eMpowerment +
β4Usefulness+ β5Success + β6Interest + β7Caring+ε
At the beginning of the study, the analysis showed that only two components of
the MUSIC model were significant predictors of student learning: interest (p-
value=0.012935) and caring (p-value =0.015530). The other components,
291
empowerment (p-value=0.513828), usefulness (p-value=0.441571), and success (p-

value=0.841961), were not statistically significant. In addition to the components
from the MUSIC model, gender (p-value= 0.005386) and major (p-value=0.000673)
were found to be significant predictors of student learning of computer
programming.
Table 2. Multiple Linear Regression of Pre-Test

Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-5.8079 -1.7777 0.1794 1.2797 5.2477
Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value P value
(Intercept) 6.91943 2.10902 3.281 0.001479 **
Pre-Major -1.75506 0.49799 -3.524 0.000673 ***
Pre-Gender_Male 1.47480 0.51694 2.853 0.005386 **
Pre-eMpowerment -0.31472 0.48012 -0.656 0.513828
Pre-Usefulness -0.38624 0.49966 -0.773 0.441571
Pre-Success 0.09927 0.49641 0.200 0.841961
Pre-Interest 1.75355 0.69129 2.537 0.012935 *
Pre-Caring -1.03057 0.41770 -2.467 0.015530 *
Residual standard error: 2.321 on 89 degrees of freedom Multiple R-squared: 0.2738,
Adjusted R-squared: 0.2167, F-statistic: 4.795 on 7 and 89 DF, p-value: 0.0001302
Table 3. Multiple Linear Regression of Post-Test

Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-6.3372 -1.3256 0.3932 1.6128 4.3496
Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value P value
(Intercept) 10.03342 1.39917 7.171 2.10e-10 ***
Post-Major -2.13631 0.49531 -4.313 4.15e-05 ***
Post-Gender_Male 0.10726 0.47112 0.228 0.82042
Post-eMpowerment -0.09756 0.57120 -0.171 0.86477
Post-Usefulness -0.81195 0.38489 -2.110 0.03770 *
Post-Success 0.15489 0.40254 0.385 0.70131
Post-Interest 1.39778 0.49721 2.811 0.00607 **
Post-Caring -0.40509 0.50452 -0.803 0.42416
Residual standard error: 2.257 on 89 degrees of freedom, Multiple R-squared: 0.2372, Adjusted
R-squared: 0.1772, F-statistic: 3.954 on 7 and 89 DF, p-value: 0.0008382
When testing the same students at the end of the study, the post-test (Table 3)
showed that interest (p-value=0.00607) was still a significant component. Unlike
the pre-test, students’ perceptions of usefulness (p-value=0.03770) became a
significant predictor by the end of the study, while their perceptions of caring (p-
value=0.42416) became insignificant. Students’ perceptions of success (p-
value=0.70131) and empowerment (p-value=0.86477) were insignificant in both
the pre-test and post-test. While the differences between CS majors and non-
majors were statistically significant in both the pre-test and post-test (p<0.05), it is
important to also mention that gender (p-value=0.82042), which was a significant
predictor in the pre-test, became insignificant in the post-test.
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To answer the second research question, a MANOVA test was used. For the pre-
test, the MANOVA test (p-value=0.004606) showed statistically significant
differences between males and females (Table 4), while in the post-test (Table 5),
the results were insignificant (p-value=0.4069) at level a=0.05. To investigate the
relationships more deeply, each one of the MUSIC components was analyzed
(Table 6 and Table 7).
Table 4. A MANOVA Test for the Gender Differences in Pre-Perceptions of the
MUSIC Components
Df Pillai approx F num Df den Df Pr(>F)
Gender 1 0.16744 3.6603 5 91 0.004606 **
Residuals 95
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
Table 5. A MANOVA Test for the Gender Differences in Post-Perceptions of the

MUSIC Components
Df Pillai approx F num den Df Pr(>F)
Df
Gender 1 0.053386 1.0264 5 91 0.4069
Residuals 95
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
At the beginning of the study, the across-gender comparison showed that there
were statistically significant differences between males and females in students’
perceptions of caring (p-value= 0.04155) and success (p-value=0.005499), while
there were no statistically significant differences between males and females in
their perceptions of interest (p-value=0.8134), empowerment (p-value=0.2229),
and usefulness (p-value=0.4557).
When testing the same students at the end of the study, the across-gender
comparison showed that there were no statistically significant differences
between males and females in students’ perceptions of any of the MUSIC
components.
Table 6. Cross-Gender Comparison Between Pre-perceptions of MUSIC Components
Response Pre- Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
eMpowerment
Gender 1 0.737 0.73682 1.5052 0.2229
Residuals 95 46.504 0.48952
Response Pre-Usefulness
Gender 1 0.269 0.26915 0.5611 0.4557
Residuals 95 45.573 0.47971
Response Pre-Success
Gender 1 4.320 4.3199 8.0726 0.005499 **
Residuals 95 50.837 0.5351
Response Pre-Interest
Gender 1 0.026 0.02588 0.056 0.8134
Residuals 95 43.870 0.46179
Response Pre-Caring
Gender 1 2.497 2.49743 4.2685 0.04155 *
Residuals 95 55.583 0.58508
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
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Table 7. Cross-Gender Comparison Between Post-Perceptions of MUSIC Components

Response Post-eMpowerment Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
Gender 1 0.057 0.05716 0.0666 0.7969
Residuals 95 81.503 0.85793
Response Post-Usefulness
Gender 1 0.483 0.48255 0.4857 0.4876
Residuals 95 94.393 0.99361
Response Post-Success
Gender 1 2.249 2.24864 2.4027 0.1244
Residuals 95 88.907 0.93587
Response Post-Interest
Gender 1 0.005 0.00542 0.0048 0.9447
Residuals 95 106.497 1.12102
Response Post-Caring
Gender 1 0.044 0.04404 0.0425 0.8372
Residuals 95 98.487 1.03671
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
6. Discussion
In addition to the high-level thinking skills that learners need to develop to be
successful in the field, maximizing success at learning computer programming
requires developing positive perceptions of all aspects of being a computer
programmer. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between students’
academic motivation and their performance in learning computer programming,
by studying the relationship between students’ success at learning computer
programming and their perceptions of empowerment, usefulness, success,
interest, and caring in the learning process. From the results, it appears that some
of students’ perceptions of the MUSIC model components changed from the
beginning to the end of workshops. This can be explained by different factors,
such as gender and learning gain. This section will discuss the changes of
students’ perceptions in more detail.
6.1 Empowerment
Allowing students to take control of their learning process is strongly linked with
their autonomy (Jones & Skaggs, 2016). Empowerment occurs when students
design or develop solutions for real world problems (Tissenbaum et al., 2017). In
computer programming teaching and learning, it is important for instructors to
come up with constructivist teaching strategies to move students from
engagement to empowerment. One example of such an approach is project-based
learning, which was implemented in this study. This approach has the potential
to help students not only perceive control over their learning, but also develop
creativity, critical thinking, and collaboration skills (Frydenberg & Mentzer, 2020).
In this study, students’ perceptions of empowerment were not statistically
significant regarding being predictive of their learning. Ultimately, the study did
not find any statistically significant gender-based differences in student
perceptions of empowerment.
6.2 Usefulness
Computer programming courses are usually criticized for lacking the ability to
show the connection to real world applications (Lagesen, 2006,2011) and many
294
studies have shown the importance of doing so (Brandt et al., 2013; Vahldick et
al., 2020; Voštinár, 2020). Confirming this, the current study found students’
perceptions of usefulness to be a significant predictor of their progress in learning
computer programming at the end of the study. Previous studies have shown that
females are largely unaware that computer science can be connected to the real
world (Lagesen, 2011). However, this study did not show any gender differences
related to students’ perceptions of the usefulness of learning computer
programming.
6.3 Success
Students’ beliefs about success play a significant role in shaping their
performance. Students need to believe that they can succeed if they put in the
effort required. Several studies have shown that females have lower perceptions
of success compared with males in computer science (Goh et a;., 2007; Marín-
Raventós et al., 2020; Seibel & Veilleux, 2019). Despite equality in learning and
performance, female students tend to underestimate their abilities, and they often
see computers as tools and themselves as users, instead of as the professionals
who create the technology (Vitores & Gil-Juárez, 2015).
In the current study, students’ perceptions of success were not found to be a

significant predictor of their performance in computer programming. However,
this study supports the findings of previous studies in the literature by confirming
the existing significant gender differences in student perceptions of success.
6.4 Interest
Kong et al. (2018) argued that students with an interest in programming might
have a greater sense of programming empowerment. While in this study students’
perceptions of empowerment were not found to be a significant predictor of
student learning outcomes, their interests were a significant predictor of their
success at learning to code. The literature shows that there is a gender gap in
students’ levels of interest in computer programming (Master et al., 2017).
However, this study found that both males and females were interested in
learning computer programming. This suggests that computer programming
instructors need to enhance their teaching strategies in order to stimulate
students’ situational and individual interests.
6.5 Caring
Constructivists in computer science education believe that teachers’ roles have
changed from being “a sage on the stage” to being “a guide on the side” (Gaspar
et al., 2016), which requires more attention to instructor-to-student relationships.
The analysis of data showed that at the beginning of the study, students’
perceptions of caring were significant predictors of their success at learning
computer programming.
The literature shows that students’ perceptions of student-teacher relationships

affect their motivation and engagement in instructional activities (Lazarides et al.,
2018; Quin, 2017; Roorda et al., 2011; Xerri et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2020). Varol and
Varol (2014) found that a lack of communication between students and faculty is
295
one of the leading causes of the underrepresentation of female students in the field
of computer science. This study adds to the literature by examining the impact of
students’ perceptions of caring on students’ successes in learning computer
programming. Although caring was a significant predictor of student success at
learning computer programming, it turned out to be insignificant at the end of the
study. It is important to mention, however, that males and females perceived
teachers’ caring differently. This supports the findings in the literature that
females most often do not feel support from their instructors and believe that they
do not belong in the field of computer programming (Master et al., 2016). Such
findings indicate that students need to feel that their instructors care about their
learning in order to perform well in learning computer programming.
6.6 Learning
Students’ success at learning computer programming depends on several factors.
From this study, it appears that their perceptions of usefulness, caring, and
interest can predict their performance in learning computer programming. Lau
and Yuen (2011) conducted a study on the impact of multiple learning
characteristics on programming performance, and found significant gender-based
differences in how students built mental models, which had a significant impact
on their programming performance.
The current study found a gender gap in performance at the beginning of the
study. However, at the end of the study, the gap was closed, which supports the
findings in the literature that suggest there is no significant gender difference in
terms of performance related to computer science topics, such as programming
and robotics (McDowell et al., 2003; Nourbakhsh et al., 2004).
One explanation of the gap closure is likely related to the individual instructor’s
approach and use of constructivist teaching approaches, such as project-based
learning. The results led to a decrease in the gap between males’ and females’
learning of computer programming, as is shown in the post-test.
7. Conclusion
Learning computer programming has been, and continues to be considered
challenging for many CS students around the world. Researchers have been
studying the key factors that play significant roles in the enhancement of student
achievement in programming. Since learning computer programming requires a
high level of motivation, due to abstraction in programming logic, this study
investigated the relationships between students’ academic motivation and their
performance in computer programming. Building upon the MUSIC model of
motivation, this study further examined the determining factors of influence in
CS education by testing the assumption that the motivation-related components
of the MUSIC model would increase student success in learning computer
programming.
Although all the motivation-related components of the MUSIC model are

important, this study found students’ perceptions of usefulness, caring, and
interest to be significantly predictive of their learning success. While there were
no significant gender-based differences at the end of the study, there were
significant gender gaps in students’ perceptions of success and caring at the
296
beginning of the study. Researchers and instructors need to pay more attention to
such factors.
They need to design computer programming curricula in ways that connect the
field with its real world applications so students can feel that what they are
learning is useful for their futures. Educators within this field also need to select
instructional strategies, such as project-based learning, that increase students’
situational interest, intrinsic motivation, intrinsic interest value, and flow.
Moreover, CS instructors need to show their students that they care about their
learning, in order to increase their belongingness, relatedness, and attachment.
Finally, CS researchers and instructors need be aware of the gender gap in
students’ perceptions of success, and use different types of motivational strategies
to increase female students’ sense of self-confidence in their ability to be computer
programmers.
8. Limitations
The current study was limited by the scope of time, and it measured only the
short-term changes in students’ perceptions of the MUSIC model components.
Further work to better understand the reasons behind the changes in students’
perceptions of the MUSIC model components were outside this study’s scope.
Unfortunately, the design of the current study did not allow for qualitative data
to be collected.
9. Further Research
This study tested the impact of students’ perceptions of the motivation-related
components of the MUSIC model on their performances in computer
programming. The MUSIC model (Jones, 2009) has identified several internal and
external factors that could play significant roles in shaping student motivation. A
follow-up study is needed to test the relationships between these internal and
external factors and students’ success at learning computer programming. The
MUSIC model showed a relationship between students’ motivation and their
engagement in a given activity, and it would be worth investigating which
components of the MUSIC model are predictive of students’ engagement in
computer programming courses.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 302-320, January 2023
Typology of History Teachers in 21st-Century

Learning (Grounded Theory Study in Senior
High School in Indonesia)
Ema Agustina
History Education, Universitas PGRI Palembang, South Sumatera, Indonesia
Didin Saripudin , Leli Yulifar and Encep Supriatna

History Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, West Java, Indonesia
Abstract. The teaching styles of history teachers should be more

heterogeneous and varied in 21st-century learning. The purpose of the
study was to determine the types of history teachers that conform to the
requirements of the history teaching function and the characteristics of
21st-century learning. Grounded theory was used to formulate a typology
of high school history teachers in Indonesia. Interviews, observations,
document analysis, and literature studies were conducted as data
collection techniques regarding history teachers. A total of 10
participants were selected from 10 schools. Open coding, axial coding
and selective coding were used for data analysis. The results of the study
show that history teachers in high schools in Indonesia have various
styles in teaching history, such as conservative teachers, normative
teachers, inspirational teachers, imaginative teachers, and innovative
teachers. These various typologies are understood through aspects of
student motivation, curriculum, teaching styles, student roles, and
learning evaluation. Through these findings, history teachers can identify
their own styles and try to improve their quality and competence in their
readiness to become part of 21st-century learning. Therefore, this research
has implications for developing the characteristics and competencies of
history teachers according to their type so that teaching activities become
more effective. Future studies could conduct in-depth research on each
type of history teacher or to formulate a history teacher typology through
different perspectives and indicators from the research that has been
conducted in order to enrich theories about history teacher typologies.
Keywords: history subject; high school; learning; teacher typology; 21st

century
1. Introduction
The diversity of regions and ethnic groups in Indonesia has an impact on the
character of every teacher in secondary schools. Each teacher has a particular style
©Authors
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and type of carrying out tasks in teaching and learning activities. Moreover, many
history teachers who come from the same tribe may teach in different ethnic areas.
This is an interesting concept to understand related to the typology of history
teachers because teachers are also required to be able to adapt to the characteristics
of schools that are different from the regions where the teachers come from.
Moreover, the implementation of education at the senior high school level is
currently oriented towards achieving graduate competencies that are relevant to
the skills requirements of the 21st century. This means that this achievement is
also influenced by the type of teacher training. Therefore, this history teacher
typology must be compatible with 21st-century education so that there is an
increase in the quality of teaching (Chai & Kong, 2017; Kim et al., 2019; Rifin et al.,
2019; Rusdin, 2018). In addition, although most teachers prefer storytelling when
teaching history, there are also dominant and integrative types of teachers
(Nasution, 2004). Furthermore, Duncan‐Andrade (2007) formulated three
typologies of teachers, including Gangstas, Wankstas, and Rida's teacher types
(Duncan‐Andrade, 2007). On the other hand, Rushton et al. (2007) grouped
teacher types according to the Myers and Brigg's personality types, namely
sensing (S) type, feeling (F) type, judging (J) type, perceiving (P) type, introvert (I)
type, extrovert (E) type, intuitive (N) type, and thinking (T) type. Furthermore,
Watt and Richardson (2008) classified three types of history teachers as the Highly
Engaged Persisters teacher type, the Highly Engaged Switchers teacher type, and
the Lower Engaged Disasters teacher type (Rushton et al., 2007).
The results of the interview on February 1, 2020, at the History Teachers' Meeting
in West Bandung indicated conclusively that teachers with an imaginative style
fit the function of history as being recreational. However, the results of interviews
with teachers at a high school in Palembang on February 10, 2020, showed that
history teachers’ style is of a normative type that is in line with the historical
function and is more educative. Even conservative types were identified. The
findings of the initial data in this preliminary research show that each teacher has
a different framework for teaching history as a subject. Their levels of creativity
correlate with their level of ability. Therefore, teachers who teach history
creatively promote the development of students’ creativity (Iqbal et al., 2021;
Kaplan & Kaplan, 2019).
Moreover, the development of science and technology has a significant impact on

teachers and students. The skills in the curriculum needed in the 21st century also
aim to prepare the next generation of intelligent people (Alismail & McGuire,
2015). This is in line with the teaching requirements of the 2013 history curriculum
in secondary schools. Teachers are not only expected to teach students to
understand historical events, but they must also be able to cultivate students’
character development, such as a spirit of cooperation to face global and social
challenges that continue to bring changes to people's lives (Hasan, 2012;
Sirnayatin, 2017; Kurniawan, 2013). Therefore, the teaching of historical subjects
that are associated with a specific event includes the names of the characters, the
period in which it took place, as well as the location – all details which are
expected to be memorized.
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Thus, teachers tend to tell stories and use the lecture method to convey these facts.
History is a subject that lends itself to storytelling and these facts have to be
memorized (Imanita, 2014; Ibrahim, 2017). However, the Minister of Education
and Culture in Indonesia stated that teaching history as a story has many
weaknesses. Nevertheless, teaching history with a storytelling style does not
mean that it is always monotonous and boring if the storytelling is done in an
interesting way.
The latest research describes various typologies of teachers according to their

implementation of history education in the classroom. However, research that
examines teacher typology in the 21st-century education era for history classes is
interesting to study more deeply, especially in high schools in Indonesia.
Moreover, the Indonesian government has issued a policy on independent
learning. This means that schools and teachers have a responsibility to produce
graduates who are competent in the global era. Therefore, this study presents the
complexity of challenges and problems in 21st-century learning that must be faced
by history teachers who have different typologies. Accordingly, the gap in
previous research identified by this study is related to teacher typology
challenges that are relevant to the needs of developing 21st-century learning.
These will no longer be relevant if history teachers only use the lecture learning
method in the process of transferring their knowledge to students. The typology
of these teachers can be more varied according to the concept and demands of
21st-century learning. The categorization of this typology of teachers is based on
the functions and roles of the teacher in the classroom which refer to the function
of teaching history and the characteristics of 21st-century learning.
The typology of history teachers has never been researched by historical

education researchers in Indonesia. Therefore, researchers were motivated to
categorize the typology of history teachers in high schools regarding 21st-
century learning. The findings of this study could offer a new alternative as a
contribution to the world of education, especially in history learning. Ultimately,
the aim of this study was to identify the types of history teachers in high school,
and categorize the typology of history teachers according to student learning
motivation, the curriculum used in the teaching and learning process, history
teachers’ teaching style, the role of students in the teaching and learning process,
and student learning evaluation.
Based on this background, the problem formulated for this research is: What is
the typology of history subject teachers in 21st-century learning, according to the
following:
1. What are the types of history teachers in high school?
2. What is the typology of history teachers according to:
a. Student learning motivation,
b. Curriculum used in the teaching and learning process,
c. History teachers’ teaching style, and
d. The role of students in the teaching and learning process
e. Student learning evaluation?
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2.1 History Learning and Typology of Teacher
Learning history will be interesting for students if it is packaged with fun learning
which stimulates their imagination (Pangestu & Kurniawati, 2019). In history
lessons, imagination is encouraged by the teacher through historical stories,
stories relating to past events, teacher narratives, or teacher expectations
(Supriatna, 2019). Likewise, the type of innovative teacher who is suitable to teach
history, especially if it is associated with 21st-century history learning, must be
able to innovate in developing the teaching process (Zafri et al., 2018). The
conservative type of teacher has a way of teaching that is too focused on
conveying facts, while the normative type of teacher has students with good
motivation to learn because of the teacher's approach of instilling the value of each
lesson. Furthermore, with an inspirational type of teacher, students have a close
relationship with the teacher because learning tends to be relaxed and not too
formal.
Teachers set an example through various activities, both in and school and
beyond. Students and teachers also often share interests and this motivates
students. Furthermore, an imaginative teacher with a teaching style that triggers
the imagination of students also plays a role in the formation of students’ interest
as well as their motivation to learn from other students. Imaginative learning
methods have a positive effect on students’ learning motivation (Sardiman,
2017b). In history learning with an innovative type of teacher, learning motivation
is not much of an obstacle because students' interest in learning history has
already been sparked. It is important to have an innovative person as a student’s
first history teacher because the varied and innovative ways the lessons are
presented make them curious and eager for more. They carry this interest and
curiosity with them as they proceed to higher classes (Karim, 2017).
2.2 Readiness of History Subject Teachers in 21st-Century Learning

Teachers must adopt new approaches in implementing 21st-century learning and
they must facilitate learning activities. This means that teachers must provide
tools or media that promote the effectiveness of 21st-century learning methods so
that they can improve soft skills in subjects such as history. Twenty-first century
learning requires the creation of skills such as effective communication,
collaboration, critical thinking and creativity (Rifin et al., 2019; Van Laar et al.,
2017). Therefore, students then not only master the knowledge of the subject
matter but also improve their 21st-century learning skills.
With advances in technology, the integration of ICT in the classroom can improve
21st-century learning skills (Pheeraphan, 2013). Trilling and Fadel (2009) also
indicated that to be able to face challenges in the 21st century, one must have
specific skills, namely (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b)
communication and collaboration, (c) creativity and innovation, (d) information
literacy, (e) media literacy, (f) ICT literacy, (g) flexibility and adaptability, (h)
initiative and accountability, and (i) leadership and responsibility. From this
explanation, it can be understood that teachers have a tough task to improve the
quality of their teaching and facilitate learning that is relevant to current skill
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needs. Therefore, to determine the readiness of the type of skills required of

history teachers, the indicators used as benchmarks for researchers are how the
type of history teacher develops 4C (critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and
communication) skills, the application of ICT-based learning, increasing student
literacy, the ability to interpret learning, character-building, and blended learning.
These concepts form the theoretical frameworks for identifying the skills
typology of history teachers.
3. Methodology
3.1 Method
The study used a qualitative research approach using the grounded theory
method, which will then be abbreviated as GT (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The
purpose of the GT method is to develop a theory that explains the field under
study (Strauss & Corbin, 2015). The procedure for this type of research consists of
the following steps: (a) Decide that the GT design is the best design to answer the
research problem. (b) Identify the process to be researched. Problem questions are
crafted to guide the process and the conducting of the research. (c) Seek consent
and access to research sites. This involves obtaining consent from participants as
data sources for data collection, assessing history subject teachers, and ensuring
the protection of premises and participants during the conduct of the study. (d)
Carry out theoretical sampling. (e) Encode data. Encoding means grouping data
segments and assigning with short names. Several coding methods were used in
this study, namely open coding, axial coding and selective coding. The use of GT
in this study was based on research to determine the typological characteristics
of high school history teachers from various perspectives so that researchers could
extrapolate theories from the participants' answers. In addition, grounded theory
sets out to build theories from data which are obtained systematically so that the
theories are relevant to the requirements of this research (Tie et al., 2019).
3.2 Sample and Data Collection Tools

Research subjects are those involved in the data collection process and become
the data sources in the field (Creswell, 2012). The snowballing sampling
technique was used to determine the sample of this study. In this study,
participant high school teachers were selected from 10 schools in West Java. They
were keen to know the typology of high school teachers for teaching history that
is relevant to the 21st-century learning concept. There were 10 history teachers
from 10 schools. The following Table 1 presents the demographic details of the
sample:
Table 1: Demographic of sample
Sample Criteria Gender
1 Age 25-45 years F=6
2 Graduates from the history teacher education study program M=4
3 Teachers are certified
Data collection techniques used were interviews, observation, document analysis
and a literature study. In-depth direct interviews were conducted with history
subject teachers in order to gain information on history teachers' typology. The
interview questions referred to aspects of learning motivation, use of the
curriculum, teaching styles and learning methods, student involvement during
307
the learning process, and the way the teacher evaluates learning. Observations
were made by observing the teachers in the history teaching process to obtain data
relating to how they handled problems. Document analysis comprising written
documents, photos and videos was conducted to complement the results of
interviews and observations. Literature reviews are necessary for identifying
various theories related to the problems being researched which serve as a basis
for discussing research results.
3.4 Data Analysis

In qualitative research using the grounded theory method, the stages of data
collection and analysis are interrelated processes and must be carried out
alternately. Qualitative data analysis usually starts with coding and data
categorization. The steps of data analysis in this study are (a) coding of data (open
coding) which is carried out through labelling phenomena, finding, naming and
grouping categories; (b) axial coding or axis coding which is a set of procedures
for making links between categories; and (c) selective coding which is the final
stage of coding and includes scanning of all data and previous codes (Strauss &
Corbin, 2015). It can be said that in selective coding, the researcher identifies a
storyline and writes a story that integrates the categories in the axial coding model
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
4. Result
The findings of the interviews and observation data showed that there were five
types of history teachers in secondary schools, namely the conservative teacher
type, the normative teacher type, the inspirational teacher type, the imaginative
teacher type and the innovative teacher type. The main characteristics of the five
types of teachers refer to the characteristics of the learning function of history and
21st-century learning which can be seen in the following Figure 1:
Conservative Focus on delivering facts (date, month, year, name of character,

Teacher Type and place)
Normative Focus on absorbing and delivering value from history learning

Teacher Type
Inspirational Focus on delivering inspirational lessons related to historical

Teacher Type figures and events
Imaginative Focus on delivering material in a teaching style that enhances

Teacher Type students' imagination
Innovative Focus on innovation in history learning which takes place in class

Teacher Type at every lesson
Figure 1: Characteristics of the type of history teacher in high school
308
Figure 1 showed participants’ views of history teachers in high school,

providing, an overview of the types of history teachers. These are supported by
the document analysis from the curriculum, and the teaching and learning report
from the teacher. The findings related to the details of the types of history teachers
are explained in the following Table 2:
Table 2: Types of history teachers in high school

Participants Normative Innovative
Conservative Inspirational Imaginative
Code Teacher Teacher Type
Teacher Type Teacher Type Teacher Type
Type
They have the There are No No No

same senior
KON1
characteristics teachers of
this type
They have the These are No There are these Teachers are
same the teacher types attached to
KON2 characteristics normative but they are certain styles
type difficult to and rarely
imitate innovate
There is this They have They never There is this There is this
type of teacher been taught met this type type of teacher type of teacher
but I am not this type of of teacher even without and it is
NOR1
one of them teaching having studied usually a
and media young teacher
practice it
There is this They have They never This type of They never met
type of teacher been taught met this type teacher is this type of
but it is rarely this type of of teacher rarely found teacher
NOR2
found teaching because they
and are difficult to
practice it imitate
This type of There is They applied These are types They never met
teacher is still this type of to learn that of teachers this type of
widely found: teacher inspires who enhance teacher
INS1 the child only because students students'
focuses on history is imagination
memorization full of
of facts values
There is this Some INS2 often They never met They never met
type of teacher senior motivates this type of this type of
INS2 teachers students with teacher teacher
belong to inspiring
this type material
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There is this They never IMA1 was IMA1 teaches This type of
type of teacher met this once this type by increasing teacher is
INS3 but teaching type of of teacher students' usually one of
history is not teacher imagination the IT-based
just about facts generation
There is this Some This type of The There is a type

type of teacher senior teacher exists characteristics of teacher who
IMA1 but nowadays teachers but IMA2 has of the IMA2 always
it is rarely belong to never met one approach this innovates
found this type type of teacher
There is this Some Some teachers They never met This type of
type of teacher teachers belong to this this type of teacher is often
and it is too and type teacher encountered
INO1
monotonous lecturers when
belong to attending
this type training
There is this There are There are these This type of INO2 becomes
type of teacher teachers types of teacher exists part of this
and the with this teachers and but have never type of teacher
INO2 learning is too type and they seen it in
rigid have been contribute a lot person
taught this to the
way environment
Table 2 showed that there were five types of teachers in history learning. In
addition, there were also participant views about the type of teacher who was
more suitable for teaching historical subjects. The table also indicated that the five
types of teachers who have been classified were suitable to be history teachers.
The findings on indicators of student learning motivation, history learning
curriculum, the teaching style of history teachers, student roles, and evaluation
are presented in the following Table 3:
Table 3: History teacher typology indicator

Indicators Conservative Normative Inspirational Innovative Teacher
Imaginative
Teacher Teacher Teacher Type
Teacher Type
Type Type Type
The teacher The teacher Students Students have good Students have good
must support must provide have motivation and motivation, learning
students who stimulation motivation learning awareness awareness, and
have low for students and learning students’ autonomy
Motivation learning awareness
motivation but they
need the
teacher’s
motivation
310
The teacher The teacher The teacher The teacher knows The teacher knows
knows the knows the knows the the concepts of the concepts of
concepts of concept of concepts of curriculum in the curriculum in the
curriculum curriculum curriculum teaching and teaching and
in the in the in the learning process learning process
teaching and teaching and teaching and and creativity is
learning learning learning encouraged.
process. process. process.
History Learning Learning Learning
curriculum resources resources resources
and learning and learning and learning
media are media are media are
quite varied, quite varied, quite varied,
but the development development
material is has taken has taken
not place, but the place.
developed material is
limited
Teacher- The teacher The teacher The teacher History teachers

centered conducts gives conducts a unique build the confidence
learning lectures in lectures by lecture of students. Students
class but always (storytelling), are more
includes giving question-and- independent.
discussions motivation, answer, discussion, Minimal lectures
and includes problem-solving, and applying
simulations discussions, discovery learning, discussions,
simulations role-playing, and questions and
and sharing debate. Learning is answers, public
Teachers’
with an supported by debates, playing
style
emotional appropriate media historical cards, field
teaching
approach to and tools to be trips, contextual
students but recreational and learning, mind
is still fun. Still mapping, quantum
teacher- implementing the learning, panel
centered teacher-centered debates, argument
approach but tables, storytelling,
already project-based
implementing the learning
student-centered
one
Students sit In addition In addition Students have The role of students

listening and to listening, to listening, various roles is very diverse
students students also students also besides listening to, because they already
have limited do questions conduct such as interacting, have self-
roles and answers questions having alternative independence,
Students’
and deliver and answers, sources of students have
role presentations presentations information, confidence in their
in front of , explain organizing abilities, students
the class simulations material, and are more self-
in front of explaining actualizing and
the class and understand and are
engage in
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activities aware of their

related to learning goals.
history
learning
The teacher The teacher The teacher The teacher Students carry out
evaluates evaluates evaluates evaluates but their evaluations
and it and is not with essays students are also and only confirm to
remains fact- too rigid, and verbally allowed to the teacher that they
based in time more with contribute are involved in the
Evaluation order concerned students evaluation
(multiple with the explaining in
choice and value of an front of the
essay) event (essay class
and
exposure)
5. Discussion
Based on the research findings regarding the types of history teachers in senior
high schools, it was revealed that the characteristics already reflected the types of
teachers based on the function of history teaching and the characteristics of 21st-
century learning. These results were in line with previous expectations of a type
of history teacher who represented the function of history learning itself as well
as 21st-century learning. First, was the conservative type of teacher who
emphasized the delivery of facts, including the dates, months, years, names of
figures and places of events in history. Such historical learning was quite
impressive because it was closely related to the memorization system. Teaching
by emphasizing memorization, however, becomes a conventional and less
interesting teaching practice (Sardiman, 2017a).
The second was the normative type of teacher. This type of teacher preferred to
convey the values of life during the teaching process (Rasihudin, 2019). The third
was an inspirational type of teacher who taught by not only focusing on delivering
values but also by trying to inspire students to become individuals who would
make the most of their talents while also making a contribution to society.
According to Kobandaha (2017), in an inspiring type of teaching, the teacher
must be able to stimulate and encourage students' minds to think creatively and
unconventionally. At the same time the teacher inculcates positive values and
focuses on the learning objectives (Kobandaha, 2017). The fourth type of teacher,
the imaginative teacher, was one who taught by increasing students' imagination.
Within the limitations of the classroom, however, students could be still be
creative through exploring dimensions of space and time. Students are able to
develop their thinking processes without being limited by reality (Hotimah et al.,
2018). The imaginative type of teacher was able to teach history through
storytelling that is interesting and sparked students' attention and imagination. In
learning history in Indonesia, traditional history teachers often use storytelling
skills so that students seem to enter the space and time in which the historical
material was unfolding.
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Fifth was the innovative type of teachers. They tried to create breakthroughs
through learning methods, learning media, as well as evaluations that were
applied in the learning process. The innovative type of teacher varied the teaching
method in every lesson. Teachers who innovate were also responsive to different
conditions (Yantoro et al., 2021). Innovation is necessary in teaching history,
especially regarding the use of media that should keep up to date with
technological developments. One of these was by developing media such as
interactive multimedia that are practical and effective in improving student
learning outcomes (Yulifar & Agustina, 2020). Likewise, the normative and
inspirational types taught by inculcating values and by being inspirational in each
lesson. Therefore, these five types of teachers were considered to be suitable to
teach history.
The next indicator was related to the curriculum in history teaching in the
classroom such as lesson planning, lesson design, material development, learning
resources and learning media. The conservative type of teacher was quite
disciplined in terms of administration although not consistent in doing so,
especially at the learning stage, while the normative type of teacher, apart from
being disciplined, consistently used their learning tools in carrying out the stages
related to the lesson plans. On the other hand, the inspirational type of teacher
seemed to be less organized in administrative matters because their focus was on
learning tools, while the imaginative type of teacher and the type of innovative
teacher were very disciplined with their administration and in applying the
learning stages in their lesson planning. Furthermore, in presenting material, the
conservative types of teachers were too dependent on textbooks because they felt
that textbooks were sufficient and they did not need to develop additional
material. In this way they differed from the normative type of teacher who felt
that material development was essential so that students' understanding was not
limited to textbooks. In line with this, the type of inspirational teacher also
developed their own material because some available materials were subject to
differences of opinion.
Likewise, the type of imaginative teacher felt that historical development was
necessary so that students could also know local historical facts related to
historical events and local historical figures as well as current events, both at home
and abroad. As contended by Goksu and Somen (2019) in their research on
history teachers in the Turkish city of Kayseri, local history should be included in
history education so that students can familiarize themselves with events related
to their geographical environment (Goksu & Somen, 2019). Material development
was also carried out by innovative types of teachers who also developed their own
material, not only related to local history but also so that learning was more
interesting on a contextual basis and students were not fixated on textbooks
provided by the government. In this way, more critical thinking skills were
formed and developed. History teachers must be able to develop their own
teaching materials and not rely solely on textbooks (Atno, 2010).
Furthermore, regarding the learning resources used by the types of history

teachers, those of the conservative type was still limited, while the resources of
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the normative and inspirational types were quite varied. The resources of the
imaginative types of teachers were even more varied: they made use of articles
and journals from the Internet and print, historical content videos and even
sources such as historical actors, relics and historical sites. Likewise, innovative
types of teachers used a variety of learning resources and even developed their
own, such as modules, student worksheets, historical comics, and learning blogs.
They also used several historical journals such as the Historia Journal and videos
containing historical content.
Concerning the use of learning media, the conservative type of teacher was still
very limited in using media because they found it difficult and time-consuming.
The normative type of teacher did use learning media although it was not too
varied, such as maps, PowerPoint, videos, and temple miniatures, albeit not very
frequently because it had to be adapted to the learning material. The inspirational
type of teacher also used the same learning media as the normative type of
teacher, except that the inspirational teacher also used historical posters of
inspiring historical figures as well as historical card games that were played in the
history laboratory.
The imaginative type of teachers used more diverse media, namely maps that they
had created, playing the national anthem; watching war-related and historical
videos and films; and using statues, puppets, flags, costumes, historical comics,
and historical objects. Such animated media can improve students' historical
imagination abilities (Wahyudi, 2020). Lastly, the innovative type of teacher used
more varied media and tried to use different media for each first and subsequent
lesson. This also involved students in developing learning media. History
teachers’ use of teaching media must keep abreast of innovations and changes in
learning styles in the era of globalization (Saripudin et al., 2018; Susilo, 2020;
Saripudin et al., 2021).
The next indicator was related to the teaching style of the types of history teachers.
The conservative type of teacher taught using the method approach while
questions and answers were still very limited in the class. This showed that
conservative teachers’ method was still teacher-centred. The results of
observations made by Yulifar (2019) revealed that history teaching in high school
used a method approach and took place according to a pattern with a teacher
providing information, and students listening and writing. In addition, there were
question-and-answer sessions and assignments (Yulifar, 2019). The normative
type of teacher also still applied teacher-centered learning. Furthermore, the type
of inspirational type of teacher also did not differ too much from the normative
type of teacher. They still applied the method approach because it was difficult to
separate history teaching from the learning method (Agung & Sriwahyuni, 2013).
However, the method was unlikely to succeed without being supported by other
methods such as the inquiry-based style, the coaching style, the cooperative style,
and direct teaching (Sosu, 2016). The type of imaginative teacher who used
teaching methods adhered to the MUKIDI learning process (unique, creative,
democratic and inspiring teaching). Although it is still used, in essence it must be
unique and interesting. The imaginative type of teacher teaches through
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storytelling, role-playing, discussion, debate, and discovery learning. The

teaching style is a method used to convey knowledge and skills to enhance and
guide successful learning (Mwathwana et al., 2014). Innovative types of teachers
implemented learning through discussions, public debates, panel debates,
argument tables, playing historical card games, role-playing, contextual learning,
project-based learning, mind mapping, quantum learning, and storytelling. Every
teacher has the competence to carry out innovative learning if they are passionate
and enthusiastic about what is being done (Kalyani & Rajasekaran, 2018).
Furthermore, the role of students in the classroom was passive, confined to

listening, and even memorizing the material. Students had a very limited role and
teachers did not provide opportunities to students nor did they trust them
because teachers considered themselves the main source of information. Teachers
who taught in the classical style were very dominant. However, the students of
the normative teacher type were quite involved in their learning process (Ali,
2014). The type of inspirational teacher also involved students in learning through
questions and answers, discussions and simulations, explaining in front of the
class with colleagues and taking part in activities outside the classroom that were
nevertheless related to history learning. Fikri et al. (2021) revealed that by using
the method approach alone, levels of student participation were very low (Fikri
et al., 2021). On the other hand, the collaborative method, with lectures, question-
and-answer sessions and discussions, was declared to be effective and
significantly increase the participation and active learning of students in learning
history.
In the classes of the imaginative teacher type, students played a greater role than
in the case of the previous types of teachers. Through storytelling students
listened to explanations, but the teachers had to train students to think critically;
explanations were sometimes incomplete so that students had to find answers for
themselves and ask questions. In addition, in finding out about material from
various sources, students also had discussions with peers, as well as verifying and
organizing material that involved critical and imaginative thinking. Students also
argued responsibly when discussions and debates were taking place. In addition,
students were also active and participated in role-playing even though it did not
take place very often.
Moreover, students with higher levels of abilities could become peer tutors for
fellow students who needed help. The imaginative type of teacher recognized
what every student was capable of and provided opportunities for them to
develop their potential. Peer tutors were very effective in increasing their fellow
students' interest in learning in class (Mastrianto et al., 2017). The innovative type
of teacher more often applied student-centered learning, often acting as a
facilitator. Nevertheless, there was still frequent teacher-centered learning.
Students were also active in asking each other questions, as well as the teacher
and colleagues, especially during presentations, discussions, and debates.
Students prepared additional information and data, organized material, wrote
independently and explained the topics that had been shared. When there was a
history card game, students mutually agreed on the rules of the game.
315
Prasetyawati (2016) stated that the students’ history learning was carried out
independently, with the teacher as a facilitator. This was categorized as student-
centered learning, also known as innovative learning (Arifin, 2020).
The last indicator was evaluation. The conservative type of teacher used an
evaluation system in the form of multiple choice and essay which was intended
to test students' knowledge of the material and facts that had been taught. This
means students must memorize the historical facts that have been conveyed.
Umasih (2012) maintained that the appropriate form of assessment for subjects
such as history was a combination of multiple-choice and essays (Umasih, 2012).
Furthermore, the normative type of teacher was more likely to use an evaluation
with an oral test that did not require students to memorize facts within a limited
time frame. These teachers were more concerned with students' understanding.
Likewise, the type of inspirational teacher preferred evaluation in the form of
direct questions and answers, namely a question-and-answer quiz. In addition,
oral exams were also conducted and for certain materials, students would be
evaluated using simulations in front of peers, explaining inspirational stories that
could motivate students both in learning and in everyday life.
Evaluations carried out by history teachers should continue to incorporate

assessments that still had the essence of the 2013 curriculum which included
cognitive aspects and psychomotor aspects (Majid, 2014). This was also what the
imaginative type of teacher did by applying an oral test to assess the cognitive
aspect, although it was generally done with a written test. Affective aspects were
assessed through the learning process and through a rubric that contained aspects
of students' attitudes and activities. Furthermore, the psychomotor aspect was
assessed from the assignment relating to props making, role-playing, and
storytelling in front of the class. De Leur et al. (2019) also revealed that students
used cognitive and affective elements in their responses to the empathy task given
in history learning (De Leur et al., 2019). Therefore, teachers are still guided by the
curriculum that has been implemented by the current government because the
2013 curriculum has been revised and adapted to government policies related to
the independent learning policy. This means that this curriculum requires history
teachers to build student independence which includes the mastery of 4C skills.
Thus, the various typologies of history teachers have the same learning objectives
in building student competence.
6. Conclusion
The typology of 21st-century learning history teachers is categorized into five
types, namely conservative teachers, normative teachers, inspirational teachers,
imaginative teachers, and innovative teachers. First, the conservative types of
teachers (KON1 and KON2) were limited in developing 4C skills and
implementing ICT-based learning as well as in terms of developing students'
ability to interpret learning, character building, and blended learning; however,
there have been efforts to improve student literacy. Second, normative types of
teachers (NOR1 and NOR2) quite often carry out ICT-based learning. The
development of communicative, collaborative, and critical thinking skills has been
carried out although creative skills were still limited. There were efforts to
316
improve student literacy; however, there were still few students who interpreted
learning material successfully. Character building was not difficult to incorporate
but blended learning was still not maximally accomplished. Third, the
inspirational types of teachers (INS1 and INS2) carried out ICT-based learning,
developing communicative, collaborative, critical thinking, creative and
character-building skills. There were efforts to improve student literacy; however,
the ability to interpret learning material and practice blended learning was still
limited. Fourth, the imaginative types of teachers (IMA1 and IMA2) carried out
ICT-based learning, supported by the use of unique conventional media. The
development of 4C skills was carried out as well as efforts to improve student
literacy. Fifth, the innovative types of teachers (INO1 and INO2) often carried out
ICT-based learning and blended learning while the development of 4C skills has
been carried out optimally. Similarly, student literacy was improved so most
students can interpret the learning material. Conservative types can be
categorized as unprepared teachers, normative and inspirational types can be
categorized as ready teachers, while imaginative teachers and innovative teachers
can be categorized as very willing and capable teachers to implement learning in
the 21st century.
The results of this study provided recommendations for teachers and high schools
related to the competence of history teachers in managing history classes that
meet the needs of global developments, both in terms of technological and
scientific progress. Teachers must understand the concept of their typology in
teaching history to implement the type of teaching that meets the learning needs
of the 21st century. Based on the five types of teachers identified in the study,
teachers are advised that they should be able to create and innovate according to
various models or learning methods in the teaching of history. This finding was
related to the various types of history teachers. From these indicators that still
need to be developed are multimedia technology indicators and their influence
on student learning outcomes.
This research, however, has limitations because the research study is limited to an
analysis of the typology of history teachers for high school students according to
the aspects of learning motivation, curriculum, learning styles, student roles, and
learning evaluation. The next limitation is that the research sample was small and
the research was conducted in only one area; therefore, the results of this study
cannot be generalized to other regions. Nevertheless, it still needs to be expanded
in further research. Furthermore, this research has not been linked to student
learning outcomes from various types of history teachers. This can be reviewed
as a limitation regarding the impact of the type of teacher teaching history on
student achievement. The identified typology of teachers has not yet been linked
to the mastery of technology; these findings can be developed on indicators of
multimedia technology and their effect on student learning outcomes. However,
the innovative types of teachers are usually creative in their use of technological
media in improving the quality of teaching and learning.
317
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 321-340, January 2023
Received Nov 7, 2022; Revised Jan 21, 2023; Accepted Feb 3, 2023
Portrait of Education in Indonesia: Learning

from PISA Results 2015 to Present
Esti Ismawati* , Hersulastuti , Indiyah Prana Amertawengrum

Widya Dharma University, Klaten, Central Java, Indonesia
Kun Andyan Anindita

Yogyakarta State University, Karangmalang, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Abstract. This study aimed to analyze Indonesia’s low Program for

International Student Assessment (PISA) scores among
PISA-participating countries in the world, using the qualitative Spradley
model method. Data collection involved studying PISA results
documents, curriculum documents, newspapers, and television news.
Observations and interviews (both formal and informal) with teachers
and prospective teachers who were studying at private tertiary
institutions were also used considering that the main researcher has been
a lecturer since 1986 until now. Data analysis techniques included domain
analysis, content analysis, narrative analysis, and critical discourse
analysis. Data analysis related to the implementation of the educational
curriculum from the Dutch colonial era to the present. It was found that
not all teachers used higher order thinking skills (HOTS) and teachers
complained that the curriculum was often changed by the Ministry of
Education. Even distribution of the quality of education is also not
optimal and experiences difficulties. This is because Indonesia is the
fourth most populous country in the world, with the population spread
over 17,000 islands separated by sea. This study recommends that the
Indonesian Government make solid short-, medium- and long-term
education master plans so that teachers are not bothered with curriculum
changes on a regular basis. If participation in PISA by Indonesia is
continued, this study recommends that the practice of PISA questions be
increased and that PISA participants be selected using purposive
sampling considering that the quality of education is not evenly
distributed.
Keywords: Indonesia; innovative learning; low assessment scores; PISA;

qualitative approach
*
Corresponding authors: Esti Ismawati; esti@unwidha.ac.id, estisetyadi@gmail.com
©Authors
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1. Introduction
Indonesia is a maritime country that has marine waters covering an area of
5.8 million km2, consisting of 0.3 million km2 of territorial waters, 2.8 million km2
of archipelago waters, and 2.7 million km2 of exclusive economic zone.
Furthermore, Indonesia has more than 17,508 islands, 50 straits, and 64 bays
(Anoegrajekti et al., 2022; Bernardi, 2003). Indonesia has a population of
278.8 million people (the 4th most populous in the world) (Kompas, 2022a) and is
the 4th largest country in the world by area (CNN Indonesia, 2022), with an area
of 1.90 million km2, almost eight times that of Russia (Kompas, 2022b). Naturally,
the distribution of quality education is not maximized. Since 2000 until now,
Indonesia has participated in Program for International Student Assessment
(PISA). PISA is held every three years (2000, 2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018).
However, the latest PISA results, which should have been released in 2021, was
not yet released by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), namely the organizer of PISA, at the time of this writing. Because of this,
this paper focuses on the 2018 PISA results.
In 2018, Indonesia ranked 62nd out of 70 countries in terms of literacy level.

Indonesia is thus in the bottom 10 countries that have a low literacy rate in PISA
(Anggraena, 2021; OECD, 2019a; Pratiwi, 2019). The low level of national literacy
in Indonesia is supposedly because for decades the country remained on the
downstream side (Indonesia Directorate General of Primary and Secondary
Education, 2021; hereafter Indonesia Directorate, 2021). Another reason is that
Indonesian people are continually judged to have a low reading culture (Utami,
2021). As a nation that was colonized by the Dutch for 350 years, there is a stigma
(Absiroh et al., n.d.; Amin, 2019; Hasudungan, 2021; Tricahyono, 2020) that results
in Indonesia’s low competitiveness, low human resource development index, and
low level of innovation (Indonesia Directorate, 2021).
For 350 years, Indonesia was colonized by the Dutch and other Western countries
such as Britain, France, and Portugal, and finally by Japan from 1942 to 1945 until
the nation gained its independence on 17 August 1945 (Absiroh et al., n.d.; Amin,
2019; Hasudungan, 2021; Tricahyono, 2020). Indonesia (Dutch East Indies)
experienced a dark period in the history of its education when the Dutch
colonizers allowed Indonesians to attend only low-level schools called sekolah
ongko loro, where they were only taught to become laborers to meet the needs of
the Dutch colonialists (Tricahyono, 2020). Even then, only the sons and daughters
of aristocratic and priyayi families were allowed to go to school, namely families
who were economically capable and educated. This paper describes why
Indonesia’s PISA score is low and what the portrait of education in Indonesia
looks like from the Dutch colonial period to the present, where the country has
experienced 11 changes to the education curriculum (Ismawati, 2015; Pratiwi,
2019) until its participation in PISA.
For the record, in 1975, Indonesia implemented a modern curriculum containing

all experiences and learning activities determined by educational institutions to
achieve national educational goals (UU Sisdiknas). The modern curriculum no
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longer emphasizes memorization, but its orientation changed towards mastery of

skills, namely higher order thinking skills (HOTS), and attitudes that change the
paradigm from being a colonized nation to an independent nation, with the terms
independent campus and independent learning (Makarim, 2020).
This study aimed to answer the following questions:
• What does the portrait look like of the implementation of education in
Indonesia from the Dutch colonial period to the present?
• Why is Indonesia’s PISA score low (bottom 10 countries)?
• Is a low PISA score an indication of failure in education in Indonesia?
This paper will answer the above questions by exploring various document
sources and the history of education in Indonesia.
2.1 PISA in Previous Studies
Many studies have been conducted regarding PISA (Pratiwi, 2019; Sjoberg, 2018;
Takayama, 2018). Sjoberg (2018) concluded that PISA is basically a political project
formulated, regulated, and financed by the “owner”, namely the OECD, and in
line with OECD priorities. This project is explicitly normative, but is presented
and understood as a neutral and objective measure of a country’s schools
following and representing future global competitiveness. From this perspective,
PISA can be said to have been a global success.
On the other side, and more seriously, is a kind of epistemological dominance:

The government’s obsession with PISA scores distorts and limits the meaning and
purpose of schools (Sjoberg, 2018). PISA results have been used by uninformed
schools as if PISA was the only measure of school quality. Meanwhile, published
PISA test scores have a negative correlation with inquiry-based teaching methods,
especially in conducting science experiments. The PISA reports also almost never
mention the United Nation’s current sustainable development goals (SDGs) and
there are no initiatives related to education for sustainable development (Sjoberg,
2018). Another “weakness” of PISA, according to Sjoberg (2018), is that money
and resources spent on education have no effect on PISA scores (OECD, 2016).
Class size is also not a problem related to the quality of education (OECD, 2016).
PISA scores also have a negative correlation with the investment and use of ICT
in teaching (OECD, 2017a). Furthermore, PISA science scores do not correlate with
the amount of teaching time devoted to science at school (OECD, 2016; Sjoberg,
2018).
In their study, Takayama (2018) highlighted the problem of how to eliminate the
cultural bias that is so important to the legitimacy of PISA, which has made
extensive efforts to ensure the fairness of their tests. The study attempted to
confound clean and convincing explanations of PISA’s technical solutions to
cultural biases about exam fairness. Specifically, the study responded to cultural
biases in reading literacy. It was concluded that in order to achieve maximum
PISA scores, students need to expand their sources of critical insight beyond
Anglo-American and European countries to denaturalize the premise underlying
324
PISA that remains unproblematic for Anglo-European critical education policy

scholars (Takayama, 2018).
Concerning PISA research in Indonesia, Pratiwi (2019) examined the effect of

PISA achievement on the curriculum in Indonesia since becoming a PISA
participant from 2000 to 2015. Pratiwi (2019) stated that Indonesia’s index
achievements were always at the lower level in the PISA index, as evidenced in
the 2015 PISA results, where Indonesia was ranked 65th out of 69 participating
countries. The study concluded that in every curriculum change, things that must
be considered are related to the contextualization of Indonesia. PISA can therefore
not be used as a benchmark for the success or failure of education in Indonesia
(Pratiwi, 2019).
2.2 PISA and Indonesian Participation

PISA is an international program launched by the OECD in 1997, first conducted
in 2000 and now covering more than 80 countries. Every three years, the PISA
survey provides comparative data on the performance of 15-year-olds in reading,
math, and science. Each implementation of PISA explores different “innovative
realms”, for example problem-solving, collaboration (PISA 2015), and global
competence (PISA 2018).
PISA in Indonesia is attended by purposively selected 15-year-old school students

(Anggraena, 2021). PISA organizers are the OECD and an international
consortium that handles sampling, instruments, data, reporting, and secretariat
issues (Anggraena, 2021; Pratiwi, 2019; Suyatman et al., 2021). PISA aims to assist
countries in preparing human resources to have the expected competencies in the
international market. PISA provides information not only on international
benchmarks but also on student strengths and weaknesses and the factors that
influence them (Anggraena, 2021; Pratiwi, 2019; Suyatman et al., 2021).
The PISA assessment subjects consist of basic literacy tests of several skills,
including math, reading, and science, outside the national curriculum. Globally,
PISA is believed to have high legality in describing the quality of a country’s
education. Indonesia is still in the lower ranks, that is, 65th out of 69 participating
countries in 2015 (Pratiwi, 2019) or 74th out of 79 participating countries in 2018
(Indonesia Directorate, 2021; Suryana, 2021). These results should trigger teachers
and students in Indonesia to improve their literacy and numeracy skills so they
can compete in the global labor market. As an illustration, the PISA participating
countries can be seen in Table 1 below.
Table 1: List of countries participating in PISA

Albania* Finland Lithuania Romania*
Argentina* France Macau (China)* Saudi Arabia*
Australia Georgia* Malaysia* Serbia*
Austria Germany Malta* Singapore*
Azerbaijan (only Baku City)* Greece Mexico Slovakia
Belgium Guatemala* Moldova (Republic)* Slovenia
Brazil* Hong Kong Mongolia* Spain
(China)*
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Brunei Darussalam* Hungary Montenegro* Sweden

Bulgaria* Iceland Morocco* Switzerland
Cambodia* Indonesia* Netherland Taipei (China)*
Canada Ireland New Zealand Thailand*
Chile Israel North Macedonia Turkey
(Republic)*
China (People’s Republic)* Italy Norway Ukraine*
Colombia Jamaica* Palestinian United Arab Emirates*
Authority*
Costa Rica Japan Panama* United Kingdom
(excluding Scotland)
Croatia* Jordan* Paraguay* Great Britain
(Scotland)
Czech Republic Kazakhstan* Peru* United States of
America
Denmark Korea Philippines* Uruguay*
Dominican Republic* Kosovo* Poland Uzbekistan*
El Salvador* Latvia Portugal Vietnam*
Estonia Lebanon* Qatar*
* Non-OECD members
Source: OECD (n.d.a)
The ability to read is very important for various human activities, especially
communicating with others (OECD, 2018a). In terms of reading ability, the PISA
results show that 77% of students in all OECD countries achieve Level 2 reading
skills. These students are able to identify the main ideas in relatively long texts,
search for information based on explicit criteria which are sometimes
complicated, and reflect on the purpose and form of the text. More than 85% of
students in China, Canada, Estonia, Finland, Hong Kong, Ireland, Macau, Poland,
and Singapore achieve a higher degree (OECD, n.d.a). For math and science skills,
PISA results show that 76% of students across OECD countries achieve Level 2 or
higher in mathematics. Students can interpret and recognize, without direct
instruction, how the (simple) situation can be represented mathematically (for
example, comparing the total distance of two different routes, or converting prices
to different currencies). However, across 24 countries and economies, more than
50% of students (Indonesia included) score below this level of proficiency.
Indonesia voluntarily provides space for PISA to continue to evaluate student

achievement so that it can be a reflection of education policy in the era of
globalization (Indonesia Directorate, 2021; Pratiwi, 2019). The results of the PISA
assessment in Indonesia unavoidably always attract media coverage (Kompas,
2020). The Indonesian Government has always been under public pressure
because it has been deemed unsuccessful in implementing the national education
system (Pratiwi, 2019). The 2000 PISA results placed Indonesia in 39th place out
of 41 countries (OECD, 2003), with this matter reported by almost all media in
Indonesia. After 18 years of being a PISA participant, the outcome remains the
same. Indonesia, based on the 2018 results, occupies ranking 62 out of 70 countries
related to literacy rates, placing the country in the bottom 10 countries with low
literacy rates (OECD, 2019a), even though literacy skills are very important.
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Literacy refers to the depth of one’s knowledge of a field of knowledge. Low

national literacy levels (Fahlevi, 2021) of students in Indonesia can be attributed
to teachers’ propensity to ask questions on a lower order thinking skills (LOTS)
level. Various efforts have been made by the Indonesian Government to improve
the quality of education through students’ literacy and numeracy skills. This
includes changing teaching strategies and methods that are oriented towards
HOTS, namely the ability to think and not just memorize facts. HOTS require
students to do something about these facts. Students must understand, analyze
each other, categorize, manipulate, create new ways creatively, and apply them
in finding solutions to new problems (Hasyim & Andreina, 2019; Riadi, 2016).
Indonesia’s PISA scores from 2006 to 2018 can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Indonesia’s PISA results 2006–2018

Source: OECD (2018a)
As seen in Figure 1, the reading score (membaca – reading; the yellow line) was
42% in 2006, 46% in 2009, 45% in 2012, 45% in 2015, and 22.9% in 2018. Regarding
science (sains; the blue line), Indonesia achieved 38% in 2006, 35% in 2009, 34% in
2012, 45% in 2015, and 40% in 2018. Achievement in math (matematika; the green
line) was 34% in 2006, dropping drastically to 23% in 2009, 24% in 2012,
significantly increasing to 32% in 2015, then dropping again to 28.1% in 2018.
These figures show that in these five times that Indonesia participated in PISA,
the country never achieved a score of 50% for reading, science, and mathematics.
There is a need to increase these scores to above 50% so that the literacy skills of
students in Indonesia are not far below those of other foreign students. PISA
scores can be increased by providing intensive training on questions related to
literacy or language, mathematics, and science. The scoring system also needs to
change. Students not only master the material but are also able to solve and
interpret problems in various real-life situations. Various reading strategies that
are used as a reference to foster a sense of pleasure in reading among students can
be implemented. These include: 1) writing texts related to reading, 2) indicating
what is liked and disliked of a text read and the reasons, 3) comparing books read
with other books on the same topic, 4) comparing the contents of books that have
been read, 5) answering questions related to book chapters, 6) expressing opinions
about a reading text, 7) discussing a reading text with other students, and
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8) summarizing the chapters in a book (OECD 2019a; Ministry of Education and

Culture Research and Development/Depdikbud, 2019).
2.3 Integrated Design: Student Component

Within the PISA 2021 framework, mathematical literacy includes a synergistic and
reciprocal relationship between mathematical thinking and computational
thinking, algorithmic thinking, automation, decomposition, and generalization,
all of which are important in the process of mathematical reasoning and
problem-solving (OECD, n.d.a). Computational thinking in mathematics is
conceptualized as the ability to define and describe mathematical knowledge that
can be expressed by programming, enabling students to dynamically model
mathematical concepts and relationships (Anggraena, 2021).
The taxonomy of computational thinking in PISA 2021 includes data practice,

modeling and simulation practice, computational problem-solving practice, and
systems thinking practice. PISA domains related to computational thinking
include abstraction and symbolic representation, mathematical modeling,
problem-solving, interpretation, application, and evaluation of mathematical
results. In terms of mathematical content, computational thinking is mentioned in
the discussion of all the sub-topics of mathematics: quantity, uncertainty and data,
change and relationships, space and form (OECD, n.d.b).
Computational-thinking learning in Indonesia covers two areas, namely

integrating thinking skills into existing subjects and providing certain classes and
activities that specifically address computational thinking (Figure 2). Several
recent studies have shown that computational thinking can be integrated into
existing subjects. For example, unified modeling language (UML) principles
learned in software engineering can be integrated into language learning at the
primary school level in Austria (Anggraena, 2021). Integrated design figures can
be seen in Figure 2.
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Computer Based Paper Based
Cognitive Assessment
Cognitive Assessment
Reading Additional
samples Reading, mathematics,
Mathematics
Financial science
Science literacy
(120 minutes)
Creative Reading,
thinking Match
Student
Questionnaire
120 min
Student
(35 minutes)
Student Questionnaire
(35 minutes)
Optional Questionnaire
ICT Familiarity Questionnaire
Welfare Questionnaire
Global Competency Questionnaire
Financial Literacy Questionnaire
Figure 2: PISA integrated design 2021: Student component

Source: OECD (n.d., p. 6)
So far, exam questions in Indonesia still have a level of difficulty below PISA
standards, which are already based on HOTS. The OECD has implemented an
education system that is oriented towards fulfilling a global workforce which
requires three learning components, namely reading, mathematics, and science,
as benchmarks. This requires HOTS exam questions. Meanwhile, the curriculum
in Indonesia has not implemented this system, except for the national exam in
2018, which started using HOTS.
In 2021, math literacy skills were redefined by the OECD. Mathematical literacy
is an individual’s capacity to reason mathematically and formulate, use, and
interpret mathematics to solve problems in a variety of real-world contexts. It
includes concepts, procedures, facts, and tools to describe, explain, and predict
phenomena. It helps individuals to know the role that mathematics plays in the
world and to make the reasoned judgments and decisions required by
constructive, engaged, and reflective 21st century citizens (OECD, 2018b). The
PISA 2021 framework stipulates that mathematical literacy, which was originally
focused on basic computational skills, must be redefined by paying attention to
very fast technological advances. Of course, this also applies to other literacy skills
besides mathematical literacy, namely reading literacy and scientific literacy
(OECD, n.d.a). Schools, principals, and teachers play an important role in the PISA
integrated design, as shown in Figure 3.
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Computer Based Paper Based
School
School questionnaire School questionnaire
Principal
v
(CB, online) (PB)
Optional
Teacher questionnaire School
(B, online) Teacher
Optional
Optional
Parents questionnaire
Parents questionnaire
(Pb)
(PB) Parent
Figure 3: Integrated design of PISA 2021: Non-student components

Source: OECD (n.d., p. 6)
Mathematical literacy also plays an important role in the digital era, where
information and knowledge technology is developing rapidly. Mathematical
literacy is necessary to interpret and critically analyze everyday situations, solve
problems, and evaluate existing information (Marlina et al., 2019). Unfortunately,
the approach used by the teacher has not been able to improve students’ abilities
in this regard (OECD, 2015). Several recent studies have shown that
computational thinking can even be integrated into existing subjects in the digital
era. For example, UML principles learned in software engineering can actually be
integrated into language learning at the elementary school level. The digital era
allows for the creation of affinity spaces without being limited by geographical
and temporal distance (Sya et al., 2022).
3. Research Methods
3.1 Research Design
This study used a qualitative approach employing the method of literature study
and document study with content analysis and in-depth interviews. The literature
study method as data collection technique was used by conducting a study of the
PISA results, especially the last two periods, namely 2015 and 2018, because the
2021 PISA results had not been released at the time this paper was written. A
review was done of books, literature, notes, and reports related to the problem
being solved (educational problems and PISA) with reference to a qualitative
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approach (Creswell, 1998, 2012; Denzin & Lincoln, 2004; Ismawati, 2016; Spradley,
2007). Qualitative research can be employed in different ways (Denzin & Lincoln,
2004; Spradley, 2007). In this study, it was employed by reading literature related
to the problem of low PISA scores and investigating the learning practices in
schools (namely at SMA Negeri 1, 2, and 3 Klaten by interviewing three teachers
in the three schools) and teacher-producing institutions (namely the Faculty of
Teacher Training and Education where the main researcher has been teaching
since 1986 to the present). Not all prospective student teachers in the faculty were
interviewed; only those who had been teachers were the subjects of the study. The
questions asked in the interview aimed to gather the following information:
(1) whether participants knew PISA, (2) how the learning practice was carried out
in their school, (3) whether it was oriented towards PISA questions or not, and
(4) their responses regarding Indonesia’s low PISA scores. Content analysis
methods were also used, which are basically oriented towards empirical findings
in interviews, explaining the contents of the interviews according to the research
objectives (Krippendorff, 1993). With an empirical orientation, content analysis
contributes to knowledge.
3.2 Data Collection Techniques

Data collection techniques in this study included qualitative techniques, namely
note-taking, content analysis, observation, and direct and indirect interviews
(Faizti, 2021; Ismawati, 2016). Various sources were used in collecting data, such
as online newspapers, television, and the 2015 and 2018 PISA reports. Direct
(in-person) interviews were conducted while the teacher participants were taking
the course Research Methods for Indonesian Language and Literature Education, which
was taught at the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Widya Dharma
University. Conversely, indirect interviews were conducted with teacher
participants while at home, either by telephone or through the WhatsApp group.
Data were collected in this study through recordings and notes, literature study,
interviews with teachers and prospective teachers over an extended period as
they were students on the campus, surveys at three schools, and by observation
of participating teachers during teaching practice. In some cases, observations
were carried out continuously so that we could acquire complete data. In-depth
interviews were also used, which is a structured or unstructured data collection
technique that can be done face-to-face or over the telephone with the participants.
Participants were students in the Language Teaching Planning, Language
Teaching Evaluation, Literature Teaching, and Language and Literature Teaching
Research Methods classes.
3.3 Data Analysis Techniques

Data in qualitative research, which are mostly in the form of sentences and
discourses, are sorted into data cards to be analyzed by parsing and grouping
techniques into the domains found. The high variation of the data results in an
unclear pattern during analysis, so the repeated reading technique is used
(Faizti, 2021; Ismawati, 2016). In this study, the repeated reading technique was
used with the Spradley domain model (Faizti, 2021; Ismawati, 2016; Spradley,
2007), yielding several domains, namely the domain of PISA scores from 2006 to
2018 for reading, mathematics, and science; the domain of implementing teaching
in the classroom; and the domain of using methods, media, and evaluation. In
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addition, content analysis, narrative analysis, and critical discourse analysis were
also used for analysis of the implementation of educational documents from the
Dutch colonial era to the present.
4. Results
Indonesia was ranked 74th out of 79 participating countries in the 2018 PISA
results. Table 2 below presents the results of the 2000 to 2018 PISA studies released
by the OECD. The 2018 PISA results show that for reading ability, Indonesian
students achieved an average score of 371, while the OECD average score was 487.
The average math score for Indonesia was 379 compared to the OECD average
score of 487, and the average science score for Indonesia was 389, while the OECD
score was 489. Indonesia was placed fifth from the bottom, and perhaps the same
results will be yielded in PISA 2021 (Indonesia Directorate, 2021; Suryana, 2021).
Table 2: PISA Index for 2000 to 2018 showing Indonesia’s achievement in PISA
Number of
Indonesian International Indonesian
Year Factors tested participating
average score average score rating
countries
Reading 371 500 39
2000 Mathematics 367 500 39 41
Science 393 500 38
Reading 382 500 39
2003 Mathematics 360 500 38 40
Science 395 500 38
Reading 393 500 48
2006 Mathematics 396 500 50 56
Science 393 500 50
Reading 402 500 57
2009 Mathematics 371 500 61 65
Science 383 500 60
Reading 396 500 62
2012 Mathematics 375 500 64 65
Science 382 500 64
Reading 397 500 61
2015 Mathematics 386 500 63 69
Science 403 500 62
Reading 371 487 74
2018 Mathematics 379 487 74 79
Science 389 489 74
Source: (Indonesia Directorate, 2021; OECD, 2018a; Pratiwi, 2019)
Meanwhile, the results of an internal study at a prospective teacher education

institution at a tertiary institution in Klaten, Central Java, Indonesia show that the
literacy skills of teachers and prospective teachers of Indonesian, English, and
mathematics are still low (Ismawati & Hersulastuti, 2021). The results of in-depth
interviews with prospective teacher students show that their low literacy skills
were due to their lack of reading books related to the following subjects:
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(1) language and literature teaching research, (2) language and literature
seminars, and (3) classroom action research and teaching English at the
Department of English Education, and basic mathematics courses at the
Department of Mathematics Education. The prospective teachers interviewed
came from the three majors, namely Indonesian, English, and Mathematics. The
content they create in the learning media they use in the micro-teaching practice
class has very little to do with literacy skills.
Another study showed that teachers’ teaching practices also affect students’
literacy competence. Teachers’ teaching practices, such as the support provided
by the teacher and positive feedback, are known to influence students’ reading
motivation (Guthrie, 2013; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Narciss & Huth, 2004;
Paľová & Vejačka, 2022). The teacher’s teaching practice is known to influence the
value of the students’ pleasure reading index, both independently and together
(Fahlevi, 2021).
The interviews with the participating teachers from SMA Negeri 1, 2, and 3
revealed that so far, teachers have placed too much emphasis on the pedagogical
aspect. They do this by presenting teaching materials very slowly, forgetting that
in life teachers must teach using many variations to remain fresh. Pedagogically,
material should be presented from the unknown to the known, simple to complex,
easy to difficult, and concrete to abstract. In terms of language/terms used,
vocabulary concepts must be in accordance with the conditions of students. Short
and simple sentences must be used and tools must be selected according to the
material. Furthermore, teachers are afraid to provide material outside the
curriculum, even though there is a lot of new literature that students and teachers
need to read, especially 21st century literature (Ismawati & Hersulastuti, 2021;
Suciati, 2021).
Seeing the trend of Indonesia’s PISA results from 2000 to 2018, it is necessary to
immediately innovate in literacy learning. This might be difficult at first, because
educational innovation is not a simple and easy process, including technological
innovation with hands-on content and innovation in pedagogical approaches (Fu,
2020; Paľová & Vejačka, 2022; Youssef, 2012; Yuzulia, 2021). Most teachers in
Indonesia still use the LOTS-type method, which needs to be innovated. This
shows that the education system needs to be reformed as a whole. PISA is one of
the benchmarks indicating the failure of Indonesian education trials, which
changes every time there is a change of minister (Pratiwi, 2018).
The implementation of the Independent Curriculum proclaimed by the Minister

of Education Nadiem Makarim (2020) is constrained because many schools are
still not ready (Indonesia Directorate, 2021). Teachers, especially in remote areas,
are not free to present each subject due to natural constraints and media
limitations and tend to fail in meeting the target of completing curriculum
materials. Teachers tend to only teach certain materials in the form of providing
information (low cognitive, C1, C2) that students should have obtained
themselves from various sources. Teachers only teach material in the form of
knowledge, so that students tend to memorize it and not understand it more
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deeply. Furthermore, the proportion between time allocation and subject matter
is not appropriate, so teachers tend to only pursue curriculum targets (Ismawati,
2015; Nursalim, 2011).
To increase the realization of quality education in Indonesia, several practices of

implementing learning in schools in villages, remote areas, and mountainous
areas require extra assistance. Some schools have bad practices which must be
done away with, such as reducing the time for teaching and learning activities
and using that time for other interests, for example attending ceremonies,
community service, mutual cooperation cleaning schools, meetings, etc. Other
practices involving time reduction must also be eliminated, such as class
preparation (during class changes), teachers arriving late to class, early teaching
and learning activities, and so on. Implementation of teaching and learning
activities that only focus on LOTS will affect the quality of learning and student
learning outcomes, resulting in low PISA scores, because PISA questions have
been designed using HOTS. The higher the literacy structure, the more the
students’ abilities are challenged at a more difficult level. Each stage of learning
should be designed to stimulate higher order thinking. The goal is to produce
students who are analytical and critical and able to solve problems and evaluate.
5. Discussion
To raise PISA scores, it is necessary to know that many factors influence students’
literacy competence, including student internal factors such as learning
motivation, toughness/resilience, and competitive nature, and external factors
(Puslitjak, 2021). Motivation has an influence on learning of language,
mathematics, and science and is related to learning achievement (Han et al., 2020;
Wu et al., 2022; Gyanfi, 2020).
Students’ basic literacy skills are also influenced by reading enjoyment, reading
metacognition strategies, and classroom climate. Therefore, the policy adopted
needs to promote student literacy activities and increase students’ love of reading
by increasing teacher capacity (Puslitjak, 2021). Teachers are trained to provide
HOTS-level questions so that students are accustomed to critical thinking as a
basis for 21st century skills.
So far, examination questions in Indonesia have been at a level of difficulty below

PISA, which is HOTS based. This is because the OECD founding countries have
implemented the most up-to-date Bloom’s taxonomy system in their education
systems. Meanwhile, the curriculum in Indonesia has not implemented this
system properly, except for the national exam in 2018 (Hasyim & Andreina, 2019;
Indonesia Directorate, 2021).
In 2018, the national exams in Indonesia were premised on HOTS and it is hoped
that with HOTS, students will be able to achieve independence in answering PISA
questions. The use of e-module media can also increase student learning
independence and make it easier for students to learn independently. There is a
strong correlation level and simultaneous and partial influence between digital
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literacy and students’ self-directed learning on the use of e-modules in evaluating

learning processes and outcomes (Sanova et al., 2022).
The Center for Curriculum and Books of the Indonesian Ministry of Education
and Culture (Fahlevi, 2021) has conducted a lot of research and formulated a series
of solutions to improve the low PISA scores. This includes holding literacy
training and providing assistance for teachers and students, both at the national
and regional levels, as well as establishing literacy movements, from the national
level to the local school level (Fahlevi, 2021).
One of the methods recommended for learning literacy in reading, mathematics,

and science is quantum learning combined with the use of ICT (Ismawati, 2016;
Raharjo, 2013). The simple quantum learning model used by teachers is organized
into six steps, named TANDUR (acronym in Indonesian), as discussed below
(Astuti, 2017; Ismawati, 2016).
• Tumbuhkan (grow): In this step, lecturers foster students’ interest by arousing
their curiosity.
• Alami (experience): Here, the experience of writing, for example poetry, will
become an unforgettable memory if read and students want to feel directly
how difficult it is to read, write, and count in the cases provided.
• Namai (name): From the direct experience, there must be empirical and
scientific findings that need to be named. Here, students and teachers
collaborate to mention the findings.
• Demonstrasikan (demonstrate): In this step, students and teachers together
try to get new experiences in literacy by demonstrating what has been
obtained in learning.
• Ulangi (repeat): The new experience in literacy will be fleeting if it is not
repeated over and over again until the participant is addicted to reading,
writing, and arithmetic anywhere and anytime. This means that literacy is a
necessity.
• Rayakan (celebrate): A new experience in literacy should be celebrated. The
more often success is celebrated, the more impressive the learning practice
will be. In the end, students miss meeting with teachers and vice versa to
discuss the new literacy they are reading and writing.
Learning will be more productive and effective if it is carried out in a pleasant

atmosphere (Dryden, 2001; Meilani et al., 2020) and integrated with music. Music
can be used to set the mood, promote desired learning outcomes, and highlight
educational focal points (De Porter et al., 2005).
Learning to read and do science and mathematics in the form of real-life cases
accompanied by music makes students feel close to the material and to be
automatically interested in solving it. The use of ICT in learning is also something
that is non-negotiable in the world of 21st century education. Twenty-first century
learning is oriented towards collaboration, which can empower students in their
ability to think and find and solve problems through the help of several
supporting sources (Jamaludin et al., 2022; Tiruneh et al., 2018), and this of course
requires ICT.
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The low scores of Indonesian students are not really a cause for concern if the
teacher equips their students with critical thinking skills that are closely related to
students’ in-depth understanding of the learning material content. The ability to
think critically has penetrated into various aspects of human life and various
disciplines such as science, history, literature, psychology, education, and
everyday life (Berdahl et al., 2020; Jamaludin et al., 2022).
Critical thinking is a predictor of one’s excellence in learning (Menap et al., 2021).

Critical thinking is a form of thinking that is systematic and precise, which follows
the rules of logic and scientific reasoning (Lau, 2011; Han et al, 2020). Furthermore,
critical thinking is a very calculated component of intelligence (Albergaria-
Almeida, 2011). It is seen as reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding
what to believe or do (Ennis, 2018; Menap et al., 2021). Critical thinking is also a
key competency for lifelong learning. Teachers are role models for students and
have a significant impact in their critical thinking, influencing students’ academic
achievement, personality development, and attitudes towards science (Paidi et al.,
2021). The use of quantum learning models helps students manage and maintain
lasting gains of knowledge, understanding, and learning.
Analytical thinking is one of the most basic HOTS needed to develop 21st century
skills, which include critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and decision-
making. Students need analytical thinking skills to solve various problems in
everyday life. The ability to think analytically leads students to become
independent and qualified thinkers (Aksu & Eser, 2020; Anggraini et al., 2019;
Suyatman et al., 2021). Therefore, teachers need to continue instilling these skills
in students in every lesson. The keys to critical thinking are asking questions,
providing accurate and relevant information, setting assumptions, making
reasonable and logical judgments, and drawing conclusions (Fatah et al., 2022),
and this is what Indonesian students need for their future.
6. Conclusion
The portrait of the implementation of education in Indonesia from the Dutch
colonial period where only nobles and the rich attended school has passed. Today,
there is no discrimination in the administration of education in Indonesia. The low
PISA scores are due to the lack of training on PISA questions with HOTS and a
low reading culture. However, education that is only oriented towards PISA
achievement will become a “factory” that produces intelligent and skilled human
beings who are ready to be absorbed as industrial workers but are not humane.
Education that only pursues meeting the needs of the global labor market
promotes dehumanization. Indonesia (and other countries with low PISA scores)
does not need to feel inferior, because PISA is only a small part of the indicators
of educational success, and is not the dominant factor that determines the
direction of education policy in Indonesia. Therefore, a low PISA score is not a
portrait of failure of education in Indonesia. However, HOTS is still needed by
humans to solve the problems of life in the post-pandemic world, so it is important
to apply it in any form of learning and not only literacy learning in reading,
mathematics, and science. The PISA score can be increased by providing intensive
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training on literacy, math, and science questions outside of core class hours. This
research recommends to education policy-makers in Indonesia to realize a
balanced education, taking into account all the interests of Indonesia as the 4th
most populous country in the world. On the one hand, education needs to pay
attention to the global labor market; on the other hand, humane education
remains a top priority for Indonesian citizens.
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 341-360, January 2023
Investigating EFL Instructors’ Perceptions of

using Blackboard in TEFL at IAU Preparatory
Year
Sami Mubireek
Imam Abdulrahman University, Dammam, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Montasser Mahmoud*
Abdul Aziz Ali El-deen

Al-Imam Mohammad ibn Saud Islamic University,
Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ahmed Moumene
Ahmad Bani Younis

Abstract. This study set out to explore the perceptions of teachers of English
as a foreign language (EFL) about the use of the Blackboard learning
management system (LMS) in the preparatory year at Imam Abdulrahman
bin Faisal University (IAU), Saudi Arabia. The useful Blackboard features
that are not customarily exploited by EFL instructors, and the solutions EFL
instructors suggested to solve the problems they countered during their
EFL classes were also covered. The perceptions of the 63 EFL instructors
about using Blackboard in teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL)
teaching were collected by means of a survey. A mixed-methods sequential
explanatory design was used for collating, analyzing, and consecutively
integrating data. The findings revealed that the attitudes of teachers
towards using Blackboard were significantly positive. Nevertheless, they
disclosed that several effective Blackboard features are not explored for the
benefit of teachers such as the electronic library, the evaluation system, the
teachers’ forum, and the group conferencing. The results recommended that
teachers should be provided with intensive training on all the Blackboard
features to increase its efficacy in teaching. Finally, some recommendations
*
Corresponding author: Montasser Mahmoud, Mmamahmoud@iau.edu.sa
©Authors
342
were offered to maximize the usage of this tool in compliance with recent
research findings and instructors’ proposals.
Keywords: Blackboard; instructors’ perceptions; e-learning; learning

management systems; technology acceptance model
1. Introduction
The rapid growth of information technology has revolutionized computer-
assisted education and online instruction at all educational levels in many
countries globally. Initially, online teaching was used as a supplement to face-to-
face teaching; now it seems to have supplanted it in many areas owing to the
outbreak of Covid 19 (Al-Drees et al., 2015). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has
adopted Blackboard as an accredited learning system in academic institutions.
Blackboard is one of the LMSs that play a significant role in teaching and learning.
Its familiarity with this technology has warranted a smooth transfer to its
adoption as a means of instruction, not only at the level of higher education but
also in general education as well. At the opening of every academic year, the
Deanship of Preparatory Year and Supporting Studies organizes orientation
sessions to help students learn Blackboard fundamentals, such as how to log
in/out, upload assignments, download courses, use discussion boards, answer
quizzes and comprehension tasks, use online resources, listen to audio/video
excerpts, take tests, and check teacher feedback and grades. Another
advantageous option offered to teachers is that they can present their courses
synchronously or asynchronously either on or off campus.
Although there are several types of systems such as Angel/LMS, e-College, GNU
General Public License/Linux, LearningSpace, the Sakai Project, Open-Source
Portfolio Initiative, Moodle, and uPortal, Blackboard has remained the overriding
e-learning corporation considered as “the be all and end all in educational
instruction” (Bradford et al., 2006). Other studies have compared the Blackboard
platform to other applicable educational platforms and provided evidence for
Blackboard's dominance (Carvalho et al., 2011; Kulshrestha & Kant, 2013). The
significance of this study lies in gauging the utility of Blackboard as officially used
in the preparatory year, at Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. The
research endeavours to examine the teachers' perceptions of this technological
tool in terms of easiness, usefulness, and difficulties encountered. It also strives to
determine whether all the Blackboard features are as fully employed as they were
destined to be by its designers and whether they were utilized appropriately. It
ultimately seeks to deduce some ideas from the suggestions of teachers as the
direct practitioners of this high-tech system. This study aims at answering these
research questions:
1. What are the perceptions of EFL instructors of Blackboard in terms of ease of
use, usefulness, satisfaction, and challenges?
2. What are the useful Blackboard features that are not customarily exploited by
teachers?
3. What are the EFL instructors’ proposals to solve the problems they encounter
when using Blackboard in teaching EFL?
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Since its inception in 1997, Blackboard has been considered one of the most
popular LMSs used in higher educational institutions as a platform for teaching
and learning (Martin, 2008). It serves two main purposes: a repository of
information as well as a tool for communication. As a repository of information,
teachers can upload all sorts of information about the course material; as a tool for
communication, they can communicate with students through various means,
including email, announcements, discussions podcasts, and blogs (Chang, 2008;
Tseng, 2020). This system offers instructors a flexible tool that can be accessed at
any time from any place (Kraleva et al., 2019). It allows educators to manage
material dissemination, assignments, communications, and other related aspects
for their courses (Epstein et al., 2013). Researchers recommended the use of
Blackboard for its benefits in education such as ease of use (Lin, et al., 2014),
flexible accessibility (Heirdsfield et al., 2011), and accessible services (Watson &
Watson, 2007). Henceforth, instructors can explain lessons; post announcements,
programs, courses, and class materials; and take attendance. They can also post
grades, vocabulary and grammar quizzes, assignments, discussions, video
tutorials, practice tests, audio-recorded presentations as well as IQ listening
comprehension and reading comprehension. All these features help teachers
deliver their lessons efficiently and effectively.
2.1 Principles for gauging web tools

The present study strives to delve into relevant literature to sort out the benefits
and downsides of Blackboard. To examine the effectiveness of technological tools,
researchers established some benchmarks for accepting or rejecting them.
According to Chickering and Gamson (1987), good practice must meet the
following seven principles: (a) encouraging contact between students and faculty,
(b) developing reciprocity and cooperation among students, (c) encouraging
active learning, (d) giving prompt feedback, (e) emphasizing time on task, (f)
communicating high expectations, and (g) respecting diverse talents and ways of
learning (p. 2).
Other researchers have endeavoured to discern the validity of technological tools

through another set of criteria. The model of Chickering and Gamson (1987)
served as a trendy framework for Graham et al. (2001) who applied their seven
principles as a practical lens for evaluating online tools. Importantly, Davis (1989)
set up three criteria for gauging web tools: perceived usefulness, perceived ease
of use, and user acceptance of information technology. Moreover, Davis (1993)
investigated the technology acceptance model (TAM) and identified a correlation
between information systems on the one hand and perceived usefulness,
perceived ease of use, attitude toward using, and actual user behaviour on the
other hand. Drawing upon Davis (1993), Yi and Hwang (2003) elaborated on the
TAM, incorporating the motivation components of self-efficacy, enjoyment, and
learning goal orientation to judge the effectiveness of web-based tools. In
addition, Brett et al. (2006) deployed the TAM to gauge stakeholders’ perceptions
of usage, usefulness, and ease of use. Their results indicated that the Blackboard
features related to course documents, lectures, announcements, and quizzes
proved to be more useful and more frequently used than a discussion board,
344
websites, and e-mails. They also found that many novice instructors do not know
how to use all the Blackboard tools because they lack adequate knowledge.
Within the same perspective, Moonsamy and Govender (2018) explored the usage
of Blackboard among instructors at a South African university, relying on the
unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) model. They found
that the staff preferred Blackboard, mainly for its facilitating conditions in
teaching. Furthermore, Opoku and Enu-Kwesi (2019) explored the applicability
of the TAM in terms of usefulness and ease of use in twenty-two articles and
found that it was the most suitable model. Therefore, the present study adopted
these benchmarks because of their validity for diagnosing teachers’ perceptions
of Blackboard.
2.2 Blackboard benefits

Blackboard is reported to yield many benefits for teachers such as efficient use of
time, availability of resources, interactivity, participation, engagement, learning
experience, quick feedback, tracking, building skills, time management,
communication, and subsequent high achievement (Bradford et al., 2006; Brett et
al. 2006; Heirdsfield et al., 2011). Along the same line, Eldridge (2014) found that
Blackboard offered more flexibility and efficiency to Kentucky University staff.
Correspondingly, Alzahrani and Aljraiwi (2017, p. 24) described this tool as a
“flexible, scalable and expandable system” for disseminating web education.
Using the TAM, Moonsamy and Govender (2018) advocated adopting Blackboard
to ensure effective teaching. Similarly, Blackboard is regarded as an influential
tool for publicizing learning and developing effective teaching (Eldridge, 2014;
Elsawy & Ahmed, 2019). More specifically, Heirdsfield et al. (2011) revealedled
that the staff believed that Blackboard afforded various benefits including
cooperative learning, active learning, recurrent communication, rapid feedback,
task deadline, talent diversity, and learning styles. Above all else, communication
in Blackboard is given due emphasis as instructors can post announcements, use
the chat function, create threads via the discussion feature, and provide quick
feedback and constant formative assessment (Chen et al., 2014). Indeed, there is a
consensus among researchers that Blackboard is regarded as a genuine tool for
elevating the teaching profession (Elsamanoudy et al., 2020; Baig et al., 2020;
Francescucci & Rohani, 2019). Overall, instructors seem to favour Blackboard
owing to its multimodal communication and information-sharing tool.
2.3 Teachers’ satisfaction

Other studies placed more emphasis on motivational factors as prerequisites for
adopting technological tools. Emphasis on satisfaction, emotions, motivation, and
enjoyment was underscored by Vrielink (2014). Blackboard flexibility is reported
to bring about instructors’ positive perceptions and satisfaction (Martin, 2008). In
this regard, Krieg and Henson (2016) reported that Blackboard resulted in general
satisfaction among instructors. Consistently, Khafaga (2021) indicated that
instructors had positive attitudes toward Blackboard; this standpoint strengthens
the acceptance of using web tools. Correspondingly, Shakil et al. (2021) revealed
teachers’ enjoyment of using Blackboard and their preference for using it instead
of traditional teaching. Moreover, Ahmed and Mohammed (2020) found that
instructors had a significant appreciation of the use of Blackboard. Aldubaibi
(2018) found that Saudi teachers asserted that they initially encountered
345
considerable hurdles in using Blackboard; however, these were easily overcome

in due time. They also insisted that some Blackboard features are not used at all
by teachers because they are neither implemented by the e-learning teams nor
solicited by the deanships. In line with this, Alblassi (2016) identified positive
attitudes towards Blackboard among teachers at Hail University, Saudi Arabia;
however, he evidenced that it was not sufficiently activated to cover all the
features. Overall, the acceptance of technology brings about positive attitudes and
satisfaction and plays a crucial role in the promotion of teaching methodology.
2.4 Teachers’ perceptions

Among the influential factorss that should be primarily considered about TAM
are teachers’ perceptions. Without their positive attitudes, the fate of any
technological tool would be doomed to failure (Al-Drees et al., 2015; Heirdsfield
et al. 2011). However, some researchers revealed some reluctance among
practitioners towards using Blackboard for many reasons. Initially, Bradford et al.
(2006) diagnosed that the difficulty in using any system such as Blackboard
represents a major constraint. Similarly, Hoq (2020) found that 86% of instructors
expressed positive attitudes; however, they required more training (p. 462). In line
with this, Kilpatrick (2019) admitted that Blackboard’s efficiency depends on how
instructors create an online community that enhances students' virtual learning
experience. Overall, teachers’ positive attitudes about the utility of technological
tools should be given due consideration before any implementation.
3. Methodology
To achieve the aim of the current study a mixed-methods sequential explanatory
design was used. This design was used to interpret and clarify the results obtained
from quantitative data analysis (Edmonds & Kennedy, 2017). The data collected
from both the quantitative and qualitative stages were combined into a single
mixed-methods research design for collecting, analyzing, and consecutively
integrating data (Othman et al., 2020). The main tool was a survey that included
closed-ended questions in addition to a specific section for instructors to write
their suggestions. The items included in the survey sections were used to identify
the Blackboard features and their impact on teachers’ experience (See Appendix
1). The survey was administered online, the data were analyzed, and the results
were reported and compared with previous research works.
3.2 Participants and the study context

This study was conducted in the preparatory year of the English Department,
Dammam University, Saudi Arabia. Institutional ethics approval was required,
therefore official permission was requested from the Deanship which provided
them with an official letter of acceptance to conduct the current study. The
randomly selected size was 63 out of a population of 73 teachers in the English
Department during the second semester of the academic year 2021-2022 (Table 1).
The sample size calculator is used to determine the size of the sample that
represents the target population.
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Table 1: Demographics of English teachers (N=63)
Variables Group Participants Percentage
Male 30 %47.6
Gender Female 33 %52.4
All 63 %100
3.3 Research instrument and procedure

The survey was developed for teachers of both genders with quantitative data
being collected using mainly closed-ended questions. The eleven items included
in the first section sought to collect data about what the participants considered
as effective features of Blackboard in learning English. The seventeen items
included in the second section were to identify teachers’ extent of acceptance and
satisfaction in using Blackboard. The thirteen items included in the third section
aimed to detect teachers’ challenges in the utilization of Blackboard. The final
section consisted of an open-ended question that solicited teachers’ additional
suggestions regarding the usage of Blackboard. A five-point Likert scale was used
to gauge various perceptions regarding this web tool. For the analysis, statistical
operations were performed on the collected data to determine the various
averages. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was then calculated to verify stability,
while the Pearson correlation coefficient was used to check the internal
consistency. The frequencies and percentages were calculated to describe the
participants. Arithmetic averages and standard deviations were also calculated to
monitor trends in the participants’ responses, following which the relative weight
of the estimates of the participants’ responses was adjusted from a five-point
Likert scale to a continuous scale. Finally, the stability of the survey was calculated
using Cronbach’s alpha equation. Table 2 shows the value of the reliability
coefficient for each section of the survey.
Table 2: Cronbach's alpha coefficients

Cronbach's No. of
Themes
Alpha Items
Effective features of Blackboard in learning English 0.947 11
The extent of satisfaction in using Blackboard in teaching and
0.976 17
learning English as a foreign language.
Teachers’ challenges in the utilization of Blackboard 0.917 13
It is clear from Table 2 that the values of the reliability coefficient for each section
are between (0.976-0.917). This indicates that the teachers' survey has a high
degree of reliability as well.
3.4 Data collection tools and procedures

After completing the preparation of the instrument, it was transferred to an
electronic link through the Questionpro.com platform. Then approval was
obtained from the university authorities to dispatch the link to all participants
through their e-mails. Their responses were tracked to verify the completion of
the required number for the study sample for one month in 2021. The data were
347
extracted in a raw image and then processed statistically using the SPSS program.
The data were collected from a survey, teachers’ reflections, and online records.
4. Findings and discussion

4.1 EFL instructors’ perceptions of Blackboard in terms of ease of use,
usefulness, and satisfaction
The following Table 3 showed that EFL instructors’ perceptions of Blackboard in
terms of ease of use, usefulness, and satisfaction
Table 3: EFL instructors’ perceptions of Blackboard in terms of ease of use, usefulness,

and satisfaction
Items Mean Std. Deviation
9. Blackboard facilitates student-student feedback. 3.27 1.232
14. Blackboard helps students to learn English efficiently. 3.47 1.198
10. Blackboard is my preferred teaching tool. 3.49 1.014
11. Blackboard helps me apply my ELT style. 3.49 1.121
5. Blackboard boosts students’ motivation. 3.49 1.199
4. Blackboard promotes active learning among students. 3.62 1.154
7. Blackboard encourages student-teachers contact. 3.64 1.151
3. Blackboard deepens students’ understanding. 3.67 1.108
6. Blackboard increases students’ autonomy. 3.67 1.108
12. Blackboard provides sufficient ELT support. 3.71 1.121
15. Blackboard supports the pedagogical principles of English 3.76 1.069
language teaching with technology.
17. Blackboard gives students the ability to organize themselves better. 3.76 1.090
13. Blackboard helps me gain more online teaching experience. 3.82 1.211
4.1.1 Perceptions of EFL instructors about Blackboard in terms of ease of use

The findings showed that instructors agreed on Item 1 that Blackboard does not
contain any difficulty with an average of 2.24 and 1.111 degrees of significance.
They also voiced a neutral stance towards the items, indicating Blackboard in
terms of time consumption, pressure exertion, curriculum burden, and training
requirement. The perceived ease of use is considered a sine qua non for the
acceptance and adoption of any technological tool (Brett et al., 2006; Davis, 1993;
Lin et al., 2014; Opoku & Enu-Kwesi, 2019). The results of this study corroborate
previous works indicating that instructors favoured Blackboard because of its
easiness, flexibility, and accessibility (Alsuhaibani, 2021; Heirdsfield et al., 2011;
Missula, 2008). Teachers supported Blackboard because it is a flexible tool that can
be accessed at any time from any place (Alzahrani & Aljraiwi, 2017; Eldridge,
2014; Kraleva et al., 2019).
4.1.2 Perceptions of EFL instructors about Blackboard in terms of usefulness

Perceived usefulness is considered as the main contributor to the acceptance of
any technological tool (Opoku & Enu-Kwesi, 2019). The results demonstrated that
the following Blackboard features are regarded as very effective in learning
English, namely emails, learning resources and related activities, course materials,
reading comprehension activities, listening comprehension activities, recorded
presentations, assessments, quizzes, assignments, practice tests, and
announcements. In sum, Blackboard's usefulness registered an overall average of
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4.02 with 0.945 degrees of significance. These results upheld previous research on
Blackboard appreciation compared to traditional classes (Ahmed & Mohammed,
2020).
The findings of this study are consistent with those of many studies which
demonstrated the usefulness and efficiency of Blackboard in teaching (Alkhalaf,
2021; Alsuhaibani, 2021; Khafaga, 2021; Kraleva et al., 2019). The fact that
Blackboard ensures effective teaching is strongly supported by many researchers
(Baig et al., 2020; Eldridge, 2014; Elsawy & Ahmed, 2019; Francescucci & Rohani,
2019; Koc, 2013; Moonsamy & Govender, 2018). The results of this study confirm
those found in previous studies; however, they differ from other studies which
indicated more teacher training is required (Hoq, 2020). Moreover, the findings
firmly contradict the studies which demonstrated negative reactions toward
Blackboard (Almekhlafy, 2020). Instructors testified that all the above Blackboard
features without exception are very effective with an overall average of 4.02 and
0.945 degrees of significance. This corresponds to the findings of many studies
attributing the contribution of the Blackboard features to the enhancement of the
teaching profession (Ahmed & Mohammed, 2020; Martin, 2008; Tseng, 2020).
4.1.3 Perceptions of EFL instructors about Blackboard in terms of satisfaction

Table 4 reveals the extent of the participants’ satisfaction with the use of
Blackboard in teaching. Item 9 indicates an average of 3.27 with a neutral degree
and less than the general average of all ítems, namely 3.68. This demonstrates the
degree of approval. In items 14, 10, 11, 5, 4, 7, 3, and 6, the responses of the faculty
members ranged between 3.47 and 3.64 with a degree of agreement and less than
the general average of 4.68. In addition, the averages of items 12, 15, 17, 13, 16, 8,
2, and 1 ranged from 3.71 to 4.11 with a degree correspondingly higher than the
general average of 3.68.
The user acceptance principle is regarded as a requirement for the acceptance of

any technological tool (Brett et al., 2006; Davis, 1989, 1993; Opoku & Enu-Kwesi,
2019). Concerning the extent of satisfaction among instructors in using Blackboard
in TEFL, the findings revealed that Item 9 which surmises that Blackboard
facilitates student-student feedback, contrary to all the items in this section, was
neutral with a mean of 3.27 and 1.232 degrees of significance. Nevertheless, the
means for the rest of the items ranged between 3.68 and 0.944, agreeing about their
satisfaction. They showed that Blackboard is a preferred teaching tool that helps
them apply their own ELT style and gain more online teaching experience. This
tool is believed to provide sufficient support to English language teaching
following recent pedagogical principles based on technology. It is also found to
be easy and enables them to save time by providing quick teacher feedback and
grading. Teachers also believe that this mechanism boosts students’ learning
efficiency, motivation, active learning, understanding, student-teacher contact,
autonomy, better organization, and exposure to the English language. The results
also underscored the importance of Blackboard acceptance in ensuring the success
of the teaching process. The degree of satisfaction with Blackboard among
instructors is very high because of its noticeable effects on improving
achievement, interaction, communication, autonomy, feedback, grading,
349
motivation, contact, and active learning. These favourable pedagogical impacts

were supported by previous research (Al-Drees et al., 2015; Barnes, 2021;
Bawaneh, 2021; Henrik & Jaworska, 2018; Krieg & Henson, 2016; Malkawi et al.,
2021; Shakil et al., 2021; Tonsmann, 2014; Vrielink, 2014).
4.2 Perceptions of EFL instructors about Blackboard in terms of challenges and

difficulties encountered
Regarding the challenges in using Blackboard, the following Table 4 showed that
instructors agreed that Blackboard does not present any degree of difficulty.
Table 4: Perceptions of EFL instructors about Blackboard in terms of challenges and

difficulties encountered
1. Blackboard e-learning platform is difficult to use. 2.24 1.111
13. Backboard does not enhance the quality of teaching. 2.49 1.272
9. Blackboard does not improve students' performance in EFL 2.53 1.272
8. Language teaching via Blackboard is not efficient. 2.64 1.282
3. Blackboard increases the curriculum burden. 2.71 1.290
7. Blackboard does not encourage teacher-student interaction. 2.71 1.218
2. Blackboard use is time-consuming. 2.71 1.290
5. I face technical difficulties with the use of Blackboard. 2.73 1.232
4. There is a lack of training on the use of Blackboard. 2.87 1.272
10. Giving feedback on Blackboard is burdensome. 2.89 1.247
11. Giving feedback is not taken seriously by students. 2.91 1.203
6. I have problems with the internet connection. 3.02 1.076
12. Blackboard helps me manage my course documents. 3.49 1.100
Overall 2.77 0.867
In Item 13, instructors rejected the contention that Blackboard does not improve
the quality of teaching. Likewise, in Item 9, the instructors refuted the idea that
Blackboard does not improve the performance of students in EFL, with averages
ranging between 2.24 and2.53. On the other hand, the instructors agreed on Item
12, with an average of 3.49, which stipulated that Blackboard has a crucial role in
helping instructors in managing the subjects of the course. Notwithstanding, in
each of the items 8, 3, 7, 2, 5, 4, 10, 11, and 6, the averages ranged from 2.64 to 3.02
with a neutral degree. Generally, the results indicated neutrality with an average
of 2.77.
The findings showed that teachers disagreed on items 1, 9, and 13 in Table 8

related respectively to the fact that Blackboard is difficult to use and it neither
enhances the quality of teaching nor students' performance in EFL. Teachers
agreed on Item 12, which stipulated that Blackboard had a crucial role in helping
them in managing the subjects of the course with an average of 3.49. However,
teachers voiced their neutrality on all the other items such as Blackboard's non-
efficiency in language teaching, as well as its being a curriculum burden, time
consuming, and a non-interactivity. They do not see that giving feedback on
Blackboard is burdensome nor that it is not regarded seriously by students. Most
teachers did not report any technical difficulties due to a lack of training or
internet connection. These results corresponded closely with the positive
350
outcomes revealed by most studies in the field (Alkhalaf, 2021; Alsuhaibani, 2021;
Anas, 2020; Khafaga, 2021). However, they contradicted some studies that
reported that teachers confronted difficulties because they lacked background
knowledge about technological skills (Brett et al., 2006; El Zawaidy, 2014).
4.3 Usefulness or effective features of Blackboard that are not customarily

exploited by teachers
Table 5 shows the teachers' responses about the Blackboard's effective features for
teaching English. The features are ordered from the least to the most effective
ones. The arithmetic averages in each of the items 10, 5, 3, 9, and 1 ranged between
4.09-4.33 with an impact degree (Very effective) and higher than the general
average of all items reaching 4.02. Nevertheless, the arithmetic averages of items
2, 11, 4, 8, 7, and 6 ranged between 3.73-3.98 with an impact degree (Very
effective), and it is noted that it is lower than the general average of 4.02.
Table 5: Effective features of Blackboard for teaching English

2. E-mails 3.73 1.321
11. Learning resources and related activities 3.89 1.172
4. Course materials 3.89 1.191
8. Reading comprehension activities 3.93 1.232
7. Listening comprehension activities 3.93 1.232
6. Recorded presentation 3.98 1.215
10. Assessment (feedback & grading) 4.09 1.164
5. Quizzes (grammar & vocabulary) 4.11 1.191
3. Assignments (discussion board) 4.11 1.027
9. Practice tests 4.18 0.984
1. Announcements 4.33 1.087
Overall 4.02 0.945
Overall, Blackboard has many valuable features that have not been used by
teachers to boost teaching efficiency. Some teachers reported that some features
are neither utilized by teachers nor required by the Deanship. Among these
features are the following: the electronic library, the evaluation system including
course analytics, course reports, performance dashboard, retention centre,
customization, tool availability, voice messages, I-Learn platform, and the
packages including course links, course cartridge, LTI links, calendar, blogs, and
Wikis. Other instructors also admitted that additional features are overlooked
such as writing tutor, Blackboard mock tests, course content, teachers' forum,
group conferencing, peer-to-peer assessment, unit tests, interactive lessons,
uploading/sharing supplementary materials with students, giving feedback on
WPs by using enhanced tools, entering test results, and contacting specific
students. Then, Blackboard video presentations should be used instead of audio
presentations. Furthermore, intelligence quotient (IQ) online interactive games
should be explored for consolidating students’ vocabulary and grammar.
All the above suggestions that are advanced by the English Department teachers
seem to correspond with recent research findings that provided evidence that the
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Blackboard features are not activated enough (Alblassi, 2016; Aldubaibi, 2018;
Kilpatrick, 2019). Undoubtedly, the implementation of all the Blackboard features
will help teachers not only to diversify their teaching techniques but also to meet
students' needs and enhance their academic performance. Blackboard has proved
to be an essential digital platform in the field of education in the preparatory year
in the Department of English Language, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal
University Dammam University, Saudi Arabia. It has spawned revolutionary
changes in language methodology mainly at this university level. In sum, the full
exploration of Blackboard functionalities seems to be indispensable for the sake
of boosting teaching with the use of recent technology as well as equipping the
new generations with twenty-first-century learning skills.
4.4 Teachers’ proposed solutions

Teachers were also surveyed about whether they had any proposals that would
contribute to finding solutions to their problems. Some teachers reported some
technical problems such as program interruptions which lead to restarting the
procedures related to the program access and which wasted time. They also blame
the administration for not allowing all Blackboard features for users who have
indicated they would like to be allowed to use such features. They also
underscored that Blackboard has a significant impact on the validity and
reliability of the electronic evaluation. Moreover, most instructors regard
Blackboard as a highly interactive tool that should be used constantly to support
the learning-teaching process. As such, it needs to be reinforced at the university
level, especially in TEFL. Nonetheless, some teachers suggested minimizing the
writing of portfolios to two assignments per semester on Blackboard instead of
five, and at least two as in-classroom writing assignments. This would enhance a
balance between students' participation in the classroom and on Blackboard.
Teacher feedback in class is said to be extremely useful in improving students’
academic progress.
Some instructors recommended that the Deanship should provide them with
more training sessions to gain deep knowledge about the system. Others
suggested checking related websites or reviewing YouTube videos as they could
help them to become more familiar with this technology. Furthermore, some
instructors preferred joining Blackboard communities where they could be in
contact with all updates related to this field. Also among the proposed solutions
was asking colleagues for help. This is regarded as the easiest recourse to solve
any technical problem they might encounter. Nevertheless, some instructors
found autonomous learning as the best method because managing problems on
their own would provide them with a type of learning that they would never
forget. Still, some of them stated that using alternative devices could be the model
solution, especially when there is no hope of fixing the problems faced.
Among the solutions suggested was checking the Help Desk, especially if the
answer to their technical problem was not available either online or through a
colleague. In this case, they believed that checking the Help Desk could be the best
solution as it could give them more examples. Other instructors encouraged
attending online free webinars about Blackboard. In addition, exploring PD
offerings and registering for free monthly series on Blackboard were among the
352
suggestions made by some instructors. In this case, they referred to the necessity
of organizing various workshops on Blackboard as well as checking blogs and
social media. Finally, instructors insisted on the importance of introducing pre-
university students to Blackboard, believing that the university stage should not
be the first one to apply to Blackboard. It should be adopted earlier to prepare
students to use it at university level.
The present findings strongly support the principles for Blackboard good practice
in facilitating teaching and initiating contact, cooperation, active learning,
feedback, less time on task, communication, and diverse styles (Elsawy & Ahmed,
2019; Hoq, 2020; Moonsamy & Govender, 2018; Opoku & Enu-Kwesi, 2019). The
results of the research also corroborate those studies that revealed positive
impacts on student-instructor contact, quick feedback, formative assessment, real-
time, achievement, and better grades (Alzahrani & Aljraiwi, 2017; Chen et al.,
2020; Tunceren et al., 2015). The results substantiated those works that provided
evidence of the positive effects of Blackboard on cooperation, interaction, active
learning, communication, understanding, expertise, accountability, engagement,
preference, and confidence (Anas, 2020; Epstein et al., 2013; Lopes, et al., 2020).
Furthermore, using Blackboard is suggested for creating an online community
that enhances students' learning experience and involvement.
5. Conclusion and recommendations

The findings revealed that teachers admitted that Blackboard was easy, useful,
appreciated, and not difficult to manage or manipulate. However, a few teachers
reported experiencing some technical challenges, particularly program
interruptions. This diagnosis could help stakeholders promote the teaching
policy, not only at the university level but also at schools as well. The present
researchers came up with a set of recommendations that are based on teachers'
comments. First, owing to Blackboard's innumerable advantages for instructors,
it is advisable to carry on using its available effective features for the benefit of all
stakeholders. Second, school administrators and software administrators should
do their best to integrate all the Blackboard potential features that are not open to
being adequately explored. Third, the challenges that teachers encounter need to
be considered by the Deanship to resolve all the potential impediments and pave
the way toward efficacious use of this LMS. Fourth, intensive training on all the
Blackboard features is deemed necessary to enable teachers to make use of all the
available services and present their content following technological
advancements. The unexplored features should become part of pedagogical
practice. Lastly, teachers of other subject areas such as science, engineering,
among others, are encouraged to explore the use of Blackboard. In sum, all these
elements, if tackled adequately, could bring about fruitful results to teaching
methodology based on scientific inventions and modern principles.
6. Limitations of the study

This study is subject to some limitations. The study only focused on the
Department of English Language teachers’ perceptions of Blackboard for teaching
English, hence the results may not be generalizable. Further research could benefit
from various educational schools and colleges to avoid any bias and to consider
353
different culture-specific contexts that could generate thought-provoking findings

and keep the door open for further debate on this issue.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive
comments on this paper.
Funding acknowledgment and conflict of interest

The article received no funding from any academic institution, and it has no
potential conflicts of interest.
Authorship
The article was written by five authors, and each one of them was responsible for
doing specific tasks;
1) Assoc. Prof. Sami Mubaireek is the main author who participated in reviewing
the first draft of the paper and suggested some modifications to be made.
2) Dr. Montasser Mahmoud is the main co-author who contributed to designing
the tool of the study and writing some parts of the literature review, methodology,
conclusion, and references (and cited all of them in the text according to APA 7th
edition) of the first draft of the research paper. He also made all required changes
for making the research paper considered for publishing in the journal. He wrote
the final version of the research paper as well.
3). Dr. AbdulAziz AliEl-deen is the second co-author who participated in
reviewing the final version of the research paper and suggested some
modifications to be made.
4) Prof. Ahmed Moumene is the third co-author who suggested the study's idea
and wrote the research paper's first draft.
5) Mr. Ahmed ben Younis is the fourth co-author who was responsible for doing
all statistics required in the study.
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Appendix 1
Survey for Instructors
Dear Colleague
This questionnaire is designed to investigate your attitudes towards the use of Blackboard in
teaching English in the Preparatory Year, IAU. Your answers will be taken into account for
research purposes solely and will be treated with great confidence and anonymity.
Please fill in the following questionnaire by ticking the appropriate box or by providing the
required information.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation.

I. General Information
▪ Gender:
o Male
o Female
▪ Academic Rank:
o Instructor
o Lecturer
o Assistant Professor
o Associate Professor
o Professor
▪ Teaching Experience:
o Less than 5 years
o 5 to 10 years
o 11 to 20 years
o More than 20 years
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• Age Group:
o 20-30
o 30-40
o 40-50
o 50 and above
▪ Aptitude in using Blackboard
o Poor
o Fair
o Good
o Excellent
II. Please rate the effectiveness of the following features of Blackboard from the least
effective (1) to the most effective (5).
No. Features 1 2 3 4 5
1 Announcements
2 Emails
3 Assignments (discussion board)
4 Course materials
5 Quizzes (grammar & vocabulary)
6 Recorded presentation
7 Listening comprehension activities
8 Reading comprehension activities
9 Practice tests
10 Assessment (feedback & grading)
11 Learning resources and related activities
12 Other, please mention and rate
III. Extent of satisfaction in using Blackboard

No. Statement Strongly Strongly
Agree Neutral Disagree
Blackboard ….. Agree Disagree
1 is easy to use.
2 allows me to save
time.
3 deepens students’
understanding.
4 promotes active
learning among
students.
5 boosts students’
motivation.
6 increases students’
autonomy.
7 encourages
students-teachers’
contact.
8 helps provide
quick teacher
feedback and
grading.
9 facilitates student-
student feedback.
359
10 is my preferred
teaching tool.
11 provides sufficient
support to English
language teaching.
12 helps me gain more
online teaching
experience.
13 helps students to learn English more
efficiently.
14 supports the pedagogical principles
of English language teaching with
technology.
15 provides students with
more exposure to English language
learning.
16 gives students the ability to organize
themselves better.
17 helps me apply my ELT
style.
IV. Teachers’ challenges in the utilization of Blackboard
No. Blackboard Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

challenges Agree Disagree
1. Blackboard e-
learning
platform is
difficult to
use.
2. Blackboard
use is time
consuming.
3. Blackboard
increases the
curriculum
burden.
4. There is a
lack of
training on
the use of
Blackboard.
5. I face
technical
difficulties
with the use
of
Blackboard.
6. I have
problems
with internet
connection.
360
7. Blackboard
does not
encourage
teacher-
student
interaction.
8. Language
teaching via
Blackboard is
not efficient.
9. Blackboard
does not
improve
students'
performance
in EFL
10. Giving
feedback on
Blackboard
is
burdensome.
11. Giving
feedback is
not taken
seriously by
students.
12. Blackboard
helps me
manage my
course
documents.
13. Backboard
does not
enhance the
quality of
teaching.
V. Further suggestions:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
361

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 361-376, January 2023
Received Oct 30, 2022; Revised Jan 23, 2023; Accepted Feb 2, 2023
Emerging Assessment Practices Cooperating

Teachers Shared with Preservice English
Teachers in the Philippines
Cailvin D. Reyes
Don Honorio Ventura State University, Pampanga, Philippines
Abstract. This study used a qualitative case study design to describe the
assessment practices shared by cooperating teachers with preservice
English teachers. The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews
with eight cooperating teachers using a researcher-made and validated
interview guide. The transcribed data from the interview were analyzed
using thematic analysis. The findings reveal that cooperating teachers
taught preservice teachers how to observe students, ask students
questions, conduct formative assessment, and use authentic assessments
to evaluate and record details of students' performance and learning. The
cooperating teachers shared these assessment practices with preservice
teachers by considering the students, the lesson content, and the learning
objectives. When they taught preservice teachers about assessment,
cooperating teachers made sure that the principles of assessment guided
them; they also allowed preservice teachers to explore assessment during
their practice teaching, while providing a hands-on discussion with the
preservice teachers. The cooperating teachers realized the importance of
these assessment practices for the development of the preservice teachers,
as it prepared preservice teachers for the world of teaching, opened
realizations in assessment, and equipped them with knowledge of
assessment.
Keywords: assessment; teacher education; practice teaching; preservice

teachers; qualitative research
1. Introduction
Assessment determines whether education goals have been achieved, thereby
making assessment an essential part of instruction. Assessment has a role in
curriculum decisions, instructional requirements, placement, advancement, and
grades. Furthermore, assessment gathers information regarding student
performance or development. Assessment has long been a vital teaching–learning
component (Lam, 2015). Acar-Erdol and Yıldızlı (2018) report that research has
shown how evaluation procedures employed in the classroom significantly
©Authors
362
impact student achievement, ranging from their success to their self-belief and
motivation.
Mellati and Khademi (2018) emphasize the importance of using the proper
evaluation techniques to guarantee that students achieve their learning goals.
According to Berry et al. (2019), effective assessments improve students' learning.
Therefore, it may be argued that the teaching–learning process will not be
complete without classroom assessment. Additionally, teachers may fail to deliver
effective instruction if they do not apply adequate and proper assessment
procedures.
Wang (2017) cites Leung (2005) regarding the definition of classroom assessment,
which is the process of evaluating students in a classroom context, instead of the
widespread standardized testing that is typically conducted. Acar-Erdol and
Yıldızlı (2018) define classroom assessment as the teacher-prepared or established
processes that determine what the students have learned. These techniques give
professors information about their students' knowledge and tendencies and show
teachers how effective their methods of instruction were. According to Özdemir-
Yılmazer and Özkan (2017), respect for classroom assessment increased after a
general shift in emphasis in education and assessment, towards using
constructive approaches targeted at student growth. Hence, classroom
assessment can be seen as a way for teachers to lead the teaching–learning process
better while simultaneously gauging students' learning and ensuring that they
develop understanding of a lesson.
Educational assessment is defined by practitioners as the process of acquiring data

about students' learning. Assessment can take on a variety of forms, and follow a
variety of procedures and approaches. According to Nicol (2008), assessment is
thought to be the catalyst for student learning, since it can motivate students (for
example, by giving out grades and marks) and facilitate learning by giving
feedback. It may involve formative assessment that is conducted throughout a
course to support student learning, to educate teachers about their methods, and
to offer feedback; its purpose is to encourage learning. According to Sardareh and
Mohd Saad (2013), formative evaluation may enhance students' learning.
However, formative assessment does not represent a clearly defined set of
procedures, and this shortcoming could prevent its successful application in
various circumstances. Summative evaluation, on the other hand, is used to gauge
student success after a term of study, and offers another option for educational
assessment. Its objective is to quantify learning. According to O'Shaughnessy and
Joyce (2015), summative evaluation involves high-stakes assessment with a final
mark of achievement given, which summarizes the knowledge students have
acquired using particular criteria.
In the Philippines, the COVID Advisory No. 6 series of 2020, which outlines
suggestions for evaluation, was published by the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED). This article discusses how evaluation practices are currently
being reconsidered in higher education in the Philippines. The advisory gave
higher education institutions the freedom to decide on the best way to accomplish
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the required number of contact hours for a course or degree program. It also
advised on introducing alternate assessments and remedial actions, and to
consider basing student evaluations and grade computations on current student
records and academic standards at the institution. This directive is generic, and
Philippine tertiary institutions are advised to use various tactics to implement a
system of student learning assessments. Among these strategies are numerous
promotions, waivers of prerequisites, and postponed grades (Yumol, 2020).
Undoubtedly, assessment is important in education. Therefore, educators,

including preservice educators, should be well trained on assessment procedures.
It might be claimed that potential teachers' teaching practicum should emphasize
learning and applying assessments; this is because teaching internships are a
crucial chance for new teachers to advance their careers and enhance their
capacity to employ pedagogical strategies in the classroom. The final stage of a
degree program in education, known as student teaching or preservice teaching
in the Philippines, allows students to practice teaching, experiment, and reflect on
the complexities of the teaching–learning environment, including the ethical and
procedural aspects of teaching. Teacher education institutions require preservice
teachers to fully utilize their teaching–learning opportunities. Its primary
objective is to prepare future educators to uphold professional and social
standards that will enable them to advance in the classroom, on campus, and in
the community where they will eventually work or reside (Reganit & Osea, 2004).
According to Barrios-Arnuco et al. (2018), preservice teacher training is one of the
most important elements of every teacher’s education curriculum, because it
trains student teachers to become competent instructors.
Practice teaching in teacher-education programs is still confronted with issues

because it does not adequately prepare student teachers for actual classroom
teaching. Student teachers should be closely watched, supervised, and guided by
their supervising teachers, usually through online discussions and classroom
teaching observation (Haigh et al., 2006).
The time this study was conducted could be considered a period of academic
disruption. According to reports, students suffered significant difficulties with
technology access, financial stability, and emotional support (Alvarez, 2020;
Cahapay, 2020; Tria, 2020). As a result, interventions had to be implemented.
Putting human compassion aside, the issue of whether these strategies will serve
as accurate indicators of student achievement has elicited divergent views from
those involved in education (Mateo, 2020).
An investigation of related studies was done to get further information that could
guide the researcher in this study.
Meccawy et al. (2021) examined how King Abdulaziz University handled the
lockdown that the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Education had imposed because of
the COVID-19 pandemic. Their study highlighted the need for a multilevel
strategy to address issues of cheating and plagiarism, increase student awareness
and ethics, educate teachers to spot cheating techniques, and encourage
364
institutions to enact a code of conduct and enforce harsh sanctions against those
who engage in such practices.
During the COVID-19 crisis, Cahapay (2020) examined the evaluation processes
of a teacher education institution in the Philippines, and found that assessment
practices were contextually reshaped when classes were cancelled and it became
impossible to compute assessment evidence, and poor internet connectivity
created logistical challenges when switching to online assessment; consequently,
institutional traditions relating to upholding quality raised serious issues. As a
result, modifications to the requirements for laboratory and research tasks, a shift
to a descriptive binary grading system, and the exclusion of grades earned from
the calculation of grade point average in the most recent semester, were all done.
Conclusions from this case study include advising that particular circumstances
should be considered when altering assessment processes at any time, so that
appropriate adjustment will be more effective.
At a private school in the Philippines, Capacete (2019) conducted a case study that
determined that, first, the institutional nature of assessment still impacted
teachers, despite the individual purposes of evaluation reported by teacher
participants. Second, it was discovered that the teachers' views and attitudes
regarding evaluation took a personal posture, and realized their interpretive
framework. To make sense of the assessment procedures used by teachers, the
study emphasizes the necessity of understanding teachers' ideas and attitudes,
and their perceived aims of assessment. This knowledge can be applied to create
a program to develop teachers.
This perspective strengthens the importance of classroom assessment in the

teaching–learning process. The requirement to make sure teachers are prepared
and knowledgeable to provide appropriate and comprehensive classroom
assessment becomes more important when we realize how important assessment
is.
Language teachers, in particular, are expected to be knowledgeable about how to

interpret, design, evaluate, and comprehend the implications of classroom
assessments, given that assessments have the potential to have an impact on all
education stakeholders, including teachers, students, institutions, and society
(Scarino, 2013).
This review of related literature confirms the following: First, assessment is

explicitly vital, as articulated by academicians regardless of the academic
situation – whether in the traditional pre-pandemic era, or when facing academic
hurdles. Second, preservice teachers should be well equipped with the assessment
skills necessary to attain education goals in the 21st century. These findings
strengthened the need to conduct this study, which aimed to provide knowledge
on the assessment practices shared by cooperating teachers with preservice ESL
teachers.
365
1.1 Research Questions

In this paper, the researcher aims to describe the assessment practices cooperating
teachers shared with preservice English teachers. Additionally, it aims to describe
what cooperating teachers took into consideration, how they share the
considerations with the preservice English teachers, and their perceived impact
on the development of these preservice English teachers. Specifically, it answered
the following questions:
1. What assessment practices were shared by cooperating teachers with the
preservice English teachers?
2. What considerations as shared with the preservice English teachers were
being taken by the cooperating teachers in doing assessments?
3. How were these assessment practices shared by cooperating teachers with
preservice English teachers?
4. How did these assessment practices affect the development of preservice
English teachers, as perceived by the cooperating teachers?
2. Methodology
This paper used a qualitative case study as its research design. It is described as a
method of creating knowledge of a challenging subject in a particular setting
(Crowe et al., 2011). It is a well-known research strategy that is widely applied in
a range of fields, including education. This study describes the assessment
practices shared by cooperating teachers with preservice English teachers.
Additionally, it unveils the purposes of these assessment practices, how
cooperating teachers shared them with preservice English teachers, and their
perceived impact on the formation of preservice teachers. A case study was an
appropriate research design to meet the goals of this research.
2.1. Participants
This study had a total of eight participants. The researcher conceals the identities
of the cooperating teachers; they were given code names CT 1, CT 2, CT 3, CT 4,
CT 5, CT 6, CT 7, and CT 8. Regarding gender, three CTs are men, and five women.
The researcher was fair in selecting the participants, and gender biases were
avoided. The researcher used purposive sampling with these inclusion criteria:
First, participants had to be professional teachers who had passed the licensure
examination for teachers. Second, the participants had to have at least four years
of teaching experience. Third, the participants should have had the experience of
being a cooperating teacher for at least two years. Fourth, participants had to hold
Master’s degrees in education, or at least be at the stage of writing the thesis. Last,
the participants had to be willing to participate in the study.
2.2. Research Instrument

The researcher used an interview guide to collect the data needed for this study.
The researcher crafted the interview guide in view of the study’s objective,
statement of the problem, and the exploration of related literature and studies.
The interview guide was then subjected to a validation process with the help of
three experts in the field of research.
366
The researcher sought permission from the concerned administrators, faculty, and
students to conduct the study. After that, the researcher scheduled interviews
with the participants. Before the interview commenced, they were informed of the
nature of the study and were assured that the data would be treated
confidentially.
2.3. Ethical Considerations

The researcher followed ethical guidelines when conducting this study. The
cooperating teachers’ full consent was obtained before the study was carried out,
the confidentiality of the research data was guaranteed, bias and misleading
information were avoided, and other works and studies used in this study are
properly cited.
2.4. Data Analysis

Thematic analysis as defined by Terry et al. (2017) was used to extract concepts,
categories, and themes from the collected data. The following procedures were
utilized in the study's thematic analysis:
Stage 1: Becoming familiar with the data
This procedure, which can start during data collection, entails transcribing the
data and reviewing and rereading the data to generate preliminary ideas. The
researcher was attentive to several aspects that suggested underlying meaning
patterns in the data.
Stage 2: Generating codes

In this step, the researcher used the data to generate basic codes that might serve
as the foundation of the study. Along with coding, the researcher looked for
patterns and similarities in the data. Before creating themes for this study, the
researcher generated codes and kept their attention on coding the entire dataset.
Stage 3: Searching for themes

The themes created at this point were flexible and subject to change. In actuality,
the basic themes were constructed by the codes created in the previous phase, and
the pertinent information for each was acquired. The researcher, therefore, looked
into the codes to create themes present in the data.
Stage 4. Reviewing potential themes

The themes created in the earlier stage were developed further. The researcher
evaluated and improved the individual themes and the original thematic map,
and read the data extracts that support each topic.
Stage 5. Defining, naming, and analyzing themes

The researcher had, at this point, distinctly identified the themes and their sub-
themes.
Stage 6. Producing a report

In this last phase, the researcher emphasized the direct and indirect relationships
between the themes further using narratives, data extracts, and argumentation.
367
3. Findings
This section presents analyses and interprets the data collected, with reference to
the study's specific problems.
3.1. Assessment Practices Cooperating Teachers Shared with Preservice ESL

Teachers
Theme 1: Observations
A participant mentioned that, initially, they gave the preservice teachers
permission to observe lessons and gauge students’ current level of understanding.
They then instructed the student teachers to change their objectives according to
what they had observed. Another participant stated that comprehensive
approaches to teaching and learning, effective feedback, frequent practice, and
classroom observations were the starting points for the assessment tools they
shared with preservice teachers. These tools include the protocols for assigning
homework, scheduling feedback sessions after each lesson, peer tutoring, and self-
assessment. This theme was unveiled from these excerpts:
At first, I allowed them to observe classes and see the current learning level of
the students. From there, I asked them to adjust their objectives. I always
remind them to observe and start from the gap. CT1
The assessment tools I shared with the preservice teachers started with the
classroom observations, the protocols in giving homework, setting feedback
sessions every after a lesson presented. CT8
Theme 2: Questioning
Some participants revealed that they conducted random recitation meetings by
phoning each student individually and inquiring about lectures. While a lesson
was being delivered, they also probed to gauge students’ interest and reception.
They talked about how asking questions can help with memory retention and in-
depth examination of the topic. This theme was derived from these utterances:
If they are aware of it, the art of questioning is now needed to encourage recall
and further analysis of the aspects related to the topic. CT 1
Asking questions while the delivery of the lesson is ongoing checks the
reception and interests of the students. CT 3
Having a random recitation meeting where I call the students one by one and
ask questions regarding the lessons. CT 7
Theme 3: Formative Assessment

Formative assessment strives to monitor student progress and offer ongoing
feedback that learners and teachers can use to improve their lessons. These are
provided for teachers to assist them in identifying any misunderstandings,
challenges, or learning gaps along the way and figuring out how to close them.
Students may even learn to take more ownership of their education when they
understand that the goal is to improve learning rather than apply final grades. A
small number of participants claimed that they provide formative and summative
tests to gauge students’ knowledge and comprehension of the subjects being
covered. This theme was revealed from these narratives:
“Some of the assessment practices that I could share with preservice teachers
are formative assessments during discussion through asking questions that
may help check the learners’ understanding.”- CT 3
368
“Giving formative exams and summative exams (like a typical paper-and-

pencil objective type of test, and essay questions) to test the knowledge and
understanding of the students on the lessons being discussed.”- CT 7
Theme 4: Authentic Assessment

According to some participants, they shared with preservice teachers that they
assigned students projects and performance tasks, such as skit videos,
promotional videos and talent shows, as assessment practices, and which gave
students the opportunity to showcase their other skills. Since these authentic
assessments cater for multiple intelligences in literature subjects, the assessment
given involves role-playing or character sketching based on the stories discussed.
The assessment is one of the most important tools for determining how well the
teaching–learning approach works. Students’ active involvement in the process,
which is the primary goal of each class, will be necessary. This theme was derived
from these participant responses:
As a teacher who appreciates performance tasks, I shared different assessment
practices with my preservice teachers anchored with outcome-based education
theory. Some of which depend on the subject we are handling. CT 4
I shared both the traditional and authentic assessment practices with the
preservice ESL teachers. CT 5
In literature subjects, the assessment is role-playing or character sketching
based on the stories discussed. The assessment I have shared with my STs are
all significant measures to check the effectiveness and efficiency of the
teaching-learning method. CT 6
The assessment practices which I shared with my preservice teachers are
giving projects and performance tasks to the students like Skit Videos,
Promotional Videos, Talent Shows, etc. where they are able to present their
other skills. CT 7
3.2. Considerations of Cooperating Teachers in Choosing Assessment

Theme 1: Lesson Objectives
Objectives are the student behaviors expected after a certain instructional process,
and assessment is the process of gathering data about the students' learning to
determine whether they meet the specified learning objectives. A participant
stated that the objectives had to be deliberately designed while developing
quizzes and other related tasks that would lead to student participation and
output. They always advised preservice teachers not to limit themselves to
creating objectives solely to complete a lesson plan. Another participant stressed
the need to evaluate students, which refers to the degree to which a particular
exam or test measures what it is designed to measure, whether to evaluate
students' learning across a unit, a quarter, or a semester. This theme is unveiled
by these excerpts:
When creating quizzes and other related tasks that would result to students'
output and participation, the objectives must be created strategically. I always
tell them not to settle on just making objectives for the sake of being able to
finish a lesson plan. CT 1
I made sure to achieve the test’s objective, especially since our subjects require
subjective comments and insights from my students. CT 2
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Theme 2: Students
A participant took into account the level of students' cognitive abilities, so they
could be sure to build test materials for students that are level-based. Another
participant said they prioritized students' interests, because their participation
was valued more highly than the final result alone. Some assignments were well-
presented but poorly prepared, so students’ participation was required, especially
in a group activity. Students learn more about the lesson while determining the
chances to learn they might miss along the way. This theme was derived from
these contributions:
If they [preservice teachers] see that the students are not yet familiar with the
concepts, they must introduce it first. CT 1
The level of students' cognitive skills, in this way I could make sure that I am
constructing a test material that would level on the bases of my students. CT
2
The level of the students are the ones I consider in doing an assessment. CT 3
I also assure that students' interest is the utmost consideration since their
participation is deemed [more] important than the outcome alone. CT 4
Assessment practices vary depending on the nature of the learners and the
learning process. CT 5
First of all, I consider the program of the students, if they are education
students, the approach and the way I assess them will be a little different from
other programs like Engineering students or Marketing students. CT 7
The first thing to consider in an assessment is knowing your students’ needs,
interests, and abilities. This will help you determine the kind of assessment
you will make in to have a valid, reliable, and practical assessment. CT 8
Theme 3: Lesson Content

When conducting an assessment, some participants consider the lesson content,
the standard or competencies and the academic level of the students. By doing
this, they can arrange assessments logically and ensure the accuracy of the results
of the assessment. They can ensure that every evaluation given to the students
relates to the course material and that it can be completed within a set time. This
theme was unveiled by these excerpts:
The content of the lesson, the standard or competencies, and the level of the
students are the ones I consider in doing an assessment. Through these, I can
plan and prepare assessments with enough basis and assure the result's
reliability. CT 3
I see to it that all assessments given to the students are related to the subject
matter and are doable within a specific time frame. CT 4
3.3. Ways Cooperating Teachers Share Assessment Practices with Preservice

ESL Teachers
Theme 1: Cooperating Teachers Ensure that Preservice English Teachers are
Guided by the Principles of Assessment
A participant mentioned how they always used assessment principles as a guide
when teaching preservice teachers about assessment. Doing so will increase
preservice teachers' credibility and competence, in addition to instructing them
on evaluating their students. A participant made sure that the assessment goal
370
was indicated as being of the utmost importance. This theme is revealed in these
narratives:
The objective of the assessment should be highly valued. For at the end of the
day, assessments are administered to assess the students’ learning in the span
of whatever coverage you are measuring. CT 2
In teaching assessment to preservice teachers, I am always guided by the
principles of assessment. These will make me competent and credible in
teaching them how they will assess their students. CT 5
I think [about] the timeliness of the assessment tool. Like I said, it’s very
important to know when to use a specific assessment tool, what kind of
assessment tool, and how to execute such. Also, it should be clear to them that
assessments must be flexible since we are meeting different types of students.
They should know how to tailor-fit a specific assessment tool. CT 7
I made them realize the value of assessing. Different topics taken within a term
are discussed with them; through a collaborative discussion, I usually solicit
their idea on how to assess a particular topic to achieve the accomplishment of
the lesson objectives as well as the Intended Learning Outcome. CT 8
Theme 2: Cooperating Teachers Allow Preservice ESL Teachers to Explore

Assessment
A participant indicated that, as long as the content is covered and they take into
consideration higher-order thinking skills while completing assessments,
preservice teachers were free to choose and be creative in doing assessments to
the class standing and asynchronous activities for their class. Another participant
reported that they instructed preservice ESL teachers through the assessment
process, by letting them explore the extent of the cognitive skills possessed by
their students. Doing so ensured that the preservice teachers were equipped to
create authentic assessments as they progressed in their careers as teachers. This
theme was unveiled from these excerpts:
For the assessment strategies, the practice teachers had multiple tasks to
practice their understanding in formulating test questions. The mentoring
sessions are done on a Friday, when all classes are asynchronous. CT 1
I simply teach the assessment to my preservice ESL teachers by allowing them
to explore the level of the cognitive skills of our students. With this, they could
also allow themselves to be equipped and made their authentic assessment in
their journey as an in-service teacher. CT 2
They were free to choose and be creative in doing assessments to the class
standing and asynchronous activities for their class as long as the topic is
covered, and they considered the higher order thinking skills (HOTS) in doing
assessments. CT 6
Theme 3: Cooperating Teachers Discuss Assessment with Preservice Teachers

A participants explicitly discussed the value of the test items, how they might
refine their questioning style, and how to match their goals with their evaluation
methods. Another participant initially informed preservice teachers of the factors
they should consider before creating an assessment instrument. This is significant,
because it affects the type of assessment used by the teacher. Additionally,
participants went over the various assessment tools and the design ideas behind
them. Finally, a participant discussed the typical methods for evaluating students,
371
appropriate evaluation tools, and what suited the intended objectives. There were
occasions when they asked the preservice teachers to create and apply tests or
quizzes. This theme was derived from these contributions:
I tried to explain the strength of the items, how they can improve the
questioning technique, and on how to align their objectives and assessment
tools. CT 1
I provide them first information about things they need to consider before
designing an assessment tool. This is important because this will determine
the kind of assessment a teacher will use. I discuss also the different assessment
tools and the principles in designing these tools. CT 5
I usually discuss with them first the procedures on how to assess the students,
what assessment tool to use, and what fits the target objectives. There are also
times where I ask the preservice teachers to make quizzes or tests so they will
be used in making such. CT 7
3.4. Development of Preservice Teachers as Perceived by Cooperating Teachers

through these Assessment Practices
Theme 1: Preparation for the World of Teaching
According to a participant, these assessment practices impact the development of
preservice teachers because the practices enable them to prepare and adapt
specific assessment practices that fit their teaching styles, and to apply them to
their careers as in-service teachers in the future. One participant suggested that
these techniques helped preservice teachers avoid being overburdened with
coursework. Another participant observed that it prepares preservice instructors
better for their chosen career in school when they start teaching. This theme was
revealed in these narratives:
Teaching assessment strategies to preservice teachers would give them a better
understanding of "real" teaching. There is a misconception that teachers just
present lessons. CT 1
These assessment practices can also help them to realize that it could also help
them improve their teacher-learner within them as learning is an unending
process. CT 2
It will make them realize, aim [for] and ensure the coherence and consistency
between the intended outcomes as specified in the formal curriculum and
teaching methods, assessment tasks, and learning activities in the classroom.
It builds them how to connect to their students through learning. CT 8
Theme 2: Opens Realizations in Assessment

A participant said that preservice teachers would understand better what "actual"
teaching entails if they were taught about assessment strategies. A participant
claimed that, because learning is a continuous process, these assessment
procedures could help them improve their understanding of their inner teacher-
learner. According to a participant, it will help them realize, aim for, and ensure
the coherence of and consistency between the desired results described in the
formal curriculum and teaching techniques, assessment tasks, and learning
activities in the classroom, and teach them how to establish learning-based
connections with their students. This theme was unveiled in these excerpts:
372
These strategies would also help the preservice teachers not to get too
overwhelmed with what to teach. CT 1
These assessment practices affect the formation of the preservice teachers
because, with these, they could be able to prepare and adapt certain assessment
practices that suit their way of teaching and be able to apply it to their own
careers in the future as in-service teachers. CT 2
I think it helps the preservice teachers to be more ready in their chosen career,
in the academe. CT 7
They will become aware of the art and science of teaching. CT 8
Theme 3: Equips Preservice Teachers with Knowledge of Assessment

According to a participant, preservice teachers acquire more knowledge about
assessing the progress of the students, and, eventually, it helps them evaluate
themselves as teachers, because they can determine whether their teaching
strategies were successful. As expressed by a participant, assessment significantly
influences how preservice teachers are formed. This participant said that one of
the most important tasks a preservice teacher must complete is learning how to
assess. They must learn how to organize and deliver tailored instruction to create
lessons specific to each student's needs, interests, and abilities. This theme was
derived through these contributions:
These assessment practices initially equip preservice teachers to track
students' learning. As they venture into the real world of teaching, they would
know how to conduct an assessment that aims to monitor students' knowledge
and not give tasks or burdens to their future students. CT 3
Learning to assess is one of the most important tasks a preservice teacher must
undergo. It will give them the knowledge on how to plan and provide targeted
instruction so that they can tailor instructions directed to the needs, interests
and abilities of students. CT 5
These will help them in making a variety of assessment practices to their future
students including the development of the class Higher order thinking skills.
CT 6
They become more knowledgeable in terms of assessing the progress of the
students, and at some point, it also helps them assess themselves as a teacher,
they can check whether or not their strategies in teaching are effective. CT 7
4. Discussion
Considering the first research problem, which refers to the assessment practices
cooperating teachers shared with preservice teachers, the results of this study
were found to contradict those of Meccawy et al. (2021). They investigated
perceptions of both faculty and students regarding assessments that had to be
conducted online because of lockdowns and physical or social distancing
regulations. Their findings point to the necessity of a multilevel strategy to
address the issues of cheating and plagiarism, including educating students about
morality, preparing teachers to spot cheating techniques, and having institutions
activate their code of conduct and impose harsh penalties on offenders.
In view of what cooperating teachers considered and how they taught assessment
to preservice teachers, the results of this study were consistent with worldwide
expectations, as demonstrated by Giraldo et al. (2018), who examined the effects
373
of a language assessment course for preservice teachers in a language teaching

program at a state university in Colombia. They concluded that combining theory
and practice of language evaluation is necessary, and should focus on modern
methods of teaching languages, testing in bilingual education, and regional
assessment regulations. Sjöberg (2018) looked into how assessment practices in
teacher preparation programs for primary-level teachers shaped the knowledge
bases of preservice teachers. The findings demonstrate that preservice teachers in
Swedish primary schools are primarily trained to work with subject didactics,
with emphasis on their ability to plan, carry out, and evaluate instruction in light
of both descriptive and normative learning theories in Swedish curricula.
Regarding the development of preservice teachers as perceived by the

cooperating teachers through teaching them about assessment practices, this
study’s findings relate to that of the study by Kabilan et al. (2012), which examined
future teachers' use of e-portfolios in their learning, and evaluated whether those
uses result in teaching competencies. They discovered that six competencies result
from teachers' use of e-portfolios: (1) developing an understanding of the role of
an effective teacher; (2) developing teaching approaches/activities; (3) improving
linguistic abilities; (4) comprehending content knowledge; (5) acquiring ICT skills;
and; (6) realizing the need to change mindsets.
5. Conclusions
This study describes the assessment practices cooperating teachers shared with
preservice English teachers. It also described what they took into consideration,
how they shared it with the preservice English teachers, and the impact they
perceived in forming preservice teachers.
The researcher concludes that cooperating teachers had taught preservice teachers
how to observe students, to keep track of or evaluate a procedure or circumstance,
and to record details of students' performance and learning.
The cooperating teachers also shared with the preservice teachers the skills of
asking questions that would elicit responses from their students. Furthermore,
cooperating teachers had shared their knowledge on formative assessment that
was used to keep track of student learning and provide continual feedback that
both students and teachers can utilize to enhance their learning and teaching
respectively. Moreover, cooperating teachers taught preservice teachers to
determine whether students could apply the knowledge and skills they had been
taught in the classroom in various contexts, scenarios, and circumstances, by
applying authentic assessments.
The cooperating teachers shared these assessment practices with preservice

teachers by considering the students, the lesson content, and the students'
learning objectives. In teaching assessment to the preservice teachers, the
cooperating teachers made sure that the principles of assessment guided them;
they also allowed preservice teachers to explore assessment during their practice
teaching, while providing a hands-on discussion with the preservice teachers.
374
Cooperating teachers realized how important these assessment practices were for
the development of preservice teachers, as it prepared them for the world of
teaching, opened realizations in assessment, and equipped them with knowledge
about assessment.
6. Limitations and Recommendations

The findings of this study cannot be generalized, due to the small sample of
participants and limited amount of data. However, its findings can raise
awareness and interest among researchers to explore preservice teaching
internship and assessment. The researcher recommends that other researchers
conduct similar studies with a bigger sample, to obtain more saturated data. It is
also suggested that other researchers use different data collection tools, such as
observation, focus group discussions, and content analysis of the narrative
journals of preservice teachers, to triangulate data and make it more credible and
reliable.
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Appendix 1
Interview Questions:
1. What are the assessment practices that you shared with the preservice
English teachers? Please provide a short description of these assessment
practices.
2. What are the purposes of these assessment practices?
3. What are the things that you consider in doing an assessment?
4. How do you teach assessment teachers to preservice English teachers?
5. What are the things that you consider in teaching assessment to

preservice teachers?
6. In your perspective, how do these assessment practices affect the

formation of preservice teachers?
377

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 377-392, January 2023
Received Oct 18, 2022; Revised Jan 25, 2023; Accepted Feb 2, 2023
Relationship between Parents’ Beliefs in Early

Mathematics and Learning Environment
Provision at Home
Kong Hui Lin and Suziyani Mohamed

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract. Mastering early mathematics is crucial for young children's

development and future, and parents' beliefs in early mathematics
development and learning environment provision at home have been
identified as factors that affect children's mathematical mastery. This
cross-sectional survey study was conducted to examine the relationship
between the level of parents' beliefs in early mathematics and learning
environment provision at home. Two adapted structured questionnaires
were used for data collection, namely, parents’ beliefs in early
mathematics, and learning environment provision at home. The
questionnaire was distributed online using the Google form platform and
a total of 478 respondents completed it. Later, data were analyzed using
the Statistical Program Package for Social Science through inferential
statistics (Pearson's correlation coefficient test). Findings indicated that
there was a weak, significant, positive relationship between the level of
parents' beliefs in early mathematics and learning environment provision
at home. These findings proved that parents’ belief in early mathematics
was positively associated with provision of a learning environment at
home. The increase in the level of parents’ belief in early mathematics is
associated with increases in the learning environment provision at home.
Therefore, support programs or workshops can be provided to parents to
increase their knowledge of how to provide an appropriate,
comprehensive and effective learning environment at home. These
efforts, in turn, may help children to do well in mathematics.
Keywords: early mathematics; parents’ beliefs; learning environment;

young children
1. Introduction
Early mathematics is one of the knowledge or skills that children need to master
before entering primary school. Knowledge in early mathematics is the basic
knowledge required for mathematical concepts that will be learned in the future.
Without solid basic knowledge, children will face problems in mastering
mathematics during elementary school (Bakar et al., 2020b), and various studies
©Authors
378
have shown that early mathematics and numeracy skills have an impact on
children's academic achievement in school in the future (LeFevre et al., 2010;).
Children who are weak in literacy and numeracy skills face problems in learning
in primary school (Buyong et al., 2020), and poor early mathematics and
numeracy skills at the commencement of Standard 1 schooling will result in
children achieving lower levels than their peers (Jordan et al., 2007). Some studies
have found that individuals with higher mathematical knowledge obtain better
jobs and earn higher wages (Ritchie & Bates, 2013). If children's knowledge in
early mathematics is not mastered at the pre-school level, their mathematics
learning in primary school will be affected and will directly compromise their
achievements in the future.
Children spend most of their time at home in childhood, and parents are their first
educators. Therefore, the learning environment at home is crucial to stimulate
children's development and improve their skills in early mathematics (Niklas &
Schneider, 2017). Nevertheless, scholars claim that parents are more likely to
conduct literacy activities at home several days a week, whereas numeracy
activities, such as counting and calculating, are performed only once a week or
once a month (Skwarchuk et al., 2022). This is in line with the study by Ramani et
al. (2015) which found that most pre-school children tend to spend time on non-
numerical activities at home. Parents pay less attention to mathematics activities
at home than to literacy activities in the belief that literacy skills are more
important than mathematics. This view is supported by Blevins-Knabe et al. (2016
who record that parents’ attitudes are more positive towards reading activities
than towards mathematics activities.
Lack of disclosure about the importance of mathematics activities and how to

provide a learning environment at home for early mathematics causes parents to
rarely perform mathematics activities at home. According to Ginsburg et al.
(2012), most parents seldom emphasize mathematics learning as they have no
knowledge of how to apply mathematics skills at home. They do not know how
to provide a learning environment for mathematics and appropriate activities for
mathematical skills. Moreover, actions are seldom implemented by certain parties
to assist parents in providing a mathematics learning environment at home
(Starkey & Klein, 2000). A study by Niklas et al. (2015) revealed that interventions
to create a numeracy learning environment can be carried out. The intervention
group in the study showed a significant increase in the level of providing a
numeracy learning environment at home and in the children's achievement in
mathematics.
Hart et al. (2016) conducted a study into the mathematics learning environment
at home and its effect on mathematics skills. The study involved 339 parents with
children aged between 3 and 8 years. The researchers found that parents who
strongly believed in the importance of mathematics provided more numeracy
activities at home. On the other hand, parents with low levels of belief rarely
provided mathematics and numeracy activities at home (Zippert & Rittle-
Johnson, 2018). Because of the scarcity of related studies, Johnson (2018) stated
that further studies are needed to understand the relationship between parents'
379
beliefs about children's academics and the mathematics learning environment at

home. Thus, the study of parents' beliefs about early mathematics development is
vital as it is one of the main factors that affects mathematics achievement and the
level of learning environment provision at home.
Not many previous studies have examined the mathematics learning

environment at home; most studies have focused on the literacy learning
environment at home (Burgess et al., 2002; Kirby & Hogan, 2008). As a result, the
evidence or research related to numeracy learning and the learning environment
at home is still new and is not comprehensive (Niklas et al., 2015; Skwarchuk et
al., 2022).
Furthermore, most of the previous studies on mathematics learning environments

at home have focused on numeracy, a component in mathematics. For example,
Susperreguy et al. (2020) conducted a study of the numeracy learning
environment at home for 390 Chilean pre-school children; Skwarchuk et al. (2022)
built a model of a learning environment at home that involved numeracy activities
only. There are few studies that have comprehensively examined the mathematics
learning environment at home (Zippert & Rittle-Johnson, 2018). The study by Hart
et al. (2016) on mathematics learning environments at home has included spatial
skills in early mathematics. This is in line with the opinion of Mix and Cheng
(2012) who stated that spatial thinking, that is, visual imagination and
manipulation of spatial information, is needed to solve mathematical problems.
In addition, Anders et al. (2012) and Niklas et al. (2015) also maintain that studies
on numeracy or mathematics learning environments at home focusing on the
early stages of children are rare. Most studies have focused on primary school
students.
In Malaysia, studies on the mathematics learning environment at home are also

very scarce. Most related studies have examined classroom learning
environments (Salina et al., 2007; Lo, 2019) or virtual learning environments
(Sumarni & Zamri, 2018; Mahizer & Mohd Azli, 2016). Although there are some
studies that have examined the learning environment at home, most studies in
Malaysia only emphasized parental involvement in learning activities at home in
general and did not specifically focus on early mathematics. For example, Irma
Yanti et al. (2018) studied the relationship between parental involvement in
learning activities at home and student academic achievement. The involvement
of parents in the previous study was general without focusing on the mathematics
learning environment.
Based on the issues and problems discussed above, the relationship between
parents’ belief in early mathematics and learning environment provision at home
remains limited and has not gained thorough attention in Malaysia. Therefore,
this study was conducted to investigate the relationship between parents’ belief
in early mathematics and learning environment provision at home. As a result,
the following hypothesis was proposed in this study:
380
H0: There is no significant relationship between parents’ beliefs in early

mathematics and learning environment provision at home.
Mathematics is crucial and necessary knowledge and is a skill for life. Most life
skills require mathematical knowledge, such as counting money, cooking,
executing business and buying things. As a result, mathematics is taught at all
levels of education, from pre-school to university. At the pre-school level, young
children are introduced to mathematics through early mathematics subjects
which aim to help children in developing a general understanding of numbers
and basic mathematical concepts (Harris & Petersen, 2017). This understanding
includes counting and calculation, comparing and contrasting, explaining
patterns, shapes and positions, solving problems (Aubrey & Godfrey, 2003; Aunio
et al., 2015; Harris & Petersen, 2017; Ramani & Eason, 2015), and non-symbolic
and symbolic knowledge (Rittle-Johnson et al., 2017). This early mathematics
knowledge is crucial for mastering higher-level and more difficult mathematical
concepts like operations and geometry (Bakar et al., 2020a; Buyong et al., 2020;
Ramani & Eason, 2015).
Various studies have proved the importance of knowledge in early mathematics

(Aubrey & Godfrey 2003; Aunio et al. 2015; Clerkin & Gilligan 2018; Harris &
Petersen, 2017; Jordan et al., 2009; Jordan & Levine, 2009). Children who have a
low level of mathematics proficiency when entering pre-school tend to achieve
less than their peers in the future (Harris & Petersen, 2017), showing a relationship
between early mathematics and children's future achievement in mathematics
(Skwarchuk et al., 2022; Bakar et al., 2020b).
Researchers have reported that there are multiple factors that influence the
mastery of early mathematics during childhood. The factors are: family income
and parents' education level (Hart et al., 2016; Jordan & Levine, 2009; Sheridan &
McLaughlin, 2016), parents' beliefs about mathematics (Burns, 2020; Elliott &
Bachman, 2018; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002), parents' attitudes towards mathematics
(Skwarchuk et al., 2022), and early mathematics learning environments at home
(DeFlorio & Beliakoff, 2015; Ramani & Eason, 2015; Zippert & Rittle-Johnson,
2018). Previous studies have reported that parents' belief in early mathematics
plays a significant role in children's mathematics mastery (Musu-Gillette et al.,
2015; Trautwein et al., 2012), which is in line with the Expectancy-Value Theory
introduced by Eccles (1993). This theory emphasizes that parents' beliefs and
attitudes towards something will influence children's motivation and
achievement. Parents who have high confidence in their children's abilities in
mathematics usually encourage the children to aim for high achievements in
mathematics (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002).
In addition to parents' beliefs, the learning environment at home is one of the

factors that influences children's mathematics mastery (Cheung et al., 2021).
Home is the first learning environment for children. Scholars emphasize that the
level of children's knowledge in early mathematics differs significantly before
they enter school (Lehrl et al., 2020, indicating that children have mastered
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knowledge in early mathematics before their schooling commences in pre-school.

This knowledge is mastered informally when children interact with parents and
through learning experiences at home (Niklas & Schneider, 2014). Findings from
a study by Niklas and Schneider (2017) found that the learning environment at
home not only has an impact on early knowledge and skills, but also on children's
achievement at the end of primary school. Therefore, the learning environment at
home plays a vital role in the development and learning of children.
Studies on the learning environment at home have been long conducted, mostly
abroad. Three streams of research have inspired the implementation of research
on mathematics learning environments at home (Blevins-Knabe, 2016). The first
stream examines the parents' influence on children's cognitive development and
academic achievement (Alexander & Entwisle, 1988; Eccles, 1993; Goodnow &
Collins, 1990). The second stream investigates the effect of the learning
environment at home on the cognitive development of children tested through
Home Observation for Measurement in the Environment (HOME) as an
instrument (Bradley, 2010; Caldwell & Bradley, 1984). The third stream studies
how the literacy learning environment at home affects children's literacy
development. These three streams have encouraged the implementation of
studies on the learning environment of mathematics or numeracy at home. Most
previous studies have focused more on the numeracy learning environment at
home (Durkin et al., 1986; Young‐Loveridge, 1988; Saxe et al., 1987) and have
proved that the numeracy learning environment at home does have a significant
effect on children's achievement in mathematics.
Other studies report that parents' beliefs about children's academic achievement
are related to the learning environment at home (Skwarchuk et al., 2022; Zippert
& Rittle-Johnson, 2018). Manolitsis et al. (2013) reported that both literacy and
numeracy learning environments at home play an important role in children's
pre-reading and mathematics mastery. Different learning environments will
stimulate different development. Therefore, parents play a role in providing a
diverse learning environment at home to stimulate the child's overall
development. To improve children's skills in early mathematics, parents need to
provide a suitable learning environment at home.
In Malaysia, mathematics achievement is still not satisfactory, as is indicated by

the results of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). The
average mathematics score in PISA from 2009 to 2018 has not yet reached the
average score set by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2019).
Mastery of skills in early mathematics during the early stages of childhood is one
of the causal factors. This outcome is consistent with the longitudinal study that
shows a strong and significant relationship between ability and future academic
achievement in early mathematics (Jordan et al., 2009). Children who had
problems in mathematics during pre-school still faced the same problems in
Standard 3. Thus, early mathematics is significant for children and their future
achievement in mathematics.
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Skills in early mathematics are also emphasized in early childhood education

programs in Malaysia, particularly in the Early Childhood Care and Education
Curriculum and the Standard National Pre-school Curriculum (KSPK). The Early
Childhood Care and Education Curriculum was introduced in 2008 as a guide for
early education providers to plan a program for children aged from 0 to 4 years
in Malaysia. One of the learning areas emphasized in this curriculum is the Early
Development of Mathematics and Logical Thinking. This subject aims to build
children's basic mathematical concepts through the processes of recognizing,
estimating, arranging, comparing differences, composing, and counting, as well
as using numbers and solving problems. Malaysia embarked on the KSPK in 2010
and reformed it in 2017. This curriculum is a national curriculum that must be
used in all pre-schools and early childhood centers in Malaysia (Education Act
1996). One of the pillars of KSPK is Science and Technology. The knowledge
disciplines in this pillar are early science and early mathematics. Early
mathematics in KSPK provides early mathematical experience, including pre-
numbers, number concepts, number operations, concept of time, value of money
as well as shapes and spaces for children aged from 5 to 6 years (Ministry of
Education Malaysia, 2016).
The government and certain parties have implemented various actions to solve
the problem of low achievement in early mathematics in Malaysia; the Primary
Literacy and Numeracy (PlaN) program was introduced in 2020 to replace the
Literacy and Numeracy Screening (LINUS 2.0) program. The PlaN program aims
to ensure that all Standard 2 and Standard 3 students can have achieved at least a
minimum proficiency level in Malay, English, and Mathematics, and PlaN can
help children who have a low level of achievement in early mathematics (Ministry
of Education, 2020).
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design and Sample
This study used a cross-sectional survey research design with a quantitative
approach to examine the relationship between the independent variable (parents’
beliefs) and the dependent variable (learning environment provision). This type
of research design and approach is suitable for collecting information about
beliefs, opinions, attitudes or characteristics that involve a large sample (Creswell,
2012; Ary, 2010).
The population in this study consisted of parents in Malaysia who have children
aged from 4 to 6 years. Based on Krejcie and Morgan's (1970) sample size
determination table, at least 384 people need to be selected as a sample if the
population number exceeds 1,000,000 to determine the confidence level at 95%
and the sampling error at 5% to represent the population. A total of 478 parents
were randomly selected from the population as a study sample. A simple random
sampling technique was used in this study to ensure that all individuals in the
population had an equal chance to be selected as a sample (Creswell, 2012). Table
1 shows the demographic information of the study respondents.
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Table 1: Demographic Information
Item Frequency Percentage

(%)
Childrens’ age 4 years 119 24.9
5 years 182 38.1
6 years 177 37.0
Children’s Male 219 45.8
gender Female 259 54.2
Parents’ age 20 years and less 0 0
21 – 30 years 64 13.4
31 – 40 years 358 74.9
41 – 50 years 51 10.7
More than 50 years 5 1.0
Relationship Father 42 8.8
with children Mother 436 91.2
Father's highest Primary and secondary schools 241 50.4
education level Diploma 95 19.9
Bachelor's, Master's and Doctoral 142 29.7
Degrees
Mother's highest Primary and secondary schools 163 34.1
education level Diploma 112 23.4
Bachelor's, Master's and Doctoral 203 42.5
Degrees
Family Income B40 223 46.7
M40 189 39.5
T20 66 13.8

This study used a structured questionnaire for data collection consisting of three
sections: Section A: Demographic Information; Section B: Parents’ Beliefs in Early
Mathematics, and Section C: Learning Environment Provision. Parents’ beliefs in
early mathematics was adapted from previous research by DeFlorio (2011).
Learning environment provision was adapted from previous research by Hart et
al. (2016). Both research instruments were translated into the Malay language and
modified for the Malaysian context. The demographic information of the
respondents consisted of seven items on the respondent background such as, the
children’s age and gender, age of parents, relationship status, educational level of
parents, and household income.
Section B contained 25 items about parents' beliefs in children's early mathematics

learning. This section aimed to collect parents' opinions about the importance of
skills in early mathematics that needed to be mastered by their child before
entering Standard 1. The answer choices for this section were measured based on
384
a 4-point Likert scale, namely "1 - not important at all", "2 - not important", "3 -
important", or “4 - very important” for each item.
Section C contained 23 items on the early mathematics learning environment at

home adapted from Hart, et al. (2016). This section aimed to collect information
on how often a mathematical activity is carried out at home. The section consisted
of 10 formal numeracy activity items, eight informal numeracy activity items and
five space activity items. The answer choices for this section were measured based
on a 3-point Likert scale. Respondents were asked to respond by marking either
"1 - never", "2 - sometimes" or "3 - always". Table 2 summarizes the questionnaire
information.
Table 2: Questionnaire Information
Section No. of
Items
A Respondent Demographic Information 7
B Parents' Beliefs in Early Mathematics 25
C Early Mathematics Learning Environment Provision at
Home
Formal numeracy activities 10
Informal numeration activities 8
Space activities 5
Total 55
3.3 Validity and Reliability

Two experts were appointed to evaluate the content validity of the adapted
instrument. Both experts were early childhood education lecturers with Doctorate
degrees in Early Childhood Education from the Teacher Education Institution. In
addition, both experts have more than 15 years of experience in the field of early
childhood education. Overall, the experts agreed that the adpated instrument was
suitable for use in the Malaysian context to elicit answers to the research
questions. However, the expert required items 16 and item 17 be modified so that
the levels of addition and subtraction operations were set in the range of 10 or 20.
They also stated that the mathematical skills asked in the questionnaire needed to
be in line with the KSPK content. Therefore, these two items were added "within
10". In addition, experts also required the first item to exclude "one of the people".
Cronbach's alpha value was calculated to measure the reliability of the adapted
instrument. The Cronbach's alpha value obtained for parents' belief in early
mathematics development was 0.93 and 0.88 for early mathematics learning
environment provision at home, and the Cronbach's alpha value for all items in
this instrument was 0.91. These results confirmed the high internal consistency of
the instrument used in this study (Creswell, 2012).
3.4 Data Collection and Analysis

Before commencing the study, the researchers listed pre-schools, private
kindergartens and parents' Facebook groups found on the internet. A permission
385
letter or message was sent via social media or email to all schools and pre-school
teachers requesting their help in distributing a questionnaire in the Google form
to parents who met the characteristics of the sample, that is, who had children
aged from 4 to 6 years. Parents were informed that the purpose of this
questionnaire and the information obtained would be used for this study only.
The questionnaire had to be answered by one of the parents, either mother or
father. Parents were also informed that the questionnaire contained three parts,
namely the demographic of the respondent, the parents' beliefs about early
mathematics development, and the early mathematics learning environment at
home. Parents were given the choice of answering or not answering the
questionnaire. Upon receiving consent from the parents to participate in this
study, the Google Form was provided. After completion, the researcher collected
data from the Google Form and analyzed the data.
Inferential statistics were used to examine the relationships between parents’

beliefs and the early mathematics learning environment. A Pearson correlation
test was performed to determine the relationship between these two variables.
The strength of the relationship was described based on the interpretation
suggested by as illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3: Correlation Strength Interpretation

r Values Interpretation
0 .10– 0.29 Weak
0.30 – 0.49 Moderate
0.50 – 1.00 Strong
4. Findings
The relationship between parents’ beliefs in early mathematics and learning
environment provision at home was computed using the Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure
no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity.
There was a weak, significant, positive linear relationship between the two
variables, r(476) = 0.285, p < 0.001, with high levels of parents’ beliefs associated
with higher levels of early mathematics learning environment provision at home.
Table 4 illustrates the relationship between these two variables.
Table 4: Relationship between Early Mathematics Beliefs and Environmental

Provision
Variables Environment Preparation (r) p
Early Mathematics Beliefs (r) 0.285** 0.000
5. Discussion
The findings of this study showed that there was a significant and positive
relationship between the level of parents' belief in early mathematics
development and learning environment provision at home. The higher the level
of parents' belief in early mathematics development, the higher the level of
386
learning environment provision at home, signifying that parents with a high level
of belief in early mathematics development usually provided more relevant
activities at home. The findings also revealed that parents' level of belief in early
mathematics development had a relationship with all types of environments,
namely formal numeracy, informal numeracy and space.
These findings are in line with the study by Wu and Honig (2010) and Dhima
(2014) that parents' belief is the main factor that affects all parental involvement
in their children's activities. In addition, Puccioni (2015) examined parents' beliefs
on children's readiness for pre-school with parenting practices at home. The study
found that parents with higher levels of belief provided more learning activities
at home and directly had a positive effect on children's academic achievement
while in pre-school. The findings of this study are supported by Expectancy-Value
Theory (Eccles 1993) which demonstrates that parents' beliefs in terms of
expectations, values and gender will influence their practices and the learning
environment at home. The higher or more positive the parents' belief, the more
activities and encouragement provided by the parents to improve their
knowledge of the domain.
These findings are also in line with various previous studies that parents' belief in
early mathematics is significantly related to the provision of an early mathematics
learning environment at home. Parents' belief in positive mathematics
development can increase the level of provision by parents of the mathematics
learning environment at home, so benefiting children's early mathematics
development (Hart et al., 2016; De Keyser et al., 2020; LeFevre et al., 2010; Missall
et al., 2015; Musun-Miller & Blevins-Knabe, 1996; Susperreguy et al., 2020). This
is in line with Martini & Senechal’s (2012) findings that parents' belief in the
development of literacy is related to the provision of a literacy learning
environment at home. LeFevre et al. (2002) also demonstrated that parents' beliefs
are related to the means parents use to teach and directly affect children's
achievement.
Parents who consider skills in early mathematics as important for children to

master before Standard 1 tend to provide more early mathematics activities at
home (Cheung et al., 2021). Saban et al. (2018) also found that parents with a high
level of belief are more sensitive in providing a learning environment at home
compared to parents with medium and low levels of belief. They are better
prepared in providing a rich and meaningful learning environment because a
high level of trust can motivate parents to improve their children's skills at home
so that their children achieve skills that are considered very important before
Standard 1. This belief also guides parents in planning early mathematics
activities at home (Martini & Senechal 2012) and in providing more relevant
activities that can help their children master the skills that are crucial and need to
be mastered before Standard 1. Thus, parents with a high level of belief tend to
provide more early mathematics activities at home.
A study by Zippert and Rittle-Johnson (2018) found that parents' belief in a

construct in early mathematics has a relationship with a certain type of
387
environment. For example, parents with high levels of belief in space skills will
provide more space activities at home. This aspect is evidenced in this study,
where parents provide a skill more often if they have a high level of belief in that
skill. For example, many parents perceived that the skill of counting objects is vital
for children and should be mastered before Standard 1; this skill was the activity
most frequently carried out at home. Thus, the division of constructs for skills in
parental beliefs can be performed extensively to study the relationship between
parents' beliefs and early mathematics development and learning environment
provision at home.
Nevertheless, the findings showed a weak relationship between the level of

parents' belief in early mathematics development and learning environment
provision at home due to the effect of external factors on the variables studied.
The level of early mathematics learning environment provision at home was not
only influenced by the level of parents' belief in the importance of skill but was
also influenced by other factors. Parents' belief in early mathematics development
and learning environment provision at home could be influenced by parents'
education level (De Keyser et al., 2020; Dearing et al., 2012; Susperreguy et al.,
2020b) as well as family income (Bassok et al., 2016, Dayang & Zamri, 2019;
Kluczniok et al., 2013; Lombardi & Dearing, 2021). In fact, parents' anxiety about
mathematics mastery (Hart et al., 2016; Silver et al., 2021) may also affect the early
mathematics learning environment at home. For example, parents with high
levels of anxiety tend to provide more spatial activities (Hart et al., 2016). Parents'
attitudes towards mathematics (Susperreguy et al., 2020a) also influence the
mathematics learning environment at home. This evidence proved that there are
many factors that can have an impact on the level of parents' belief and on the
level of early mathematics learning environment provision at home. Parent’s
interest in a certain skill or field also affects the practice and provision of the
learning environment at home (Trickett et al., 2022; Junge et al., 2021). It can thus
be inferred that the relationship between the level of parents' belief in early
mathematics development and learning environment provision at home is weak
as it was influenced by other factors.
6. Conclusion
This study provides views on the relationship between parents’ beliefs in early
mathematics development and learning environment provision at home. The
findings indicated that Malaysian parents strongly believe in early mathematics
development. However, they do not create a conducive setting for young children
to learn mathematics at home. Further investigation reveals there is a weak,
significant, positive relationship between these two variables. The findings
demonstrate that, despite parents' strong belief in the development of young
children’s mathematic skills, they fail to create an atmosphere that is conducive to
learning early mathematics at home. Therefore, assistance should be provided to
parents so they can create an appropriate, effective, and positive learning
environment at home. It is undeniable that a positive learning environment will
help the children to have a positive attitude toward early mathematics and help
them to do better in this subject. Consequently, it is recommended that future
research considers how social and cultural values affect parents' beliefs, the
388
learning environment at home, and how they promote young children's early
mathematical development.
Acknowledgement
This study was funded by the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia through the Dana Khas Galakkan Penyelidikan (GG-2020-017).
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Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 393-405, January 2023
Students’ Preferences Regarding the Techniques

of Oral Corrective Feedback in a Tertiary
Institution
Bunyarat Duklim
Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala
University of Technology Srivijaya, Thailand
Abstract. Oral corrective feedback (OCF) is an important topic for English

as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) teachers involved in foreign
language acquisition. Several studies have been conducted on OCF in
learning and teaching English. Although there are extensive published
studies on OCF in Thailand, to the best of my knowledge, little research
has been conducted on the sources of OCF in tertiary institutions in
southern Thailand. The current study bridges this research gap by
investigating students’ preferences regarding the sources of error of OCF
at a Thai university in the southern province of Thailand. A questionnaire
was designed using six five-point Likert scale questions, and data were
also collected through observation. Participants were 60 undergraduate
students from a tertiary institution in southern Thailand. Analysis of
student responses was carried out using mean and standard deviation
statistics. The findings from this study reveal that the participants
preferred that the teacher point out their errors rather than themselves or
their peers. In addition, participants chose error correction by their
teachers above peer or self-correction. Although the students who
participated in this study preferred the teacher’s feedback to their peers,
some were open to being trained in self-correction. The value of this study
is that the findings may assist both teachers and students in error
identification and correction and serve as the first step in ensuring that
students in tertiary institutions in Thailand are more confident in
expressing themselves using the English language. Future studies can be
carried out to explore the preferences of students from other Thai regions.
Keywords: error correction; oral corrective feedback; peer correction; self-

correction; Thai university
1. Introduction
Oral corrective feedback (OCF) is an essential topic for English as a
second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) teachers involved in foreign language
acquisition. The importance of OCF in language acquisition has been recognized
over the past two decades. OCF is defined as “the response provided by teachers or
©Authors
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other conversational partners to language learners when their output is erroneous,

nontarget-like, and not appropriate or ambiguous” (Oliver & Adams, 2021, p. 188).
OCF, as its name applies, focuses on the approaches employed by peers and
teachers to assist learners in identifying their mistakes in the target language.
Teachers often use different instructional strategies in their classrooms,
depending on the ability level, context, and error type, to assist learners in gaining
relevant language competency (Wiboolyasarin et al., 2022). Several studies have
reported that feedback is essential for language learners because it can improve
their understanding and communication skills (Mackey & Goo, 2007; Nassaji,
2016; Russell & Spada, 2006). OCF is also considered productive when it reassures
learners on whether they are on the right track. The past decades have seen a rise
in the investigation of the nature of corrective feedback. Regarding OCF, learners
can either achieve a modified output (Şakiroğlu, 2020) or face humiliation or
embarrassment (Ölmezer-Öztürk & Öztürk, 2016). This has resulted in a large
body of research investigating the effectiveness of OCF, which has yielded the
consensus that OCF is beneficial to learners’ target language development, as
indicated in the different studies contained in the references of this body of
research (García Mayo & Milla, 2021;; Li & Vuono, 2019; Li, 2010; Lyster & Saito,
2010; Lyster et al., 2013; Mackey & Goo, 2007; Nassaji & Kartchava, 2020 Nassaji,
2016; Pawlak, 2014; Sheen, 2004).
In Thailand, English is a compulsory subject for all students in high school.

However, a big challenge faced by the students is the ability to master the
language. Similarly, teachers need help to prepare an effective learning
environment to enhance students’ language acquisition. This has led to low
achievement among the students, as reported on the website of the National
Institute of Educational Testing Service (NIETS, n.d.) for the academic year 2019.
Students in other provinces received an average score of 34.42% in English exams,
while those from schools in Bangkok received an average of 45.95%, which implies
that school location in Thailand strongly correlates with the scores (NIETS, n.d.).
Several non-native speakers wish to acquire fluency and automaticity in English.
This often requires them to be proficient in all skills in the English language. The
most important of these skills is the ability to speak fluently. This has remained a
challenge for EFL/ESL learners, including those in Thailand. These learners know
the importance of speaking English without errors because it enables them to
communicate effectively and efficiently with native English speakers in Thailand,
using social media, and during their studies abroad. Fan (2019) reported on the
importance of addressing error prevention when speaking and listening in class
and during examinations, especially for students studying abroad. In Thailand,
students learning English language at different universities and institutions
experience different vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation challenges. Most of
the students are unable to avoid errors during speaking activities, which
negatively impacts their studies and final scores. Since students wish to gain high
scores to have a chance to specialize in their preferred subject, a negative score
leads to stress. However, this has not reduced error occurrence among students,
prompting researchers and educators to pay closer attention to the issue of
language learning to encourage learners to recognize their errors and improve
their speaking proficiency. Thus, research into OCF has recommended that
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instructors facilitate learning by addressing speaking errors immediately

(cf., Coskun, 2010; Martin & Valdivia, 2017; Papangkorn, 2015).
The conflict in the deep south of Thailand significantly affects education as

insurgent groups target schools, resulting in the injury and death of students,
teachers, and civilians. There are more than 70 spoken languages in Thailand,
most of which are spoken by hundreds of thousands of people residing in border
regions of the north and deep south of Thailand (UNESCO, 2019). The never-
ending conflict in the deep southern part of Thailand is focused on three southern
provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat, near the Malaysia border, and several
districts in Songkhla province. About 75% to 80% of the inhabitants here are
Muslim. The educational system of Thailand’s southern provinces comprises the
Thai Government educational system and Islamic education, with most Thai-
Muslim students starting in Pondok or Islamic boarding schools. These schools
teach about basic religious principles, ethics, and morality and have become the
preferred educational institution for many Muslims living in the rural areas of
southern Thailand (Liow, 2009; Madmarn, 2003). Languages spoken in the deep
south are Pattani Malay (Jawi), Southern Thai, Standard Thai, Standard Malay,
and Arabic (Nookua, 2012; Premsrirat & Uniansasmita, 2012; Rappa & Wee, 2006).
The mother tongue of individuals living in this region is Pattani Malay, which is
different from the mother tongue in other Thai provinces (Uniansasmita, 2010).
Therefore, English is considered a third language in the southernmost provinces,
with children only learning English in school (Madeeyoh & Charumanee, 2013;
Srisueb & Wasanasomsithi, 2010).
Though there are arguments against error correction, there are “numerous and
convincing reasons why OCF should be an integral part of teaching practices” (Pawlak,
2014, p. 49). As Li (2018) stated, “research has unequivocally demonstrated the benefits
of corrective feedback in facilitating L2 development” (p. 4); it is thus not a question of
the effectiveness or types of feedback (Nassaji & Kartchava, 2020). Li (2017)
reviewed seven studies on teachers’ beliefs about OCF (Agudo, 2014; Bell, 2005;
Dong, 2012; Junqueira & Kim, 2013; Kamiya, 2014; Kartchava, 2006; Rahimi &
Zhang, 2015), revealing that only 39% of teachers agreed that OCF was important.
Although there are extensive published studies on oral or written corrective
feedback in Thailand, to the best of my knowledge, little or no research has been
carried out on the sources of OCF in a tertiary institution in southern Thailand.
Thus, to address this research gap, this study aimed to extend this line of inquiry
by examining students’ beliefs regarding the sources of OCF in a tertiary
institution in southern Thailand.
There has been an increase in empirical research investigating the nature of OCF
and the connection between students’ beliefs and target sources. The search from
relevant literature revealed that most studies examining the relationship between
students’ beliefs and teachers’ practices are often carried out in ESL settings (e.g.,
Junqueira & Kim, 2013; Kamiya, 2014). However, studies such as those of Dong
(2012), Roothooft (2014), and Ölmezer-Özturk (2019) were conducted in non-ESL
settings. Agudo (2014) provided more findings on language-teacher-cognition
396
research using a pre-service course for Spanish EFL teachers and found that about
42% of Spanish undergraduate EFL students preferred peer correction. Their
study concluded that pre-existing beliefs of EFL teachers regarding general
language teaching and dealing with errors will likely affect their initial teaching
practices while they are doing their internship. Nonetheless, it contrasts the study
by Katayama (2007), who examined students’ preferences and attitudes regarding
error correction in Japanese classrooms and found that 63% of undergraduate
students in Japan preferred peer corrections in groupwork.
Ha and Nguyen (2021) examined the relationship between teacher and learner
beliefs regarding the optimal sources and targets of OCF in an EFL class in four
public high schools in Vietnam. Data were obtained from 250 students using
questionnaires, and 6% (15) of these students were interviewed. All interviewed
students preferred error corrections by the teacher because the teacher regularly
corrected them in class. Additionally, around 5% of the students preferred self-
correction with the teacher’s assistance and guidance. With several studies
examining the impacts of OCF, researchers have focused on learners or students’
beliefs. Empirical investigations of students’ beliefs have shown that it varies
across EFL/ESL contexts. More than half of the students believed peer correction
benefits them. Wiboolyasarin et al. (2020) investigated the existence of preferences
and perceptions among East Asian undergraduate students of Thai. They found
that public and private correction benefits second language learners in Thailand.
However, students were more open to personal revision than to public correction.
Different theories have been implemented in learning a foreign language or

second language acquisition. Among these theories, the most predominant ones
are contrastive analysis and error analysis. Among these two, error analysis has
been widely used to deal with learners’ errors and has been considered the most
appropriate tool for dealing with learners’ language errors and finding error
sources (Abied et al., 2022). There have also been mixed research results regarding
whether errors should be corrected, with studies such as Davis (2003) and Zhang
and Rahimi (2014) reporting that immediate correction is the best form. Regarding
the choice of error correction, Zhu and Wang (2019) reported that three
taxonomies of errors can be corrected. This includes linguistic taxonomy, focused
versus unfocused, and gravity of errors. In this study, students’ OCF beliefs are
explored based on linguistic taxonomy, comprising grammatical, lexical, and
phonological errors.
3. Methodology
3.1 Procedure and Data Collection
In this study, the instruments employed included a questionnaire, observation,
and feedback from students’ learning and the designed speaking tasks.
Altogether, 60 students participated in the study, being 37 male and 23 female
students between the ages of 19 and 23. Their English proficiency ranged from
elementary to intermediate level. The questionnaire was designed using existing
literature. The questionnaire aimed to explore students’ preferences for OCF
during learning and the planned speaking tasks. The questionnaire was designed
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using six five-point Likert scale questions ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to
5 = strongly agree, with the frequency of responses provided in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Frequencies of participant responses to questionnaire

Strongly Strongly
Item examined Disagree Neutral Agree
disagree agree
1 2 3 4 5
Error identification
I prefer my classmates to identify
3 18 30 6 3
my errors
I prefer the teacher to identify my
0 0 0 12 48
errors
I prefer to identify errors myself 48 6 6 0 0
Error correction
I prefer only error correction from
0 0 0 12 48
the teacher
I prefer my classmates to correct
45 3 12 0 0
my errors
I prefer to correct my errors
30 15 15 0 0
myself
The questionnaire was translated into Thai, and the Thai and English versions of
the questionnaires were examined by a Thai lecturer and an EFL lecturer,
respectively, who worked at the university. At the end of the questionnaire,
participants had to append their signatures to indicate their willingness to
volunteer and participate in the speaking activities. All interviews were analyzed
autonomously for ethical reasons. The purpose of the speaking activities was to
obtain data concerning the participants’ preferences for sources of OCF correction
during speaking activities. To assess and score the speaking activity, a rubric was
created with different criteria to represent the possible skill levels of students. The
standard included: meets high expectations, meets low expectations, slightly
underperforms, and does not meet expectations. Other specific criteria considered in
the rubric consisted of fluency, pronunciation and accent, vocabulary, and
grammar. The researcher and the EFL lecturer mentioned earlier were present
during the speaking activities. The researcher asked participants about their
preferred sources for corrective feedback when they made an error during the
speaking activity. The participants were also allowed to expand on the reasons for
their preferences. The percentages of participant responses are provided in
Table 2.
Table 2: Percentages of participant responses to questionnaire
Strongly Strongly
Item examined Disagree Neutral Agree
disagree agree
1 2 3 4 5
I prefer my classmates to identify
5% 30% 50% 10% 5%
my errors
I prefer the teacher to identify my
0% 0% 0% 20% 80%
errors
I prefer to identify errors myself 80% 10% 10% 0% 0%
398
Error correction
I prefer only error correction from
0% 0% 0% 20% 80%
the teacher
I prefer my classmates to correct my
75% 5% 20% 0% 0%
errors
I prefer to correct my errors myself 50% 25% 25% 0% 0%
3.2 Contexts
The study was conducted at a tertiary institution in the southern province of
Thailand. As previously stated, the educational system in southern Thailand,
especially in the deep south, is different from other parts of Thailand. English is
not a language spoken very widely in this region, and most people who can speak
it do so at a basic level. Though English is also taught in most schools in the deep
south of Thailand, many students need to interact in English more often to become
fluent or proficient in it. The ESL/EFL class is the main venue where the students
often use English for communication. The English class takes place once a week
on Thursdays and usually lasts three hours. During observations, it was noticed
that, for the topic of conversation, the teacher provided an image in the form of a
picture, and each student described and explained the activities on the picture.
Additionally, the favorite hobby of each student was also discussed. The students
enjoyed this part of the class since they knew a lot about it. Whenever the students
had difficulties clearly expressing themselves due to their limitation in
communicating in English, they were allowed to speak in Thai. The conversations
in Thai were transcribed and translated into English, and phrases or sentences
with the same meanings were classified into different categories.
3.3 Data Analysis

The method used in this study was based on a classroom research design. The
research instrument used in this research included observation and feedback from
students’ learning and the designed speaking tasks. Questionnaires were
administered to 65 students to complete in their free time. After two weeks, 60
completed questionnaires were returned, with five students deciding not to
participate. Thus, only 60 questionnaires were used for the data analysis. There
was interaction with the students on an individual level, which lasted for the
entire time of the class. To provide a clearer picture of the responses and how
widely spread out the responses are, the mean rating and associated standard
deviation for all the responses are provided in Table 3.
Table 3: Analysis of participants’ responses using mean and standard deviation

Strongly Strongly Standard
Item examined Disagree Neutral Agree Mean
disagree agree deviation
1 2 3 4 5
I prefer my classmates
5% 30% 50% 10% 5% 2.80 2.40
to identify my errors
I prefer the teacher to
0% 0% 0% 20% 80% 6.30 4.62
identify my errors
I prefer to identify
80% 10% 10% 0% 0% 2.50 1.79
errors myself
399
Error correction
I prefer only error
correction from the 0% 0% 0% 20% 80% 6.30 4.63
teacher
I prefer my classmates
75% 5% 20% 0% 0% 2.35 1.76
to correct my errors
I prefer to correct my
50% 25% 25% 0% 0% 2.50 1.87
errors myself
The other findings obtained are reported in the next section.
4. Findings
Students’ preferences regarding OCF sources were examined through six items,
that is, three items for error identification and three for error correction. The
results obtained from the examination are presented in Figures 1 and 2,
respectively.
Error Identification
48 48
50
40
Total Participants
30
30
18
20
12
10 6 6 6
3 3
0 0 0 0 0
0
SD D N A SA
SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral, A = Agree, SA =
Strongly Agree
I prefer my classmates to identify my errors
I prefer the teacher to identify my errors
I prefer to identify errors myself
Figure 1: Participants’ preference regarding the source of oral corrective feedback for
error identification
For error identification (Figure 1), 5% of the participants strongly agreed and
disagreed with error identification by their classmates, 30% disagreed, and 50%
were neutral. On the other hand, 80% strongly agreed with error identification by
their teachers, and 80% strongly disagreed with error identification by
themselves. The three statements examined for error identification had standard
deviation values of 2.40, 4.62, and 1.79, respectively (Table 3). These findings
suggest that participants valued the teacher’s role in pointing out errors. The
results show that participants were not confident in themselves when it came to
self-identification of errors.
400
Error Correction
48
50 45
40
30
30
Total Participants
20 15 15
12 12
10 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
SD D N A SA
SD= Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral, A = Agree, SA = Strongly
Agree
I prefer only error correction from the teacher

I prefer my classmates to correct my errors
I prefer to correct my errors myself
Figure 2: Participants’ preference regarding the source of oral corrective feedback for
error correction
Regarding error correction (Figure 2), 80% of the participants strongly agreed that
error correction should be done by the teacher, 75% strongly disagreed with peer
correction, and 50% strongly disagreed with self-correction. These findings
indicate participants’ preference for correcting their errors with the help of their
teacher. However, they were not confident in self-correction. In addition, the three
statements examined for error correction had standard deviation values of 4.63,
1.76, and 1.87, respectively (Table 3).
Overall, the obtained results show that most participants preferred error
correction by their teachers, with most of them agreeing that this technique can
improve their English language skills. This is in accordance with Azad and Kalam
(2016), who revealed that Bangladeshi EFL students had a positive attitude
towards OCF, perceiving it to be beneficial for learning English.
5. Discussion
The main research aim of this study was to understand students’ preferences
regarding OCF by taking southern Thailand as a case study. The responses
obtained from the study participants indicate that corrective feedback is an
essential part of second language pedagogy. This is consistent with Kırkgöz and
Ağçam’s (2015) report that participating teachers believed that OCF should not be
abandoned and that rapid response to spoken error should be promoted.
Regarding participant preferences, Figure 2 shows that participants preferred
corrections by the teacher above self-correction or correction by their peers. This
finding is consistent with that by Agudo (2015), who believed that teachers are
more equipped in error correction and always eager to listen to comments and
information relevant to the error.
401
During interviews, participants highlighted different reasons for their choices.

They felt more secure and agreed with correction by the teacher. This preference
stems from the fact that teachers are well respected and considered virtuous in
Thailand. Participants also pointed out that peer correction may result in face-
threat concerns affecting their confidence, especially for high-performing students
or learners. According to Paulhus et al. (2002), Asian students have a high rate of
self-reported shyness. This might be the reason why some of the study
participants felt shy to admit their mistakes in a classroom-based situation. Below
are some excerpts from the participants regarding their choices in the different
criteria:
“The teacher used simple vocabulary in communicating and correcting my
errors. This is different from how my friends or I will fix myself.”
“Though I made errors at the beginning of our conversations, the teacher

did not interrupt and only pointed out my corrections after completing our
conversation. This way of correction by the teacher kept me from losing
any part of the conversation; I like it this way.”
“I made many errors during the conversation with the teacher. However,
the teacher was patient to correct all my errors and provided many
alternative vocabularies that can also be used during conversation.”
“The teacher was very attentive in our discussion and identified several
errors.”
“When I try to speak English with my peers, they always laugh at me and
make me shy when I make errors, and they identify the errors. The teacher
does not do like this.”
In this study, three sources of OCF exist in the classroom setting. These include
the learners themselves through self-correction, learners’ peers through peer
feedback, and the teacher through the teacher’s feedback. Interestingly, although
the students who participated in this study preferred the teacher’s feedback to
that of their peers, some preferred self-correction and were open to being trained
in self-correction and its application in groupwork.
The following are some of the excerpts obtained from the interviews with the
participants:
“I would be happy if the teacher could train the other students and me to
identify and correct errors.”
“I wish the teacher could teach me how to find my errors. This will be easy
for me to correct myself when the teacher is not around.”
“I hope the English class is twice a week. This way, my friends and I will
learn how to identify and correct any errors we make ourselves.”
As indicated in the above excerpts, participants associated a sense of pride with

the ability to correct their own oral errors.
402
Regarding learning preferences in OCF, it has been reported that OCF plays an
essential role for tertiary-level learners. This is evident in the study of Faqeih
(2015), where it was found that the attitude of students or learners towards OCF
can affect their learning outcomes and influence their behaviors. This is consistent
with the findings of this study, because some participants were quite satisfied
with how the teacher corrected their errors, which motivated them to learn more.
6. Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Studies

The current study bridges a research gap in understanding the sources of oral
error identification and correction within a tertiary setting in a university in the
southern province of Thailand. The findings show that the participants seemed
willing and open to receive corrections by their teacher. Most participants
expressed a positive attitude regarding the teacher correcting them, indicating the
importance of correction by the teacher. While this is a good approach for
students, it is practically impossible for teachers to correct all student errors. This
study shows that students are not entirely okay with peer correction. However,
teachers should train them to trust themselves to identify their errors and believe
in themselves to correct the mistakes of their peers too.
As stated earlier, the current study contributes to OCF research, and in particular,
the preferences of EFL students in Thailand regarding error correction. This is a
first of its kind, as no study has been conducted on students’ preference regarding
OCF in southern Thailand. Despite the contributions discussed above, the study
had certain limitations. First, the convenience sampling method was employed
for selecting study participants. Thus, future research can use a different method
to select a more significant study sample. Second, this study was conducted at a
university in southern Thailand. Thus, the obtained results cannot be used as a
general metric for other regions or parts of Thailand since English is not the first
language in the southern part of Thailand. Therefore, future studies can consider
students from different areas of Thailand. Next, the participants of this study were
students with a pre-intermediate level of proficiency in English. Future studies
should consider the inclusion of students with different English proficiency levels
to yield a variety of OCF preferences to produce a better result. Finally, only 60
students participated in this study. It would be interesting to see whether different
results would be yielded with a larger sample.
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406

Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 406-433, January 2023
Received Oct 24, 2022; Revised Jan 23, 2023; Accepted Jan 27, 2023
Embedding Sustainable Development Goals to

Support Curriculum Merdeka Using Projects in
Biotechnology
Aris Rudi Purnomo , Bambang Yulianto , Muhamad Arif

Mahdiannur and Hasan Subekti*
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
Abstract. The lack of practices of Curriculum Merdeka cause science

teachers to worry about the results, especially related to environmental
awareness. As such, this study aimed at exploring the role of
biotechnology learning with embedded sustainable development goals
(SDGs) to accomplish the academic purposes of the curriculum. In doing
so, Pre-service Science Teachers (PSTs) were required to develop
projects in biotechnology as well as problem-solving skills to be induced
into their teaching competencies. This study used one-group pre-test
and post-test design and involved twenty PSTs as participants. The
parameters were perception, knowledge, and development of scientific
projects. The instruments consisted of questionnaire, paper-pencil test,
and rubrics. The data were then analysed in a descriptive manner. The
results showed that most students perceived that biotechnology learning
provides access to sustainability in human life. Also, there is a
significant increase of student knowledge about innovating science with
P-value of 0.00<0.05. For scientific projects, students in groups
successfully created five titles in relation to SDGs issues, such as food
nutrients, agricultural pests, fish-pond management, dengue fever
control, and water quality. In terms of learning outcomes and themes,
the contents within PSTs projects are relevant to two learning outcomes
and four different project themes of Curriculum Merdeka, including
lifestyle for sustainability, technology to support Indonesia,
entrepreneurship, and local wisdom. Therefore, there is potential to
bring PSTs projects to practice Curriculum Merdeka.
Keywords: biotechnology; curriculum Merdeka; SDGs
*
Corresponding author: Hasan Subekti, hasansubekti@unesa.ac.id
©Authors
407
1. Introduction
The curriculum plays a vital role in education for sharpening and forming not
only student knowledge, but also attitudes in line with the development of
science and technology (Almutairi et al., 2014; Hubers et al., 2022; Ring-Whalen
et al., 2018). Following the rapid changes in science and technology, Indonesia,
through the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, launched
the latest curriculum, Curriculum Merdeka [Independent Curriculum]. In the
industrial era, they believe the curriculum can accommodate multiple
perspectives of knowledge (Nanggala & Suryadi, 2022), enjoyment of learning,
student potentials, and attitudes to achieve 21st century skills (Maipita et al.,
2021; Restu et al., 2022).
In fact, however, the implementation of Curriculum Merdeka has caused teachers

to worry about the results of the learning process. Zakiyyah et al. (2021) found
that teachers still perceived themselves as the source of information rather than a
facilitator of learning; therefore, making them unsure as to whether they already
provide sufficient learning or not. Others showed that school facilities do not
meet the requirements for projects in Curriculum Merdeka (Yudhawasthi &
Christiani, 2022) and still need some innovation to realise the projects (Rahayu et
al., 2022; Supriati et al., 2022). However, innovation is typically hindered by
cultural workload in schools and limited access to communication with other
academic staff (Davis, 2003; Marx et al., 1994). Moreover, such burden is
increasing along with the use of technology that requires fast innovation
capabilities (Fernández-Batanero et al., 2021). Observation proved that there are
two factors influencing the success of implementation of Curriculum Merdeka:
learning atmosphere and independent learners (Restu et al., 2022), supported by
the system within institutions (Maipita et al., 2021).
To solve the problems, teachers should use multidisciplinary subjects which

entail multiple perspectives of knowledge. One of which is biotechnology, which
requires various disciplines such as botany, zoology, and ecology. In the light of
research, biotechnology can elevate student participation and actively induce
positive attitude while learning (Aqil et al., 2020; Ketpichainarong et al., 2010;
Klop et al., 2010). Teachers can also freely modify the lesson by incorporating
experiments for making products (Aqil et al., 2020), introducing aspects whereby
students can learn to manipulate variables and get closer to real-world problems
(Marklin Reynolds & Hancock, 2010; Membrillo-Hernandez et al., 2019).
Moreover, according to Limson (2021), biotechnology affords opportunities for
teachers to make modifications in their learning tools since it offers debatable
issues such as cloning, genetic modification, and stem cells for health treatment.
This ultimate point benefits schools which have lack of laboratories. Moreover,
environment issues become prominent in biotechnology due to its significance in
leveraging the quality of human life, which depends on sustainability,
emphasising both societal and natural aspects (Asveld et al., 2019; Cornelissen et
al., 2021; Fröhling & Hiete, 2020; Matthews et al., 2019).
Considering the aforementioned findings, learning biotechnology is relevant for

realising the essence of Curriculum Merdeka. Not only does it provide
408
opportunities for teachers to innovate their teaching and learning materials and
processes, but it also deals with the issues of sustainability. The latter is in line
with two of the seven themes of projects in the curriculum, namely, lifestyle
with sustainability and innovating technology to develop a better future for
Indonesia. These projects also are in scope of the sustainable development goals
(SDGs) which are of significant concern today because all countries face the
same ecological problems, such as deforestation, fire, and climate change, which
potentially increase the risk of diseases (Frumkin & Haines, 2019; Ryan et al.,
2019; Zinsstag et al., 2018) and failure in farm productivity (Khan et al., 2020;
Malhi et al., 2021). Since its launch in 2021, few studies have talked about these
connections, with most describing the conception of the curriculum (Maipita et
al., 2021; Sopiansyah et al., 2021; Suryaman, 2020; Yulianto, 2022), the school
readiness in terms of facilities and teacher competencies to employ student
mastery of concepts and the learning process (Baharullah, 2022; Rozi et al., 2021).
However, this study focuses not only on the interconnection between teaching
competencies and projects, but also proposes SDGs as a central evaluation of
projects as well. By incorporating SDGs into the teaching and learning processes
of Curriculum Merdeka it will result in strengthening knowledge, attitude, and
awareness of environmental problems (Hogan & O’Flaherty, 2021).
As this study worked with pre-service science teachers (PSTs), this article
provides an analysis of to what extent learning biotechnology with embedded
SDGs can assist PSTs to initially develop innovative teaching material for
Curriculum Merdeka through scientific projects. The research questions of this
study are 1) to what extent biotechnology learning with embedded SDGs affects
PSTs perception and knowledge of science innovation as a foundation of
Curriculum Merdeka? and 2) What is the alignment of PSTs scientific projects to
support an initial effort to design teaching materials for Curriculum Merdeka?
2.1 Curriculum Merdeka
Currently Indonesia has developed a new curriculum, known as Curriculum
Merdeka [Independent Curriculum] (Kusumastuti, et al., 2021; Neina &
Qomariyah, 2021) which gives students freedom of thought and encourages
teachers to be able to shift their educational paradigm from a traditional to
contemporary one (Telaumbanua et al., 2022). The Indonesian government
promotes the idea of "Merdeka" as an effort to achieve independence in students
to be creative, critical, and collaborative (Yulianto et al., 2021). In addition, the
Curriculum Merdeka differs from the previous curriculum in terms of projects,
introducing issues of sustainability, local wisdom, ideology, Indonesian spirit,
democracy, innovating technology, and entrepreneurship (Tjaija, 2022). Through
these projects, students are expected to achieve 21st century skills in line with
the uniqueness of the country. In practice, teachers must choose three themes of
the projects in a year and dedicate 30% of their teaching to completion of the
projects.
Unlike the previous curriculum, Curriculum 2013, Curriculum Merdeka attempts

to filter the essential contents and, therefore, students can deepen their
409
understanding and strengthen their competencies (Nurani et al., 2022). To

implement the curriculum, The Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and
Higher Education categorises three statuses for schools, that is, Mandiri Belajar
[Independent Learning], Mandiri Berubah [Independent Change] and Mandiri
Berbagi [Independent Sharing] (Nurani et al., 2022). Each different status
determines the implementation of Curriculum Merdeka. Mandiri Belajar still uses
Curriculum 2013; Mandiri Berubah partly practises Curriculum Merdeka by
employing a learning package from the school unit; and Mandiri Berbagi
conducts a self-modified learning package to implement Curriculum Merdeka
(Inayati, 2022). This last part requires teachers to be creative and skilled in
creating teaching materials and projects independently. In the Merdeka
curriculum, the completeness of learning outcomes is no longer measured by the
KKM [Completeness Criteria Minimum] in the form of a quantitative value.
Formative assessment of learning is done to identify the achievement of learning
objectives. Teachers are given the freedom to determine criteria achievement of
learning objectives in accordance with the characteristics of competence on
learning objectives and learning activity. In addition, students can continue to
the class above it according to their achievement of the learning objectives
(Purwananto, 2022).
2.2 Sustainable Development Goals in Indonesia

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a substantial development
framework to encourage development in a global context (Akanle et al., 2022).
Seventeen SDGs are targeted for acquisition to support the implementation of
the 2030 development agenda (Anderson et al., 2017) and Indonesia is
committed to successfully implementing SDGs by achieving such agenda
(Bappenas, 2019). The SDGs were established by the UN General Assembly in
2015 (Zeng et al., 2020) to achieve environmental and human development
(Czvetko et al., 2021). The objectives of the SDGs are in line with the challenges
of primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Research in Indonesia about
SDGs shows a tendency towards the energy sector (Santika et al., 2020);
improving quality of sanitation, cleanliness and availability of clean water
(Chalil et al., 2018); and capacity for health. Thus, educational institutions are
required to be able to integrate a variety of key issues of sustainable
development in the learning process, one of which is through multidisciplinary
lessons, such as biotechnology.
2.3 Biotechnology Learning

Biotechnology is the application of technologies that use biological systems,
living beings or their derivatives, to create or modify products or processes for
special use without neglecting the ethics (Savova et al., 2014; Thieman &
Palladino, 2013). Others define biotechnology as the process of increasing
human life quality using biological agents (Crawford, 2018). In other words,
biotechnological practices fall within the scope of what people need to escalate
and make their life easier without disregarding health issues. For instance,
biotechnology has been used to improve nutrients in various foods to overcome
malnutrition worldwide (Lee et al., 2013). The development of biotechnology
reflects the rapid changes in scientific research, progress of technology (Yeh et
al., 2012), and economic growth (Chabalengula et al., 2011). Indonesia
410
participates in the OECD's work programme on biotechnology and biosafety

(OECD, 2018) as a form of participation in the international arena. In line with
this, applying biotechnology is then one of the main agendas in 2020 to create a
variety of sustainable products (Mohamed et al., 2014). Nevertheless,
biotechnology has also been criticised for its application and its unknown impact
on human health and the environment (Amin et al., 2011).
2.4 Pre-service Science Teachers (PSTs)

Pre-service Science Teachers (PSTs) are university students that become
prospective science teachers in junior high school. During the study, they learn
pedagogical courses such as Curriculum, Assessment, Learning Theories, and
Innovative Teaching. In the context of science, they link those courses to the
study of environment, animals, and plants from physical, chemical, and
biological perspectives. In terms of level of cognition, they need to master 21st
century skills and bring them to their teaching capabilities. Thus, preparing
these skills is the key to reform education (Heinrichs, 2016). Also, they are
considered as an agent for change in some of the current global trends and
challenges in the field of science education, including scientific literacy
(UNESCO, 2017b), standards for science teachers (NSTA, 2012), STEM education
(UNESCO, 2017a), and survival skills. At university level, PSTs are considered
able to demonstrate competencies in terms of applying theoretical and practical
skills in science teaching and doing critical and analytical thinking, which,
according to the ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework, are in the sixth
level. For instance, when conducting teaching practices, they can analyse the
learning model alongside with learning theories and make an appropriate
assessment.
3. Methods
3.1 Research Design and Procedures
This study was carried out using the one-group pre-test and post-test. It is
relevant to one group of participants which was not equal to the other groups.
The design identifies the effect of treatment from the difference of pre-test and
post-test (Fraenkel et al., 2012): if there is difference between pre-test and post-
test, it will conclude that the result is due to the treatment. This study was
conducted in four meetings. At the first meeting, the lecturer administered the
pre-test. Following this, PSTs were then introduced to the video of how different
wavelengths elevate the sweetness of fruits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rxM2QnZqQc. From this activity, PSTs
are asked six questions about 1) the topic of the video, 2) where the research
takes place, 3) why the research is conducted, 4) how the research is done, 5)
what the research contribution is, and 6) what makes the research unique.
Afterwards, PSTs and the lecturer had a discussion to narrow and sharpen the
answer to the questions. In the second meeting, PSTs in groups of four were
given the second worksheet by which they had to formulate their own ideas of
scientific projects. Five aspects adapted from Heath and Heath (2008) were
addressed to assist PSTs, namely, simplicity, uniqueness, urgency, applicability,
and credibility. The third meeting required PSTs to present their scientific ideas
in the form of both oral and written posters. The lecturer gave his feedback,
411
whereas the other PSTs stuck their comments on the posters. The PSTs who
presented their projects collected and analysed the feedback from the others. In
the final meeting, the group wrote down the revision in the form of a summary
of their projects based on the feedback of the other PSTs and lecturer and did the
post-test.
Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Meeting I 1st task
Meeting I 2nd task
Present
Meeting I
poster
Meeting I Evaluation
Figure 1: A flowchart of research
3.2 Participants
The participants of this research were selected using purposive sampling.
Twenty PSTs from “Kelas Unggulan” (the class where the lecturers use English
as language of instruction), who took the biotechnology course in Department of
Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Negeri
Surabaya, academic year of 2022/2023 were involved. To be a member of this
class, the PSTs must pass the prerequisite in terms of competencies of English
and GPA, and, therefore, the PSTs have similar level of knowledge and skills.
The reason of selecting this class as the group of participants is that all the
members have equal competencies and mostly outperform students from the
other classes. In other words, what they did can be examples for the other
students. The participants consisted of seventeen females and three males aged
between 20 to 21 years old. The PSTs had never experienced writing any
scientific proposal before biotechnology learning took place. They also come
from a similar province, East Java, and thus, have no different cultural
background. In this study, economic background was disregarded because the
students are in the same category of paying tuition fees.
3.3 Research Instruments

This study developed three instruments: questionnaire, paper-pencil test, and
rubric to measure perception, knowledge of innovation, and scientific projects,
respectively. Adapted from Afroz and Ilham (2020), the questionnaire consisted
of ten items asking about student perception towards the integration of
biotechnology in society such as vaccine, food processing, PCR, gene transfer,
and stem cells to support sustainability in human life. The items were organised
from the least to the most familiar. Gutmann scale was applied to observe strong
preferences from participants (Niemi & Weisberg, 1974) and eliminate the
412
possibility that participants will misuse the midpoint (Chyung et al., 2017). To
make the items understandable for participants, the items were translated to
Indonesian language and the content of biotechnology was inserted to the items.
Paper-pencil test comprised twenty items with five indicators, namely, 1) linking
the role of biotechnology to support food supply, 2) identifying the benefits of
biotechnology to improve environmental hygiene, 3) analysing relevant
biotechnology projects to be applied to problems in Indonesia, 4) explaining the
direction of SDGs in Indonesia through biotechnology, and 5) applying the
principles of bioethics used in biotechnology to support the SDGs. These
indicators were formulated to be relevant to the role of PSTs in the future as
science teachers; they need to understand the phenomenon and use it to
facilitate student learning. Paper-pencil test was carried out as pre-test and post-
test to measure PSTs’ knowledge of innovation. Before use, paper-pencil test was
validated by three experts. The comments and assessment of each expert can be
seen in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1: Validators’ comments for biotechnology pre-test and post-test questions
Experts Comments
I 1. Question No 1: The options, B, C, and D, are homogeneous, but choice

A is less homogeneous because it is not in accordance with the SDGs
aspect, namely Clean Water and Sanitation.
2. Problem No 2: The stimulus presented must function properly,
namely the fermentation technique should be presented simply with
pictures, no need to use long illustrations.
3. Problem No. 20: Questions that lead to the form of negation should be
avoided.
II 1. The question grid is needed to make it easier for readers to know the
categorisation of the cognitive domain and the suitability of the
indicators with the questions.
2. The sentence should be written concisely, for questions no. 2 and 3.
III For question number 4, improvement in the content needs to be done in

the case of a person (illustrated model) who wants to solve problems
through thinking of biotechnology concepts.
Table 2: Validator assessment results on biotechnology pre- and post-test questions

Aspects
Experts
Material Construction Language
I 3 3 4
II 3 4 4
III 3 3 4
Modus 3 3 4
Table 1 and Table 2 illustrate that the instrument was valid based on expert
judgements. However, some revisions were conducted in terms of homogeneity
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of answer option, function of question stimulus, length of questions, and

content.
A rubric of scientific projects was developed to measure to what extent the

scientific projects meet the requirements for innovation. Five aspects of
observation consisting of simplicity, uniqueness, urgency, applicability, and
credibility were used to describe the innovation of the projects. Likert scale
entailed the determination of the quality of each aspect, ranging from a score of
1 to 4. Criteria for each scale were made by considering total relevant keywords
which appeared in the posters and summaries.
3.4 Data Collection Technique and Analysis

The data were collected before, after, and during the learning process. Paper-
pencil test was in the form of pre-test and post-test. PSTs were given forty
minutes to do each test. The test was printed and was administered to PSTs one
by one. Before the test, the PSTs were randomly assigned to different seats to
reduce cheating. Unlike the paper-pencil test, a questionnaire was given in the
second meeting in which students partly learnt about the concept of
biotechnology, and, therefore, were ready to give their perception. Online
format was used for the questionnaire to produce faster responses. Scientific
projects were scored during and after PSTs presentation using rubric. Keywords
were noted and underlined for more precise measurement.
After data collection, the researchers analysed pre-test and post-test data
descriptively and reconfirmed the results of the statistical calculation with the
help of Minitab version 21.2 to see the significance of student knowledge
acquisition before and after biotechnology learning with SDGs. This helps the
researcher to ensure that the result is due to the treatment (Creswell, 2012).
Questionnaire data were presented in the form of mean with standard deviation.
On the other hand, scientific projects data were analysed using both content
analysis and the score of rubrics.
4. Results
This part describes findings alongside both quantitative and qualitative analysis
regarding the role of biotechnology learning with SDGs to influence PSTs in
formulating scientific projects for their teaching practices in the implementation
of Curriculum Merdeka. The subheadings follow the research questions under
the respective sections.
4.1 PSTs’ Perception

According to Table 3, PSTs gave various responses to each item in the
questionnaire. The absolute preference of perception is determined by more than
80% of PSTs who selected “yes” answer or mean 8.0. The two strongest
preferences of the perception include consumption of processed food and aspect
of SDGs (mean  SD = 1.00  0.00), which means PSTs absolutely agree that
biotechnology can help to reduce hunger. The knowledge of food security
contributes to the absolute belief that biotechnology can sustain food availability
using food fermentation and gene transfer, as stated in items number 5 and 8
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with a mean  SD of 8.5  0.40. Likewise, PSTs perceive that biotechnology

assists in providing clean energy and maintaining health. However, PSTs show
weak perception in the use of PCR technique to prevent the spread of viruses
and the production of methane to achieving SDGs through managing sanitation
with a lower mean than 0.8. In this sense, PSTs seem to have lack of knowledge
of the way the PCR helps in identifying genetic molecules of viruses and how
bacteria change faeces into methane in anaerobic pathways.
Table 3: Student perception towards implementation of biotechnology to support

sustainability in human life
No Items Mean  SD
1 I have heard of the term Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 1.00  0.00
2 In my opinion, the use of biotechnology can reduce hunger in 1.00  0.00
developing countries.
3 In my opinion, vaccines are important to support human health. 0.90  0.30
4 In my opinion, the concept of sustainability is the main concept in 0.90  0.30
the field of biotechnology.
5 In my opinion, transgenic plants can increase productivity and 0.85  0.40
help to create zero hunger.
6 In my opinion, the use of stem cells can maintain health of the 0.95  0.20
human body.
7 In my opinion, fermentation can support clean energy. 0.85  0.40
8 In my opinion, the protein of Tempe is easily absorbed by human 0.90  0.30
body and helps to relieve kwashiorkor.
9 In my opinion, PCR can identify genetic material and is ideal to 0.70  0.46
reduce initial spread of viruses.
10 In my opinion, methane can be used to help achieving SDGs on 0.65  0.50
sanitation.
4.2 Student Knowledge of Innovation

The descriptive statistical results of student knowledge of innovation before and
after the learning process and normalised gain datasets are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Descriptive statistics of students’ innovation knowledge

Normalised Gain
Parameter Pre-test Post-test
(%)
Mean 51.00 82.25 62.99
Median 52.50 80.00 65.15
Mode 55.00 75.00 66.67
Maximum 80.00 95.00 90.91
Minimum 15.00 70.00 25.00
SD 17.29 8.34 16.07
Biotechnology project learning activities that are embedded with SDGs values
indicate that they can increase students' knowledge of innovation. The students'
knowledge of innovation before the treatment seems to be lacking and varied
(mean ± SD = 51.00 ± 17.29). This is also reinforced by the range of values and
the mode of the pre-test scores. After the treatment, students' knowledge of
innovation increased significantly, and the data variation was better than the
pre-test results (mean ± SD = 82.25 ± 8.34). The results of the average normalised
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gain also show good results, namely 62.99% ± 16.07% and in the 66.67% mode.
Normalised gain for all students is at the sufficiently level. It is not enough just
to use normalised gain; to measure the effectiveness of the treatment, inferential
statistical tests will be used.
Prior to the inferential statistical test, it was necessary to check the normal
distribution and homogeneity of the pre-test and post-test datasets. To check the
distribution of the precision dataset, it is necessary to test the data outliers first.
The outlier test used is the Grubbs test, as in Table 5.
Table 5: Grubbs test for outlier data

Dataset N G P-value Interpretation
Pre-test 20 2.08 0.565 No outlier data at the 5%
Post-test 20 1.58 1.000 level of significance
(P-value > 0.05)
Based on the data in Table 5, all pre-test and post-test data are not excluded from
the normal distribution checking test and the homogeneity of the pre-test and
post-test datasets. The Anderson-Darling (AD) test was employed to check the
distribution of the pre-test and post-test datasets. AD test results are shown in
Table 6. The results of the AD test show that both datasets do not follow the
normal distribution, namely post-test data (Table 6), so, for the homogeneity test
of both datasets, Levene's test is used, because it is valid for various continuous
distributions. The results of Levene's test on the post-test and pre-test datasets
are presented in Table 7.
Table 6: Dataset normality distribution test

Dataset AD P-value (α = 5%) Interpretation
Pre-test 0.175 0.911 (P-Value > 0.05) Dataset follows normal
distribution
Post-test 0.678 0.065 (P-Value < 0.05) Dataset does not follow
normal distribution
Table 7: Homogeneity of dataset’s variance test

Test P-value (α =
df1 df2 Interpretation
Statistic 5%)
6.68 1 38 0.014 Pre-test and post-test dataset do
not have equal variance
(P-value < 0.05).
Based on the data in Table 6 and Table 7, to find out the statistical difference
between the pre-test and post-test datasets, a non-parametric test was used,
namely the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. Before this was conducted, the
differences between the pre-test and post-test data for each student were first
looked for. The results of the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test of student knowledge
data are presented in Table 8.
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Table 8: Result of Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test

Wilcoxon P-value (α =
N Interpretation
Statistic 5%)
20 210.00 0.000 Statistical significance between
the pre-test and post-test
dataset (P-value < 0.05)
Referring to the data in Table 8, it is concluded that the interventions carried out
can increase PSTs' knowledge of innovation about biotechnology projects
embedded with SDGs values. This result is also coherent with the average
normalised gain in Table 4, which is also positive and is at the sufficient level.
4.3 Science Projects

As stated in the research procedure, at the first meeting the lecturer introduced a
video to PSTs talking about how different wavelengths of light can induce
different sweetness in strawberries. In the science concept, strawberries have
colour pigments that can capture light to further promote photosynthesis.
Consequently, sugar produced during Calvin cycle increases the flavour of
strawberries. PSTs then modified the variables of the research, and successfully
created five project titles. The analysis of innovation is shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Analysis of innovation of project titles

Aspects of innovation
No Project Titles SDGs
S U U A C
A Local The use of To increase The use of Biology and Zero
The effect of
carrots are wavelength local light with physics hunger,
light wavelength
abundant. of light commodity different good
to nutrient level
colour health and
in local carrot
wellbeing
B The use of Lamp is The use of Many chili The use of Entomology, Life on
different light to set up wavelength plants are insect trap biology, and land
attract insects alongside to attract attacked by alongside physics
and protect with insect insects and pests. with LED.
plants trap. change their
behaviour
C The effect of Goldfish is The use of Many It can be Animal Life below
light wavelength abundant; light can be juveniles are applied at anatomy and water
to the lifespan LED can used to affect not able to home to physio-logy,
and growth of be used as the lifespan continue protect biology, and
goldfish a source of of goldfish their life due juveniles physics
light. juveniles to diseases. from
within diseases.
aquarium.
D MOLAR The It can help Many cases It can be Biological Good
(Mosquito laser materials reduce the of dengue applied in knowledge, health and
UV-R) to the are easy to use of fever and endemic area mosquito life wellbeing
growth of set up; fogging; use pollution due but needs cycle, and
mosquito larvae easy to different to fogging power environment
of Dengue handle wavelength supply.
E The effect of The water The use of The need of The tools are Knowledge Clean
light wavelength is ample. wavelength clean water easy to of water water and
to increase water to influence in dense modify and quality sanitation
quality in bacterial urban organise.
Surabaya growth in
water
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Indicators of innovation (SUUAC)

S: simplicity: easy access to tools and materials
U: Uniqueness: not many people use it yet
U: Urgency: urgent need
A: Applicability: ease of use of the tool
C: Credibility: knowledge need for the projects
Table 9 shows that PSTs created five different project titles in groups from a
single independent variable, wavelength. The problems they raise are closely
related to plantation, insects, fishing, and water quality, with which PSTs are
familiar. The breakdown of the title shows aspects of innovation, including
simplicity, uniqueness, urgency, applicability, and credibility. From the
simplicity aspect, most of the titles are based on easiness and abundance. This
benefits to the continuation of the projects. Since the idea comes from the same
sources, the uniqueness of the ideas depends on the use of wavelengths, which
seem to be effective in affecting small organisms and cells. Hence, the subjects
PSTs use, consisting of insects, juveniles, microbes, and plants. In terms of
urgency, PSTs see how useful their research ideas are to human beings, such as
increasing food productivity and lowering the risk of diseases. From the table,
all the ideas are applicable to solve problems and mostly involve biology and
physics to deliver the ideas to scientific evidence. The scientific projects fall
within different purposes of SDGs, like zero hunger, good health and wellbeing,
life on land, life below water, and clean water and sanitation. To sum up, all the
projects of the PSTs are successful to bring about the essence of SDGs from the
perspective of what they learn.
A B C D E
Figure 2: Poster of science project ideas using wavelengths of light to A. modify the
nutritional content of carrots, B. ward off garlic pests, C. modify the habitat of
goldfish, D. reduce the resistance of mosquito larvae, and E. improve water quality
Figure 2 shows that each poster receives feedback from the other PSTs after
presentation, leaving questions (red cards) and supports (green cards). Poster D
obtains most red cards, meaning that many other PSTs are very curious towards
the project about the use of wavelength to affect the life cycle of mosquitos. The
second place is poster A talking about how to increase flavour as well as
nutrients in local carrot. The least number of red cards is in poster E. PSTs in
Department Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Negeri
Surabaya, were familiar with the parameter of freshwater quality when they
programmed the Ecology course, including dissolved oxygen, biochemical
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oxygen demand, and biodiversity of plankton. This experience does not make
them curious enough about project E.
Table 10: Results of review and assessment of scientific projects

No Title Review
A The effect of light • The idea raised is very good to increase local
wavelength to nutrient commodities.
level in local carrot • All aspects studied are in accordance with the idea.
B The use of different • The title has not yet been formed, but the idea is
light to attract insects very good. Insect trap with light is implemented to
and protect plants protect cultivated plants, namely chillies.
• All aspects of SUUAC are in accordance with the
idea review.
C The effect of light • The idea is good, that is, wavelengths of light are
wavelength to the used to increase fish resistance from the aspect of
lifespan and growth of algae and bacterial growth.
goldfish • The SUUAC aspect has been well-analysed.
D MOLAR (Mosquito • The title is very good. In the aspect of applicability,
laser UV-R) to the however, there is problem considering the light
growth of mosquito being used has a short wavelength with large
larvae of dengue energy that can harm genes.
• Other aspects are appropriate.
E The effect of light • The idea is very good, but still limited to biological
wavelength to increase indicators. Not yet in the realm of chemistry.
water quality in • Aspects of credibility should be added to the
Surabaya science of biology and physics.
• Other aspects are appropriate.
As seen in Table 10, all scientific projects are sufficient to accommodate local
issues as the source of problems. The use of wavelength as an independent
variable is relevant to form influences on dependent variables. However, a few
revisions should be made in terms of safety and knowledge needed for applying
projects. The highest score of projects is D, whereas the lowest one is B due to
not making the title (Figure 3).
90
85
Score
80
75
A B C D E
Scientific Projects
Figure 3: Score of each scientific project made by PSTs
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4.4 Formulating Teaching Practices for Curriculum Merdeka

After conducting the presentation, students were asked to align their scientific
projects to Curriculum Merdeka, taking into consideration learning outcomes and
project themes of Merdeka Belajar (freedom of learning).
Table 11: Mapping projects for science learning in Curriculum Merdeka

Appropriate Learning Relevant Project Themes
No Science Projects
Outcomes to Achieve for Curriculum Merdeka
1 Students identify the Lifestyle for sustainability,
The effect of light
application of technology to build
wavelength to
biotechnology in everyday Indonesia,
nutrient level in local
life. entrepreneurship, and local
carrot
wisdom
2 The use of different 1. Students identify Lifestyle for sustainability,
light to attract insects interactions between technology to build
and protect plants living things and their Indonesia; local wisdom
environment.
2. Students identify the
application of
biotechnology in
everyday life.
3 The effect of light Students identify the Lifestyle for sustainability,
wavelength to the application of technology to build
lifespan and growth biotechnology in everyday Indonesia;
of goldfish life. entrepreneurship
4 MOLAR (Mosquito 1. Students identify Lifestyle for sustainability
laser UV-R) to the interactions between and technology to build
growth of mosquito living things and their Indonesia
larvae of Dengue environment.
2. Students identify the
application of
biotechnology in
everyday life.
5 The effect of light 1. Students identify the Lifestyle for sustainability
wavelength to application of and technology to build
increase water biotechnology in Indonesia
quality in Surabaya everyday life.
2. Students design efforts
to prevent and
overcome pollution
and climate change.
Table 11 presents the alignment of science projects, learning outcomes, and

project themes of Curriculum Merdeka. The data reveal that all projects
contribute to the theme of sustainability and technology application. Only those
which are close to agriculture and fishery support the theme of local wisdom
and entrepreneurship. These themes are related to the value of products and
how farmers plant crops using “Tumpangsari” [intercropping technique]. For
learning outcomes, all scientific projects are in line with the learning outcomes of
biotechnology since the projects have purposes to extend human life from the
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view of the use of technology to affect insect behaviour, increase nutrient and
growth and quality of water from the perspective of microorganisms. By
knowing this, it is helpful for teachers to prepare their teaching and learning
module of Curriculum Merdeka using biotechnology projects. Looking at the
same technique to solve different problems will help teachers innovate their
teaching materials for students.
5. Discussion
The findings revealed that PSTs give their perception after experiencing learning
about concepts in biotechnology (see Table 3). Ten items of the questionnaire
asked about PSTs’ personal opinions towards the biotechnology that supports
human health and environmental cleanliness (Chalil et al., 2018), so that their
perception relies on knowledge and attitudes (Dawson, 2007; Usak et al., 2009)
to use biotechnology products such as vaccine, genetic modified crops (plant
transgenic), processed food, and biofuel. It is not surprising then that many
people positioned their positive expectation on biotechnology due to its
significance to increase productivity of farming (Borlaug, 2000; Serageldin, 1999).
From Table 3, eight items received more positive feedbacks from PSTs, while
two of the items (item 9 and 10) had lower positive responses. However, these
items are displayed on PSTs works as in Table 9, in that PSTs accommodate the
role of microorganisms and cleanliness of water. In other words, what PSTs are
less familiar with can be a positive construct to them in determining the decision
of widening the area of learning (Figure 5). Previous research supported this
finding since the perception can influence student decision-making of what to
choose and what to do (Marcus & Velardi, 2022).
Regarding the knowledge of innovation, biotechnology learning offers PSTs

opportunities to modify the material they learn. The statistical analysis reveals
that biotechnology learning with SDGs influences PSTs to increase their
knowledge of innovation (see Table 8) P-value < 0.05 (0.000 < 0.005). The success
of this treatment is driven by the characteristics of biotechnology itself. First, as
an interdisciplinary subject, biotechnology allows students to immerse
themselves in the areas in which most people are interested in or feel challenged
(Aqil et al., 2020; Dunham et al., 2002; Frumkin & Haines, 2019; Ketpichainarong
et al., 2010). For instance, learning biotechnology integrated with technology can
help to learn molecules (Daniels et al., 2020); produce products, manipulate
variables (Ketpichainarong et al., 2010), and communicate ethical dilemmas
(Harfouche, n.d.; Harfouche & Nakhle, 2020). Second, unlike learning other
subjects in the biological field, biotechnology is central to practical activities
rather than theoretical activities, so that students can have opportunities to
practise scientific methods while creating projects from surrounding problems
(Marklin Reynolds & Hancock, 2010; Matthews et al., 2019; Membrillo-
Hernandez et al., 2019). Third, finding problems as a source of learning produces
myriad impact to students as they grow with experience of facing difficulties
(Corlu & Aydin, 2016; Jiménez-Cabré et al., 2019; Newman et al., 2015).
Innovation often comes with a problem and a solution at the end, and, therefore,
it reinforces in them that the projects they work on characterise their hard work.
The acquisition of knowledge escalates what PSTs learn in modifying ideas of
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scientific projects by the four indicators below (see Figure 4) except the indicator
about applying the principles of bioethics (below 70%) since it is not displayed
explicitly in the PSTs’ works (Table 9).
100
The righr answer (%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
linking the role identifying the analyzing explaining the applying the
of benefits of relevant direction of principles of
biotechnology biotechnology biotechnology SDGs in bioethics used
to support food to improve projects to be Indonesia in
supply environmental applied to through biotechnology
hygiene problems in biotechnology to support the
Indonesia SDGs
Indicators of test (pre- and post-test)
Figure 4: The percentage of right answers per indicator
The results support the effectiveness of learning biotechnology to innovate

science through the aspect of SDGs, as students in groups successfully practised
modification of the strawberries experiment with different wavelengths of light
(see Figure 2). Every poster gets questions (curiosity) and comments that can be
used to refine the ideas of projects. Presenting their own projects, asking
questions, and giving feedback clearly depict activities of learning about
decision-making (Helle et al., 2006; Morgan, 1983). It implies the fundamental
aspects of the highest status of school of Mandiri Berbagi (Independent Sharing)
at which teachers can innovate teaching materials (Inayati, 2022). Moreover, this
benefits the PSTs when they teach, in that the innovation they produce can be
used to support students where not all schools possess sufficient facilities of
laboratories. Returning to the first research question, it can be implied from the
results of analysis and the above explanation that learning biotechnology with
embedded SDGs can effectively assist PSTs not only to have positive perception
towards the use of biotechnology products and services to enhance the quality of
human life, but also acquire knowledge about how to innovate or modify a
single variable to generate various types of scientific projects by elaborating to
different situations. This relates to Piaget’s theory about assimilation and
accommodation. What PSTs are familiar with can help them to raise mental
processing to scientifically implement the same treatment to other occurrences,
as Özgelen (2012) found in his work with sixth and seventh graders. However,
what PSTs need to do for further refinement of their scientific projects (Table 10
and Figure 3) is to consider the relevancy of basic sciences to the problems and
the safety for human life where it may relate to the data of Figure 4 in that some
students do not successfully answer questions or problems with bioethics.
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To date, Curriculum Merdeka offers seven themes for students to choose. These
vary in terms of content, namely, sustainability issue, local wisdom, ideology,
diversity, citizenship, technology, and entrepreneurship. In line with the core of
science, the themes selected to be used in science learning must be inherent
with inquiry. Singer et al. (2010) contended that designing teaching materials in
the form of projects must instruct students to formulate questions, measure or
observe data, collect, and interpret data, and communicate the results. These
essences remain vital to Curriculum Merdeka since it demands student skills to
do observation, measurement, interpretation, and communication. According to
Table 9, five titles of projects include the scientific method, starting from
generating research problems, building hypotheses, measuring the data,
analysing the results, and presenting the final products. Ika et al. (2022) found
that Curriculum Merdeka consists of more than 80% of scientific content, which
means that students are practically more familiar with the work of science. They
can embed it to the themes even though they may not be directly related. In
addition, the contents of Curriculum Merdeka are associated with the Nature of
Science (NOS) in which it comprises tentativeness, subjectivity, empirical
evidence, and scientific method. However, according to the results of analysis
conducted by Ika et al. (2022), students in Indonesia still rely in their work on
empirical evidence and scientific method. This finding also points out that PSTs’
ideas of scientific projects are still consistently practising such an approach and
becomes the limitation of this study by not incorporating the value of
tentativeness. For subjectivity, however, since PSTs modify their scientific
projects with their own ideas, it seems that they do not disregard their own
point of view.
To answer the second research question, it can be seen from the data in Table 11
in which all scientific project titles are relevant to four themes of projects, that is,
lifestyle for sustainability, technology to build Indonesia, entrepreneurship, and
local wisdom. The relevancy comes from the content of the titles. For instance,
title 1 is in line with four themes altogether. The title “The effect of light
wavelength to nutrient level in local carrot” accommodates issues like increasing
food productivity, the use of simple technology, and supporting traditional
farming. In terms of sustainability, Head et al. (2020) found that the awareness of
bringing up the ideas of SDGs into what people learn, do or work is related to
the experiences and involvements towards science activities. PSTs, in this sense,
as university students in response to independent learning (Merdeka Belajar), are
regularly participating in science activities both inside and outside campus, such
as lab works, scientific fairs, and community services. Therefore, it is not
surprising that those experiences provide access to students to create projects
which are in line with SDGs (Agirreazkuenaga, 2019) and the essence of
Curriculum Merdeka. The following shows a flowchart of how biotechnology
learning with SDGs can help PSTs align their ideas of scientific projects to the
themes of Curriculum Merdeka.
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Biotechnology learning SDGs
Basic
knowledge
Perception Knowledge of
innovation
Experiences
Curriculum Scientific
Merdeka projects
Project themes
Sustainab Local Ideology Indonesia Democracy/ Innovating Entrepre

ility wisdom spirit citizenship technology neurship
Figure 5: A flowchart of the alignment of projects towards themes of Curriculum

Merdeka
The flowchart describes how biotechnology learning with SDGs can help PSTs
align their ideas of scientific projects to the curriculum. The shaded boxes are the
themes that match to the PSTs projects. According to Nugroho et al. (2018), the
issues about tradition, sustainability, the use of technology, and
entrepreneurship are vital aspects to sustain the development of areas in
Indonesia, such as Pekalongan, Yogyakarta, and Surakarta. The boxes are
matched to what Nugroho et al. (2018) found. By considering such a relevancy,
PSTs can design teaching packages for students in junior high school through
looking at learning outcomes in terms of understanding, science process skills,
and project themes. Understanding refers to the mastery of science concepts
including biology, physics and chemistry. Science process skills consist of
observing phenomena, asking questions, planning and conducting experiment,
analysing data, evaluating findings, and communicating the results
(Kemdikbud, 2021). From these two parts of the curriculum, it can be seen the
results of this study are placed at the initial effort for assisting PSTs in creating
projects to plan implementation of Curriculum Merdeka. Project ideas fulfil
understanding of science concepts and some parts of science process skills, such
as observing phenomena, asking questions, and planning an experiment.
6. Conclusion
From the above explanation, it concludes that biotechnology learning effectively
enhances PSTs’ perception, knowledge to innovate science and create scientific
projects for supporting Curriculum Merdeka. Most students perceive that
learning biotechnology mostly relates to the issues of food and health, whereas
the process of making products or services obtains a lower score of perception.
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However, the items of perception which have lower scores can be used to
describe what students choose to learn in creating ideas for scientific projects.
This is due to the response of PSTs after receiving initial learning of
biotechnology with SDGs. In terms of knowledge of innovating science, the
treatment reveals significant results, 0.000 < 0.05, to effectively help students
understand the area of innovation which involves concepts of wavelength of
light. It is tested using Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. This result affects PSTs to be
mostly successful in generating five ideas of scientific projects. When aligned
with project themes and learning outcomes, the project can be useful as an initial
effort for PSTs in planning implementation of Curriculum Merdeka. In other
words, learning biotechnology can be useful to support teaching skills,
especially in preparing project themes and achieving learning outcomes, in
Curriculum Merdeka.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Directorate of Research, Technology, and Community
Service, Directorate General of Higher Education, Research and Technology for
the research Grant under the scheme of National Competitive Basic Research
(DRTPM) No. 126/E5/PG.02.00.PT/2022. Also, we thank Universitas Negeri
Surabaya for providing opportunities and research facilities to complete all the
procedures for this research.
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Appendix 1
Instrument of Student Perception
Response
No Items
Yes No
1 I have heard of the term Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs).
2 In my opinion, the use of biotechnology can reduce
hunger in developing countries.
3 In my opinion, vaccines are important to support
human health.
4 In my opinion, the concept of sustainability is the
main concept in the field of biotechnology.
5 In my opinion, transgenic plants can increase
productivity and help to create zero hunger.
6 In my opinion, the use of stem cells can maintain
health of the human body.
7 In my opinion, fermentation can support clean
energy.
8 In my opinion, the protein of Tempe is easily
absorbed by human body and helps to relieve
kwashiorkor.
9 In my opinion, PCR can identify genetic material
and is ideal to reduce initial spread of viruses.
10 In my opinion, methane can be used to help
achieving SDGs on sanitation.
431
Appendix 2
Sample of Paper-Pencil Test Items
No. Indicators Questions

1 Linking the role of Look at the following graph!
biotechnology to Here is the data related to the vitamin deficiency.
support food Most people in the country consume a little number
supply. of fruit and much amount of carbohydrate
containing food.
Figure: a graph showing the cases of vitamin

deficiency.
According to the data above, the solution that is

applicable is ….
A. The use of gene insertion to induce the
production of new nutrient.
B. The use of modified pollinators to help seed
production.
C. The use of hydroponics with enhanced
macronutrients.
D. The application of biopesticides to lower the
population of bugs.
E. The use of organic fertilizer to enhance the
nutrients in crops.
2 Identifying the Read the following title of the project below:
benefits of “The use of biodiversity of bacteria on arabica dried
biotechnology to leaves as the solution to reduce moler disease
improve impact level in onion”.
environmental If you want to apply the project to solve
hygiene environmental issue, the strength of the title can be
inferred from ….
A. the dried leaves that people get rid of.
B. the diseases in onion.
C. the biodiversity of bacteria.
D. the reduction of disease impact level.
432
No. Indicators Questions

E. both bacteria and the dried leaves.
3 Analysing Indonesia has focused to point out the issue of
biotechnology bioethics to support SDGs. The following idea that
projects to be seems to be the most urgent and relevant to the
applied to problems statement is ….
in Indonesia A. The effect of cengkih leaves on mice’s lungs
exposed to cigarettes.
B. The use of multi-layered soils to induce the
speed of composting.
C. The use of nanoparticles from active
compounds of belimbing wuluh as the
indicator for mercury.
D. The use of chitosan to protect fruits from
decaying process.
E. Instability of gene tetM which codes antibiotic
resistance of Lactobacillus casei.
4 Explaining the Indonesia has complex issues. One of which is
direction of SDGs in environmental cleanliness. The issue is already the
Indonesia through focus of SDGs. The following aspect that best
biotechnology describes the relevancy of biotechnology towards
SDGs is that biotechnology ….
A. supports soil fertility through bioremediation.
B. increases the water quality through the control
of mosquitos.
C. reduces water pollution through the use
hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria.
D. helps to reduce pollutants in soils through the
application of transgenic plants.
E. helps water cleanliness by using enhanced E.
coli.
5 Applying the Indonesia has focused to point out the issue of
principles of bioethics to support SDGs. The following idea that
bioethics seems to be the most urgent and relevant to the
statement is ….
A. The effect of cengkih leaves on mice’s lungs
exposed to cigarettes.
B. The use of multi-layered soils to induce the
speed of composting.
C. The use of nanoparticles from active
compounds of belimbing wuluh as the
indicator for mercury.
D. The use of chitosan to protect fruits from
decaying process.
E. Instability of gene tetM which codes antibiotic
resistance of Lactobacillus casei.
433
Appendix 3
Rubric for science project ideas

Scale
Aspects
1 (poor) 2 (acceptable) 3 (good) 4 (very good)
Simplicity The ideas are The ideas are The ideas are The ideas are
complex and complex but still simple and simple,
incomprehensible. understandable. understandable. understandable,
and easy to
remember.
Uniqueness Ideas are easy to Ideas are easy to Ideas are easy to Ideas can be
find on google find on google find on google found on google
scholar, more scholar, between scholar, between scholar, between
than 8 pieces of 6 -7 pieces of 3 – 5 pieces of 1 – 3 pieces of
information information information on information
appeared on the appeared on the the front page. appeared on the
front page. front page. front page.
Urgency The ideas that The ideas that The ideas that The ideas that
emerge do not emerge have a emerge have a emerge have a
have a clear clear urgency clear urgency clear urgency on
urgency. but are limited and influence on a wider
to small or local a broader scale community, and
scales of interest. of interest. focus on the
sustainability
issues.
Applicability The idea is Ideas are The idea created The idea created
difficult to potential to be can be carried can be carried out
implement. implemented. out with PSTs with PSTs
competencies. competencies and
have predictable
results.
Credibility Ideas are difficult Ideas are Ideas are Ideas are
to apply with the applicable with applicable with applicable with at
science at least one field at least two least three fields
knowledge of of science fields of science of science
PSTs. knowledge of knowledge of knowledge of
PSTs. PSTs. PSTs.
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Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

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Editors of the January 2023 Issue

Contribution of Academia Colleague as a Clinical Model to the Professional Development of Pre-Service

Effects of Interactive Mathematics Software on Grade-5 Learners’ Performance ...................................................... 166

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

“Mending Bridges”: English Teachers Teaching

Abstract. This article explores English Home and First Additional

Keywords: English Education; Social Justice; Social Cohesion

The main aim of this paper is to examine teachers’ understandings of a cohesive

2. Theoretical framework: Social justice and social cohesion

A crucial aspect of social justice in education is enabling educational policies and

Secondly, the concept of social justice in education corresponds with Freire’s

Reliability and trustworthiness were guaranteed by means of triangulation and

4. Data description and analysis

4.1 English teachers’ understanding of a socially just cohesive society

“A socially just cohesive society is where there is equality, a society where

“A socially just cohesive society is a society that allows and respects

According to these three respondents, some of the features that determine a

Ms Makhosi concurs with Mrs Thabethe’s and Mr Daniels’ sentiments pertaining

to redress social injustices without providing clarity, Ms Makhosi could not

Despite the teachers’ superficial understanding of enacting equal treatment in

Her colleague, Mrs Thabethe, acknowledges the importance of teaching for a

This extract depicts Mrs Morntana’s teaching techniques aimed to promote a

Although most teachers in this study possessed knowledge of a cohesive society,

to real-world problems and situations, challenging received knowledge,

4.3 Limited pedagogic knowledge: some observations

Her assertion presupposes a vibrant lesson characterised by active participation

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Challenges of Implementing the Individualized

Abstract. This study identified teacher challenges in the implementation

Keywords: challenges; IEP implementation; learning disabilities;

In addition, teachers and parents play an important role in influencing the

Through a review of research on the effectiveness of IEP implementation for LD

2.1 Article Search Strategy

2.2 Article Selection Criteria

Table 1: Article acceptance and rejection criteria

2.3 Article Selection Process

Figure 1: Flowchart of article selection process

2.4 Data Collection and Data Analysis

According to Kumar (2011), an SLR study also aims to develop a conceptual

Table 2: List of reviewed research articles

3.1 Teacher Knowledge Challenges

Table 3 : List of reviewed articles according to aspects of teacher knowledge

3.2 Teacher Skills Challenges