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Bio Unit 1 Revision
Bio Unit 1 Revision
Starch
Starch is a polymer (i.e. polysaccharide) whose monomers are a-glucose molecules, that are joined together
by glycosidic bonds.
Starch is a polymer of a-glucose, so it stores a lot of energy.
Starch is a mixture of two substance, amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose releases glucose more slowly overtime keeping you going longer whereas amylopectin releases
glucose for cellular respiration, rapidly when needed.
Amylose
It is a polysaccharide made by the condensation of a-glucose that are joined together by 1-4 glycosidic bond.
Amylose has a non branching (i.e. linear) chain where the chain is coiled forming helical (i.e. spiral) structure,
making the final molecule more compact, so it takes up less space, with more glucose being stored in smaller
space, so it doesn’t get into the way of organelles or substances moving around in cell.
Amylopectin
It is a polysaccharide made by the condensation of a-glucose that are linked together by 1-4 and 1-6
glycosidic bonds. Amylopectin has a branching chain formed by 1-6 glycosidic bonds so starch is quickly
hydrolyzed, but chains are shorter than amylose.
This structure causes amylopectin to be insoluble, compact (i.e. takes up less space) with high density, and
rapidly hydrolyzed and so this make starch have a metabolic function by being a convenient energy storage
molecule.
Note that, a mixture of amylose and amylopectin build up into large starch grains found in
chloroplast and in storage organs such as potato tubers and seeds.
Glycogen
Glycogen is a polymer (i.e. polysaccharide) whose subunits are a-glucose molecules that are linked
together by 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds. Glycogen is an energy storage molecule that is similar in
structure to amylopectin but is more branched, so that glucose can be rapidly released (i.e. glycogen
rapidly hydrolyzed) for cellular respiration in cells to provide energy when needed. Also, for rapid storage
of glucose in cells.
Note that, glycogen tend to clump together to form granules, which are visible in liver and muscle cells,
where they form energy reserve.
Properties of glycogen that makes it a good storage molecule
•Low solubility or insoluble, so it won’t lower the water potential nor the osmotic pressure inside cells, so
no effect on chemical reactions inside cells.
•Many terminals (i.e. ends) for easy attachment and removal of glucose (highly branched)
•Glucose can be stored quickly.
•Rapidly hydrolyzed by specific enzymes giving glucose easily and quickly when required for respiration
and energy release.
•The structure of glycogen makes it more compact, thus taking up less space (allow storage of large
quantities of glucose in a small space), such that it does not get into the way of organelles or substances
moving around inside the cell.
Globular proteins
•Globular proteins are water soluble, this is because amino acids with hydrophilic polar R groups
are facing outwards -so hydrogen bonds are formed with water- while amino acids with
hydrophobic non polar R groups are pointing inside towards the center of the molecule.
•They curl up into spherical (globular) shape and have tertiary structure with specific 3D shape
making them metabolically active.
(Some have quaternary structure)
•Many globular proteins have metabolic functions, so if their shape is altered slightly by changing
conditions, they lose their ability to function.
•Examples include hemoglobin, myoglobin, insulin, antibodies, and enzymes.
•Note that, globular proteins do not fully dissolve to make a solution, instead the molecules are so
big, forming a colloid (a suspension of molecules that are not fully dissolved).
How amino acids join together to form the 3D structure of protein?
•Formation of peptide bond between amino group of one amino acid and carboxyl group of
another.
•Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain.
•This determines the position of R groups, orientation and arrangement, and also the type of
bonds between R groups of amino acids (i.e. the R group interaction including hydrogen bonds
between polar groups, disulfide bonds between cysteine SH groups, ionic bonding between
ionized amine and carboxylic acid groups and hydrophobic interaction between non polar side
chains).
•This in turn determines the overall folding and coiling of polypeptide chain into tertiary structure
giving a specific shape of active site which is complimentary to substrate.
•Moreover, amino acids with hydrophilic polar R groups are facing outwards, while amino acids
with hydrophobic non polar R groups are pointing inside to the center of the molecule making it
water soluble as enzymes are globular proteins with tertiary structure.
•Form specific shape of active site.
Fibrous protein
Have simpler structure (no tertiary structure), with polypeptides lying parallel to each other so
more stable to changes in pH and temperature. They don’t curl up but form long strands with
many cross links (cross linked chains). They are water insoluble with large number of repeating
amino acid sequences. Fibrous proteins have structural function, being very tough thus giving
strength.
•Keratin found in nails, hair and the outer layer of the skin making these structures waterproof.
•Collagen (structural protein) provides strength to the artery wall, as blood pressure is high in
arteries.
Comparison between Fibrous and Globular proteins
•Fibrous proteins have a long strand, narrow fiber like structure and have no tertiary
structure (no complex folding). While globular proteins have round (spherical) shape with
tertiary structure (complex folding) and sometimes quaternary structure.
•Fibrous proteins have structural function while globular proteins have metabolic function.
•Fibrous proteins have large number of repeating amino acid sequences while globular
proteins have irregular amino acid sequence.
•Fibrous proteins are more stable and are less sensitive to changes in pH and
temperature while globular proteins are more sensitive to changes in temperature and pH.
•Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water, with non polar R groups facing outwards while
globular proteins are soluble in water with hydrophilic R groups facing outwards.
•Examples of fibrous protein includes (collagen in tendons, keratin, myosin in muscles).
Examples of globular proteins include (hemoglobin, myoglobin, immunoglobulin, insulin
and enzymes)
Secondary structure
•It is the regular folding or coiling of polypeptide chain, held in shape by
hydrogen bonding between the oxygen of -CO- group of one amino acid and
the hydrogen of the -NH- group of another amino acid.
•(Note that, R groups are not involved in secondary structure)
•Types of folding include (a-helix and b-pleated sheet)
a-helix
•The polypeptide is coiled into a spiral shape.
•Hydrogen bonds between amino acids in the same polypeptide chain
stabilize the a-helix structure, with peptide bonds forming backbone and R
groups protruding in all directions.
b-pleated sheet
•Much looser and straighter in shape than a-helix.
•Polypeptide chain is held into regular, parallel pleats (i.e. flat sheets).
•Held together by hydrogen bonds between the amino and carboxyl groups
of amino acids.
Collagen
•Collagen is an insoluble, fibrous protein, found in tendons, cartilage,
bones, teeth and walls of blood vessels.
•It is made up of three polypeptide chains (i.e. have quaternary
structure), each in a shape of helix but not a-helix as it is not tightly
wound.
•Glycine -the smallest amino acid- is repeated every third position in
each polypeptide.
•The three helical polypeptides are wound around each other forming
triple helix (i.e. helical structure).
•Which are held together by many hydrogen bonds.
•Also, they are held by covalent bonds -cross links- between collagen
molecules lying parallel to each other (between the R groups of amino
acids lying next to each other) to form fibrils.
•Many fibrils lie along each other forming strong bundles called fibers.
•This structure gives collagen high tensile strength, where it can
withstand large pulling forces without stretching or breaking.
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1A. 3. Carbohydrates 2: polysaccharides
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(3)
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•Therefore, less water enters the lumen from the blood (i.e. reduces
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osmotic effect.
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the loss of water molecule and causing the formation of 1-4 glycosidic
bonds.
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their active site which is determined by specific sequence of amino Linked to 2B.2.
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Small Large
Monosaccharides are composed of a single sugar unit while polysaccharides are composed
of many sugar units. Linked to 1A.3.
•Monosaccharides Carbohydrates 2:
Monosaccharides have no glycosidic bonds while polysaccharides have glycosidic bonds
cannot be Polysaccharides
holding monomers together.
hydrolysed while
Monosaccharides are sweet, and soluble with osmotic effect while polysaccharides are non
polysaccharides
can be hydrolysed
sweet and insoluble with no effect on water potential (i.e. no osmotic effect).
Monosaccharides are reducing sugars with reducing end (i.e. free functional group) while
polysaccharides are non reducing sugars with no free functional group.
Monosaccharides have general formula (CH2O)n while polysaccharides have general
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formula (C6H10O5)n
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1A.5. Proteins
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Fibrous protein involves polypeptides arranged parallel to each other
thus being stable to changes in pH and temperature. They don’t curl up
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long strands with many cross links (i.e. cross linked chains). Fibrous
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proteins are water insoluble with many repeating amino acid sequences.
They have structural function, being very though thus giving strength.
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1A. 5. Proteins
(3)
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stretching of arteries under high pressure and therefore prevents
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rupture. Therefore, alteration in the structure of collagen or reduced
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collagen causes over stretching of arteries under high pressure thus
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causing it to rupture.
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6 January 2016 Code: WBI01/01 Paper 1
1A.1. The chemistry of life
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Fatty acid with hydrocarbon chain Monounsaturated with one carbon to carbon double bond
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Oleic acid is a mono unsaturated fatty acid with one carbon to carbon
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double bond in hydrocarbon chain.
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forces and separate fatty acid chains.
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Condensation reaction
Esterification
Lactose is a disaccharide, which is composed of the two sugar units, a-glucose and galactose
while starch is a polysaccharide, which is composed of a-glucose monomers only. Lactose has a
free functional group (i.e. is a reducing sugar) while starch is not a reducing sugar with no free
functional group. Also, lactose has 1,4 glycosidic bond while starch has both 1,4
and 1,6 glycosidic bonds.
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As the mass of milk in diet increases, the relative risk of death increases
(i.e. positive correlation).
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Rapidly
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1A.4. Lipids
hydrolysed
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Ester bond
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Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms while
unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds between carbon atoms. Saturated
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fatty acids have straight hydrocarbon chain while the hydrocarbon chain of
unsaturated fatty acids has kinks (i.e. is bent). Also, the hydrogen to carbon
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1A.3. Carbohydrates 2
(4)
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with branching structure with glucose molecules linked by 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic
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bonds. Amylopectin has many terminals for rapid condensation and hydrolysis, for
easy attachment and removal of glucose for cellular respiration in cells to release
energy in the form of ATP.
Peptide bond
Water molecule
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Polypeptide
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1A.1. The chemistry of life
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(1)
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forming hydrogen bonds with water such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and
glucose. Also, ions dissociate in water where S- oxygen is attracted to
.N
Aorta has semilunar valves thus preventing the back flow of blood into the heart during ventricular diastole.
In addition, it is branching to supply blood to different parts of the body.
Aorta is an artery with narrow lumen, to maintain blood flow under high pressure. Also, it has tunica intima
(endothelium) which is composed of thin, flat squamous epithelial cells with smooth surface facing lumen to smooth out
the flow of blood allowing easy blood flow with minimum possible frictional resistance to blood flow, endothelial layer is
folded, to prevent damage to the endothelial lining when diameter of aorta increases. Thick tunica media which is
composed of smooth muscles, collage and elastic tissue. Where smooth muscles contract and relax changing the
volume of blood delivered by changing diameter of artery, collagen provides strength to withstand high blood pressure
thus preventing rapture, while elastic fibers stretch and recoil to accommodate increased blood pressure as well as
maintain blood pressure and rapid blood flow. Thick tunica externa (i.e. thick walls) containing collagen and elastic
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fibers to provide strength and flexibility to artery.
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Veins have semilunar valves while capillaries have no valves.
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Veins have walls containing smooth muscles and elastic tissue while capillaries have walls that
are one cell thick.
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1B. 5. Atherosclerosis:
(5)
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Coronary artery supplies the heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients,
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lower blood pressure so less efficient supply of oxygen to body cells.
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3 May 2014
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Code: WBI01/01 Paper 1
1B.4. The mammalian heart
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Atria systole
Ventricular systole
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75
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Pressure
in ventricles
increases
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to higher than
pressure in
atria.
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Atrial Diastole
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16KPa
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The semilunar valves open to allow blood to flow from the left ventricle
to the aorta to be transported to all the body. Therefore, the pressure in
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Aorta walls have elastic fibers that stretch and recoil. Also, semilunar
valves close.
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1B.5. Atherosclerosis
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1B.1. The principle of circulation
(8)
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Peak flow rate is greater in men than in women, the peak flow rate is greatest in
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Graph will have similar shape and will be higher than that for women of 175cm.
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Upon a cut in a tissue, the contact between platelets and collagen fibers causes platelets to
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break open in large numbers and release serotonin and thromboplastin. Thromboplastin is an
enzyme that starts the clotting cascade of reactions where in the presence of calcium ions in
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the right concentration cause the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin, which in turn
catalyses the conversion of the soluble, globular protein, fibrinogen into fibrin, which forms
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fibrous mesh, trapping blood cells and platelets to form a clot.
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The blood clots formed in veins is carried through the pulmonary artery to pulmonary
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capillaries in lungs, where it blocks the flow of blood, so reduced blood flow in lungs, so
reduced gas exchange. Reduced uptake of oxygen accompanied by usage of oxygen by
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respiring cells causes reduction in the concentration of oxygen in patients with VTE.
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(8) c-
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fibrous protein, fibrin. Where peptide bonds between amino acids are
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The amino acid does not affect the overall folding and coiling of
polypeptide chain and therefore have no effect on tertiary
Linked to 1A.5.
Proteins
structure.
The shape of the active site may not be changed (i.e. have no effect on the
shape of active site).
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1B.2. The role of the blood
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Linked to
The pressure of blood flowing through the artery will be low, so less 2A.6. The
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oxygenated blood (i.e. oxygen rich blood) will be delivered to body cells, mammalian
gas exchange
so insufficient oxygen delivered to cells, so less aerobic respiration,
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system
which leads to breathlessness and lack of energy.
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The events of the cardiac cycle becomes shorter and more frequent, as
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well as ventricles contract more forcefully during ventricular systole.
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1B.2. The role of the blood
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Linked to
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2.A.6.The
mammalia
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n gas
exchange
system
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Four subunits
Hemoglobin is a globular protein, having quaternary structure with four polypeptides, where each
polypeptide has a heam group (i.e. prosthetic group which is made up of Fe2+ and porpherin ring)
where each heam group binds to one oxygen molecule, so four heam groups bind to four oxygen
molecules. The binding of first oxygen molecule is difficult and causes conformational change
which increases the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen, so the binding of the second, third and
fourth oxygen molecules become easier, the graph levels off as hemoglobin becomes saturated
with oxygen.
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1B.3. Circulation in the blood vessels
(7)b-
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Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart under relatively high blood pressure whereas veins carry
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blood to the heart under lower pressure. The pressure of blood drops in capillaries, due to their narrow
lumen as well as due to the exchange of substances that takes place between capillaries and respiring
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cells, where at low PO2 in respiring cells, oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient from the blood
to body cells and carbon dioxide diffuses into blood.
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400
300 glucose
Exponential
Solubility 200
/ g per 100 cm3 water
100
0
0 20 40 60
Temperature / °C
(i) Compare and contrast the effect of temperature on the solubilities of sodium
chloride and glucose in water.
(3)
Yet, the initial solubility at 10C of both glucose and sodium were different as the
solubility of glucose was 75g per 100 cm3 while the solubility of sodium
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DO NOT WRITE IN THIS AREA
Also, the rate of increase in solubility of glucose was higher than that of sodium
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
chloride as the solubility of glucose increases by almost 225g per 100 cm3
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
while the solubility of sodium chloride increased by only almost 10g per 100
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lastly, the increase in solubility if glucose was non-linear as the rate of increase
was low then increase gradually.
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................................................................................ .............. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
*P60516RA01028*
Biology Topic 1: Molecules, transport and health
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Fastest heart rate
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Heart rate is above base rate
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0.1
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Vitamin C is important for the formation of connective tissue in the body such as bones and,
teeth, skin and endothelial lining of blood vessels.
•So lack of vitamin C, increases the risk of damage of endothelial lining of arteries
•So arteries are more likely to be damaged
•So atherosclerosis more likely to develop
•So person is more likely to be affected by CVDs.
Glucose is needed for aerobic respiration to provide energy for the contraction of the heart muscle.
Also, to maintain the osmotic pressure for no net movement of water between muscle cells and the
solution.
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By repeating the experiment in all concentrations of caffeine.
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As the concentration of caffeine was increased from 0 to 0.1, the heart rate increased by 20%. As the
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concentration of caffeine was increased above 0.1, the heart rate decreases. •0.1mg/cm3 causes
fastest heart rate.
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Causes of decrease in risk factor
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•Improvements in education (increased public awareness/knowledge/literacy)
•Improvements in healthcare (diagnosis, medication and treatment ex. statins)
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•Also, it leads to increase in blood pressure, where high blood pressure causes damage to the
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endothelial cells lining walls of artery, which stimulates an inflammatory response, where WBCs
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accumulate at the site of damage.
•Causing the buildup of cholesterol on the lining of arteries resulting in the formation of atheroma.
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•Calcium salts and fibrous tissue build up around the atheroma, turning it into hardened plaque.
•Plaque causes narrowing of arterial lumen as well as loss of elasticity of arteries which causes
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increase in blood pressure, that causes further damage resulting in atherosclerosis that leads to CVDs.
•That in turn results in heart diseases, stroke, heart attack (myocardial infarction) etc.
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(5)
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The higher the number of risk factors, the higher the relative risk of developing
CVD. Also, as the number of risks increases from 2 to 3 the relative risk of
CVD doubles.
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Reduce salt intake •Statins
Reduce alcohol consumption (no alcohol) •Plant stanols
Increase Vitamin C consumption
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1C. 7. The treatment & risks of treatment
(5)
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Loss of excess salts and fluid in urine due to decreasing water reabsorption in
kidneys, thus reducing the volume of the blood which in turn causes reduction in
blood pressure which reduces the risk of atherosclerosis accompanied by a
reduction in the risk of CVDs.
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Important
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People are more aware about the risk factors of CVDs in Spain than in countries with higher death rate like
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Ukraine. As well as there is better health care, diagnosis and medications (such as diuretics and statins) in
countries with lower death rate. In general, the lower the death rate due to CVDs the better people’s lifestyle
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(ex. Less or no smoking/ less energy intake/ less saturated fat intake).
1C.3. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease
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Less consistent
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High blood pressure, causes damage to the endothelial lining of blood vessels,
which stimulates an inflammatory response, where WBCs accumulate at the
site of damage and cause building up of chemicals in blood as cholesterol.
Calcium salts and fibrous tissue build up around the atheroma turning it into
hardened plaque. Thus narrowing the diameter of the arterial lumen as well as
causing loss of elasticity of lumen, which leads to atherosclerosis that in turn
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causes further damage and can lead to heart diseases, angina, heart attack
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(myocardial infarction). Reduced blood supply to cells
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1C.7. The benefit & risk of treatment
(4)
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1C.1. Risk, correlation & cause
(7) Important Ni
•Using more students (larger sample size)
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Statins inhibit the synthesis of cholesterol in the liver, which reduces the
ratio of LDL to HDL, that in turn reduces blood cholesterol level, which
lowers the risk of formation of atheroma, so no plaque formed so tissues
are not deprived of oxygen and nutrients (i.e. no reduced blood flow),
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thus reducing the risk of CVDs.
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(3)
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Linked to 1C.1.
upon increase in temperature, transport proteins within the Risk,
correlation &
membrane will denature. This results in the movement of cause
1C.1 Risk, correlation & cause & 1C.4. Diet & cardiovascular health
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Important
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•Include females
•People should be of same age
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Linked to 1C.1.
•Larger sample size Risk, correlation
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& cause
•Allow recovery time
•Increased study time
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of oxygen and nutrients, resulting in CHD.
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•Formation of clot/thickening of artery wall.
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1C.7. The benefits & risks of treatment
(2)
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Important
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1C.4. Diet and cardiovascular health
(4)
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BMI might not be a reliable indicator for the risk of CVD in people with high muscle mass such
as athletes as it cannot differentiate between muscles and fat.
Could lead to older people who have lost most of their muscle mass to underestimate the risk
of CVD.
Lack of education about the fact that high BMI is a risk factor for CVD.
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Also, people having high BMI don’t show symptoms of CVD.
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12 October 2018 Code: WBI01/01 Paper 1
1C.7. The benefits & risks of treatment
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(2)
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inhibitors-ACE inhibitors)/statins.
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complex, so no fibrin formed, so no mesh is formed so blood does not clot.
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•Platelets become less sticky, and so won’t be able to bind to each other or to
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fibrin.
•So no mesh/clot would be formed.
•Also, thromboplastin would not be released so the blood clotting cascade of
reactions is not stimulated.
Linked to 1B.2.
Fibrin, is an insoluble fibrous protein that forms fibrous mesh, The role of the
blood
trapping blood cells and platelets to form a clot. Where plasmin,
cause the hydrolyses of fibrin, thus breaking down peptide bond
between amino acids in fibrin. So no mesh formed, so blood does
not clot.
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1C.5. Dietary antioxidant & cardiovascular disease
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Dietary antioxidants, donate electrons, reducing free radicals (toxins) thus
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preventing the oxidation of other molecules, and therefore reducing the risk
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The 10 Year CHD Risk would increase, as smoking is a risk factor that
contribute to CVD. Where it contains nicotine that raises blood pressure and
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As BMI increases the value for the 10 year CHD risk increases.
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If someone has high BMI yet does not smoke, this might lead to them
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underestimating the risk of high BMI on CVD as the value obtained for the
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estimate.
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•Energy imbalance leads to obesity
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High salt intake increases the hazard ratio for all causes of death.
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High salt intake has greatest effect on CAD where it caused the most increase in
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hazard ratio.
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&
Blood pressure
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BMI
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Obesity
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Gender
Type 2 diabetes
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To allow valid comparison between the effect of high salt intake and low salt intake
on the hazard ratio for different causes of death.
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ha
The tendency of two sets of data to increase together, where an increase in one
variable is accompanied by an increase in another variable.
Ni
&
r
cytoplasm/cytosol and tissue fluid, whereas the hydrophobic tails are repelled
ab
away from water forming hydrophobic core that is impermeable to hydrophilic
lG
substances. There are protein molecules embedded within the phospholipid bilayer
(intrinsic/integral proteins) including transport proteins (carrier/pores and
ha
channel proteins), as well as there are glycoproteins, cholesterol and glycolipids.
Ni Marking scheme points
2A.3. Osmosis •Phospholipid bilayer
&
•Description of phospholipids
(eg: phospholipids are fluid).
n
•Proteins
wa
•Transmembrane proteins
(intrinsic/integral proteins)
•Glycoproteins, glycolipids and
ag
cholesterol.
.N
Dr
Phospholipid bilayer form the basic structure of cell membrane. Where phospholipids are
composed of hydrophilic (polar) phosphate heads that lie facing aqueous solutions on the
outside of the membrane (cytoplasm and tissue fluid) while hydrophobic (non polar) fatty
acid tails are repelled away form water and aggregate together forming hydrophobic core,
that is impermeable to hydrophilic substances. Phospholipids are fluid, where they can
diffuse within their monolayer, giving the membrane a flexible structure that is constantly
r
ab
changing in shape. Proteins are found within the phospholipid bilayer where that interact
lG
with phospholipids, such that the hydrophilic R groups interact with phosphate heads and
hydrophobic R groups interact with fatty acid tails.
ha
2A.3. Osmosis
(3) Ni
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n
wa
ag
.N
Dr
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repelled away from water forming hydrophobic core, i.e. forming a layer that is
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impermeable to hydrophilic substances.
lG
Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, they aggregate together and orientate away from water. Where phosphate groups on the
phospholipid are hydrophilic and associate with water. Two phospholipid monolayers form bilayer.
ha
Ni
Cell membrane is fluid, where protein molecules and phospholipids can
&
move/diffuse within their monolayer, giving the membrane a flexible
structure that is constantly changing in shape.
n
wa
lipid bilayer.
.N
Dr
Hydrocarbon tails
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n
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ag
.N
Dr
0.4
Negative correlation
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Ni 15.38
&
Cholesterol reduces membrane fluidity where it forms hydrophobic interaction
with fatty acid tails of phospholipids, thus bringing them closer together so less
n
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movement is possible.
Combines with fatty acid tails, holding/pulling them closer together, reducing
ag
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9 May 2017
Ni Code: WBI01/01 Paper 1
2A.1. Cell membranes
&
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ag
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Phospholipid molecule
Important
•Phospholipids form bilayer, as they have polar heads and non-polar tails.
•Proteins are located between the phospholipids.
•Due to the interaction between R groups of proteins and phospholipids.
•Phospholipids are free to move, making the membrane fluid.
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9:1
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•Will alter membrane permeability Ni
•So that platelets will release thromboplastin
•Thromboplastin is an enzyme
&
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2A.1. Cell membrane
Ni
&
n
Cell membrane is fluid where phospholipid molecules can move about/diffuse within
wa
their monolayer, giving the membrane a flexible structure that is constantly changing
in shape.
ag
Would increase the surface area of cell membrane so the uptake of substances
would be faster.
Linked to 2A.2. Cell
transport & diffusion
Important
•Note that, in experiments use control as a reference to
set colorimeter absorbance to zero.
•if the cuvette is scratched it can result in greater
absorbance of light, yet this is a systematic error as it will
cause readings to be higher than true value for every
measurement.
•When measuring different pH, select buffer solutions for
the different pH values being investigated.
Mechanism of competitive inhibitors (used to control rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction)
•inhibitor has similar shape to substrate (i.e. complimentary shape to the active site of
enzyme)
•compete with substrate for the active site of enzyme
•binds to active site
•thus reducing frequency of successful collisions between enzyme and substrate.
•so fewer enzyme substrate complexes formed.
•so lower rate of reaction at lower substrate concentration. Yet has no effect at higher
Where at higher substrate concentration, the frequency of successful collisions increase, so
substrate concentration.
more enzyme substrate complexes formed so higher rate of reaction, thus cancelling the
Effect on Vmax and Km effect of competitive inhibitor.
Anabolic (building up of large molecules from smaller ones using energy from ATP)
Catabolic (breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones releasing energy)
Intracellular enzymes include DNA polymerase and are enzymes synthesized in
cell and operate within cells.
Extra cellular enzymes include digestive enzymes and are enzymes secreted by
cell and catalyze reactions outside cells.
Nucleic acids are made up of many nucleotides, held together by phosphodiester
bonds forming polynucleotides. DNA and RNA are polymers made from
monomers known as nucleotides, they are therefore polynucleotides.
Nucleotides are made up of three smaller components
•phosphate group (negatively charged)
•pentose sugar
•nitrogen containing base
These three units combine together by condensation reaction with elimination of
two water molecules to form a mononucleotide.
•phosphate •base is either purine base (two
group means rings including, adenine and
that nucleotides guanine) or pyrimidine base
are acidic and (single ring including, thymine,
Summary
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First :Role of mRNA: lg
1. Produced by transcription.
2. Important in translation by using base sequence to make polypeptide chain.
iha
3. Where it leaves nucleus moving towards ribosome
4. It attaches to the small subunit of ribosome.
5. Carry codons where each codon codes for a particular amino acid.
6. tRNA binds and bring specific amino acids to the ribosome.
.N
9. Example of codon on mRNA AUC and its complementary anticodon will be UAG.
10. single mRNA can be translated by several by ribosomes at the same time (polyribosomes).
11. mRNA is short lived where it can produce proteins for short period of time.
1. At the one end of tRNA there is a site where a specific amino acid can attach under the
control of specific enzyme.
2. tRNA carries amino acids to ribosome.
3. where its specific anticodon links up with corresponding mRNA codon.
r
polypeptide chain.
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4. Ribosome moves along the
mRNA one codon at a time.
5. Ribosome provides sites for lg
attachment of the two tRNA at a time.
6. Where each tRNA carries specific amino acid, so 2 amino acids are held close together.
7. With its specific anticodon links up with corresponding mRNA codon.
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8. Peptide bond formed between 2 amino acids, through a condensation reaction catalysed by
peptidyl transferase which is found in ribosome.
9. Assembly of amino acids into primary structure.
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Fourth :comparisons:
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mRNA tRNA
Straight Folded
No hydrogen bonds Hydrogen bonds holding the structure together
Codons Anticodons
There are only four different nucleotides There are 20 different amino acids
Nucleotides are linked together by phosphodiester Amnio acids are linked together by peptide bonds.
bonds
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Where thymine is used as complementary base to Where uracil is used as complementary base to
adenine. adenine.
ab
Controlled by DNA polymerase enzyme Controlled by RNA polymerase enzyme.
Two DNA molecules produced mRNA produced which is single stranded and
Where each is double stranded and helical straight.
iha
Molecules produced are double stranded DNA Molecule produced is single stranded mRNA
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•having same structure/function and genetic sequence as parent cell.
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All bacteria grown will have the heavy Ni
isotope, N15 in their DNA. N15 N15
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Length of DNA A T G C T C A T T T A C C A T C G A
Base number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
The table shows the genetic code for the amino acids.
ATG Methionine
The genetic codes TAA, TAG and TGA are stop codons.
(a) State the sequence of the first four amino acids coded for by this length of DNA.
(1)
14
*P62792RA01428*
(b) A change in a single base can cause a change in the amino acid sequence
produced in protein synthesis.
(i) Name the type of each mutation described below.
(2)
Substitution
Base number 3 becomes cytosine (C) ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (missense)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deletion
Base number 6 becomes number 5 in the sequence................................................................................................................... .....................
Insertion
Base number 9 becomes number 10 in the sequence ................................................................................................................ ....................
*(ii) Explain the possible effects of these three types of mutation on the amino
acid sequence coded for by this length of DNA.
Use the information in the table to support your answer.
(6)
Where there is a change in a single base of one triplet code (i.e. codon).
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ............................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Where the altered codon will code for the same amino acid due to the fact that the triplet codes (i.e.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ............................................................................................................................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonsense
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ............................................................................................................................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Where the altered codon corresponds (i.e. codes for) another amino acid.
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ............................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example, if base 3 was replaced by cytosine, this will code for Isoleucine instead of methionine.
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ............................................................................................................................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deletion
Where one base is removed, causing the entity sequence to be altered (shifting the reading frame
. . . . . . . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ............................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
backward one place), so all amino acids after mutation will be altered.
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ............................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example, removal of base 4 causes the to become methionine, serine, phenylalanine, threonine.
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ............................................................................................................................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Insertion
. . . . . . . . . . . . .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ............................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Where one base is added twice, causing the entire sequence to be altered (shift the reading
frame forward one place), so all amino acids after mutation will be altered.
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ............................................................................................................................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example, adding T between base 9 and 10, so sequence becomes leucine, proline, serine.
. . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ ............................................................................................................................... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
*P62792RA01528* Turn over
Gene mutation
Change in nucleotide (i.e. base sequence) of DNA, so a new allele is formed. This can
happen by substitution, deletion or insertion.
This change leads to change in the transcribed mRNA (i.e. mRNA with altered
codons).
In case of substitution, a new amino acid with different R groups may be incorporated
into the growing chain of polypeptide at the ribosome during translation.
Causing change in primary structure of protein (i.e. amino acid sequence on
polypeptide) which in turn causes change in three dimensional shape of protein, so
different protein with altered function or totally un functional protein may be produced.
Note that, mutation can lead to cancer, characterized by uncontrolled cells division to
form a mass of functionless cells known as tumor.
Why most mutation have no observable effect?
•occur in non coding DNA.
•code is degenerate.
•one allele might be altered.
•DNA repair mechanism.
How change in DNA base sequence might lead to loss of enzyme activity?
Mutation takes place where there is a change in base sequence of gene, so a new allele is
formed. Resulting in changed mRNA codons (i.e. base sequence of transcribed mRNA is
changed). So different tRNA with different anticodon will be involved, as tRNA will carry
different (incorrect) amino acid to the ribosome. So incorrect amino acid is incorporated into
the the growing polypeptide chain, so change in amino acid sequence (i.e. primary structure of
protein is changed). So polypeptide will fold differently, leading to change in tertiary structure
(3D shape). So the active site will have a different shape/charge. So substrate no longer
binds to active site.
Genetic disorders are disorders resulting from defect in gene such as sickle cell anemia which
results from point mutation (i.e. substitution) where different base is incorporated in the DNA
base sequence resulting in the formation of a new allele (i.e form of gene).
Allele formed is recessive, therefore the person affected carries homozygous recessive allele (i.e.
carries two copies of the defective allele).
Pattern of inheritance
Gene
A length of DNA coding for specific protein, thus determining specific characteristics
(i.e. traits).
Alleles
Are alternative forms of same game.
Dominant
Allele is expressed in phenotype whether the individual is homozygous or heterozygous
for that allele.
Recessive
Allele is expressed in phenotype only when individual is homozygous for that recessive
trait (i.e. both alleles coding for recessive trait).
Homozygous (homozygote)
An individual when both alleles coding for a particular characteristic are identical.
Heterozygous (heterozygote)
An individual where the two alleles coding for particular characteristic are different.
Genotype
Genetic makeup of an organism with respect to a particular feature or combination of/
pair of/two/all alleles present in an organism of particular trait.
Phenotype
All characteristics of an organism which is determined by the interaction between
genes (genotype) and environment (observable features).
True breeding
A homozygous organism that always produce the same offspring when crossed with
another true breeding organism for the same characteristic.
(which means parents must be both dominant or both recessive).
Mono hybrid cross
A genetic cross where only one gene for one characteristic is considered.
Test cross
A test made to find out the genotype of an individual with dominant phenotype for a
particular gene by crossing it with one to have the homozygous recessive genotype for
the same gene.
To reveal the parental genotype (i.e. being homozygous dominant or heterozygous).
Codominance
When pair of alleles are equally dominant, so in heterozygous where both alleles at a
gene are fully expressed in the phenotype. Example include blood groups.
•Cystic fibrosis is a serious genetic disorder that is causers by faulty allele on autosome,
which affects the production of mucus by epithelial cells.
•CFTR gene is a large gene, meaning that it is at higher risk of mutation, where mutation in
this gene leads to abnormal CFTR (cystic fibrosis trans membrane regulator) protein and
cause sticky mucus.
The respiratory system The digestive system The reproductive system In sweat glands
•Where thick, sticky mucus builds up in the •Thick sticky mucus causes
In women Normally, CFTR allows chloride
airways (i.e. bronchi and bronchioles) so blockage of the pancreatic duct, Egg produced, yet female has a ions to move into epithelial cells, so
narrowing airways. Thus, reducing air flow so no enzymes (i.e. amylase,
weak chance of fertility due to, less chloride ions in sweat as well as
into the alveoli -less ventilation- which in lipase and trypsin) reaching the •Thick mucus which can block the reducing water loss and preventing
turn reduces the concentration gradient duodenum, so no digestion of cervix and so sperm cannot reach dehydration.
between the blood and the alveoli, so carbohydrates, fats and proteins, the egg.
CFTR mutation causes less chloride
reducing gas exchange (i.e. less diffusion of so they cannot be absorbed.
•Thick mucus blocks the oviduct so ions to move into endothelial cells, so
oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide •Also, excessive build up of
decreasing chance of fertilization. more salts (i.e. chloride and sodium)
into the alveoli), so reduced supply of mucus on villi cause reduced •Implantation impaired. are lost in sweat, so water moves by
oxygen to respiring cells, so less aerobic surface area available for In men osmosis out of epithelial cells
respiration, so less ATP thus resulting in absorption. So less absorption of •Lack of vas deference which is the
increasing chance of dehydration.
tiredness and lack of energy. nutrients, which leads to tube carrying sperm out of the
•Besides, coughing due to the sticky mucus malnutrition.
testes into semen.
which cannot be moved away by cilia. •Moreover, enzymes trapped in •Vas deference is present, yet it
•Moreover, mucus fill up the lungs the pancreas will start digesting may be partially of totally blocked
containing trapped particles of dust and cells of the pancreas, thus by thick mucus so, less or no sperm
bacteria (pathogens), where mucus provides affecting cells producing insulin
leaving testes.
optimum conditions for bacterial growth so so person might get diabetic.
bacteria replicates increasing susceptibility
to lung infection where antibacterial affect
will stop due to thick mucus.
Fifth: 2C.5 :Genetic screening:
When whole population ( large number of people) are tested for genetic disease.
To be able to identify carriers.
Its important to diagnose the genetic diseases as early as possible to improve the chances of survival
and their general state of health.
Process:
• If one member of a family is born with genetic disease such as cystic fibrosis......so other
members of the family will be offered genetic testing.
• Diploid somatic cells are used and analysed ( gametes are not used as it has half the DNA
and the mutation might be missed).
r
• All possible CFTR mutations are tested as its a large gene .
ab
• If one partner in a couple knows he is a carrier, so the other partner is advised to be
tested as well.
•
lg
Because if two carriers have a baby there is a 1 in 4 risk that it will be affected by genetic
disease( cystic fibrosis).
iha
Value of this
.N
More cost efficient , as though screening costs money , it is much cheaper than caring for
severely affected children for rest of parent’s lives.
Carriers to faulty allele, have the option to take a decision regarding having a child:
Dr
1. Take the 1 in 4 risk of getting a diseased child, and have a family hoping the children inherit
normal healthy alleles.
2. decide not to have a child at all.
3. To get pregnant and undergo prenatal screening then take a decision .
A. Prenatal screening
A. Amniocentesis
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lg • To find if unborn child has a disease:
1. Removing 20 cm3 of amniotic fluid
using needle and a syringe.
2. Done at week 16 of pregnancy
iha
3. Amnion sample taken has fetal
epithelial cells and blood cells .
Fetal DNA is Cultured for 2-3 weeks
.N
then screened.
Dr
Disadvantages Advantages
2. It carries0.5%-1% risk of
spontaneous abortion after the
procedure, regardless of genetic
status.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Carried earlier in
1. Sex-linked characteristic pregnancy, so if
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( alleles on X chromosome) termination is
can’t be detected by this necessary , it is
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technique as all parental X physically less
chromosomes are inactivated traumatic for
in fetal placental cells. mother.
lg 2. There is 0.5-1%risk that 2. Results are
embryo may spontaneously available faster.
abort after the tissue sample 3. Larger sample
taken , though still the risk of taken allowing
miscarriage at this stage of wide testing
pregnancy is high anyway .
iha
range of genetic
diseases.
B. Preimplantation
genetic diagnosis
.N
• So they can carry preimplantation genetic diagnosis based on the technique of IVF.
• In this technique, the egg and sperm are fertilised outside the body.
• After few cell divisions, a single cell is removed from each embryo.
• Genetic make up is checked and only those embryos free of the problem alleles are
placed in the mother’s uterus to implant snd grow.
• This removes the faulty allele from the gene pool.
• In case of genetic diseases found only in boys such as (haemophilia) , only female
embryos would be implanted.
(inaccurate).
2. Healthy fetus may be aborted if false child.
positive result, 2. Cost implications to health service
Dr
For women with cystic fibrosis, egg is produced but they find it difficult to
be fertile since thick, sticky mucus traps the cervix so the sperm cannot
reach the egg. Also, thick mucus blocks the oviduct so decreasing chance
of fertilization and implantation impaired due to mucus.
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3 January 2015 Code: WBI01/01
Ni Paper 1
2C.2. Patterns of inheritance
(4)
&
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Individual person 8 is
ag
homozygous recessive.
.N
The PKU disorder is a recessive genetic disorder meaning that in order for
individuals to express the phenotype, both alleles must be effected (i.e. homozygous
recessive). Therefore, if the offspring is affected this means that both parents have
the allele for PKU disorder, yet they are both unaffected so they have heterozygous
genotype.
The fact that both parents are heterozygous means that they both carry one
recessive allele in their genotype, therefore gametes produced contain either the
dominant or recessive allele. By using a punnet square, the probability of the child
being homozygous recessive is calculated, which would be 25%.
r
ab
lG
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Ni
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n
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ag
.N
Dr
Three samples of same mass are taken from the tubers (potatoes) of both DHAR-
modified plants and GDP-modified plants. Crush the samples and add distilled water to
extract vitamin C. Using same volume of extract, titrate using same concentration of
DCPIP, by adding DCPIP drop by drop to the extract solution until the blue color of the
DCPIP remains. Measure the volume of DCPIP used for the solution to remain blue (i.e.
r
ab
reach end point where all vitamin C has been oxidized). (Standardization) Repeat the
lG
titration procedure using 1% vitamin C solution and measure the volume of DCPIP used
for solution to remain blue, compare the volume of DCPIP used with that of the extract
ha
solutions from potato tubers. Then compare the vitamin C concentration in tubers
Ni
taken from both modified plants. Repeat and take avenge results. Points missing
2C.2 Patterns of inheritance •Grow both types of
&
conditions
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Allele that is expressed only when the genotype is homozygous for that allele (i.e. allele
that is only expressed in the absence of dominant allele).
Points missing
•allele is an alternative form (i.e. version) of the same gene.
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ab
lG
Genetic pedigree diagram shows the alleles in the parental gametes and the probability of
ha
them crossing together to give possible offspring genotypes that can result from the
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combination of alleles during fertilization. The hemochromatosis is caused by recessive
homozygous genotype, where both alleles must be affected to show the phenotype.
&
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a faulty (i.e. defective) allele, so the primary structure of synthesized
protein is different so different folding and coiling of polypeptide chain, which in turn changes the
tertiary structure of protein. So the CFTR protein cannot function properly and so will not allow
movement of chloride ions out of cells. Also, sodium channels are not inhibited so sodium ions
r
ab
move into epithelial cells so cells become hypertonic to mucus so water leaves the mucus into cells
by osmosis. So mucus becomes thick and sticky so cilia cannot beat and therefore, cannot move
lG
mucus away from airways (i.e. bronchi and bronchioles), thus reducing air flow to the alveoli, so
reducing ventilation which in turn reduces the concentration gradient between the alveoli and the
ha
blood which leads to reduced gas exchange, where less oxygen moves into blood from the alveoli
Ni
and less carbon dioxide moves into the alveoli.
2C.5. Genetic screening
&
(2)
n
wa
ag
.N
Dr
Alteration in DNA by sudden random change the the base sequence of DNA.
r
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2C.4. Cystic fibrosis
(6)
lG
ha
Cystic fibrosis is a recessive genetic disorder which is caused by faulty (i.e.
Ni
defective) allele carried on autosome. Where a person requires two forms of the
&
same gene (i.e. two faulty alleles) to show the phenotype (in absence of dominant
allele). So the parents might be carriers for the disease, meaning that they have
n
heterozygous genotype. Where both parental gametes had recessive allele so the
wa
child had homozygous recessive allele and so showed phenotype of cystic fibrosis.
ag
Points missing
•cystic fibrosis causes abnormal non functional CFTR protein
.N
•also, mutation may have occurred in formation of gametes (i.e. post fertilization)
Dr
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ab
As age increases from 5 to 25 years, the percentage of people with cystic
lG
fibrosis infected with P.aeruginosa bacterium increases by 48%, the percentage
then remains constant in 35 years group at 82% then decreases by 7% in 45
years group.
ha
Ni
Where as age increases from 5 to 15 years, the percentage of people with cystic
fibrosis infected with S.aureus bacterium increases by 3%, it then showed
&
Cystic fibrosis affects the production of mucus where mucus becomes thick and
.N
sticky so cilia lining airways cannot beat, and so cannot move mucus away from
Dr
bronchi and bronchioles. Where mucus traps dust and bacteria as well as it
provides optimum conditions for bacterial growth so bacteria replicates
increasing the susceptibility to lung infection.
Person starts coughing to remove mucus which will damage cells lining airways.
(ii) Suggest how the CFTR protein is broken down in a class VI mutation.
(2)
17
*P54656A01724* Turn over
Biology Topic 2: Membranes, proteins, DNA and Gene Expression
Point mutation (i.e. substitution) involves the change in one base of DNA sequence, which may
have one of three effect. The base substitution may be silent mutation where the defective
codon, codes for the same amino acid (i.e. degenerate codon coding for same amino acid). The
base substitution may be non sense where the defective codon codes for stop codon (i.e. stop
signal) so the new poly peptide formed will be shorter. The base substitution may be missense
where the defective codon codes for different amino acid.
r
Deletion involves one
ab
2C.2. Patterns of inheritance nucleotide in the DNA
(8)
sequence being missed out so
lG
the reading frame is shifted
ha
backwards one place, the
entire base sequence after
Ni
A person can be shown to have the disorder, either by showing the mutation is changed where all
phenotype which is reduced levels of urea in their urine or by genetic
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triplets after the mutation are
screening to show their genotype.
affected so the entire gene is
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Cystic fibrosis is a serious genetic disorder caused by gene mutation which results in
the production of faulty (i.e. defective) allele that causes the synthesis of protein with
different primary structure, so the tertiary structure of protein is different, resulting in
non functional protein. Where CFTR channel protein does not does not allow the
movement of chloride ions outside epithelial cells so they accumulate inside cells. Also,
sodium channels are not inhibited so sodium moves into epithelial cells, thus lowering
the water potential inside cells where cytoplasm becomes hypertonic to the mucus. So
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water moves out of the mucus into the cells. So the mucus becomes thick and sticky so
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cilia cannot beat and so cannot move mucus away from airways so mucus
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accumulates in airways, containing trapped particles of dust and bacteria. Where
mucus provides optimum conditions for bacterial growth so bacteria replicates causing
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infection where muscles become inflamed. Ni
2C.5. Genetic screening
(8)
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wa
ag
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Dr
Parents who are carriers carry out preimplantation genetic diagnosis where only healthy fetus are
implanted into uterus or decide not to have children.
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Unethical to kill potential life.
Risk of false positive or negative diagnosis.
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Healthy fetus may be aborted. Ni
Risk of miscarriage or spontaneous abortion.
No one has the right to decide whether the fetus should live or not.
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wa
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Dr