School Sci Mathematics - January 1983 - Juraschek - Piaget and Middle School Mathematics

Piaget and
Middle School
Mathematics
Nowhere is the teaching of mathe-
matics more challenging than in the
middle or junior high school. The
early adolescents who make up this
William Juraschek segment of the school population
manifest mind-boggling emotional,
physical, and intellectual diversity.
Those who teach this age group, of-
ten puzzled and frustrated in trying
to deal effectively with their stu-
dents, continually search for mean-
ingful, motivating curricula and ef-
fective teaching methods. One fruit-
ful source of a better understanding
of adolescents and, consequently,
more insightful teaching, is the
cognitive development research of
Jean Piaget. Certainly, his theory
provides a good perspective for
some fresh approaches to mathe-
matics teaching in the middle
school.
Piaget (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969)
theorizes that our cognitive develop-
ment proceeds through an invariant
School Science and Mathematics

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Piaget and Middle School Mathematics 5
sequence of four stages: sensorimotor (birth to about 2 years), preopera-
tional (2 to about 7 years), concrete operations (7 to about 11 years), and
formal operations (about 11 to adult). The stages are continuous and
build on previous stages, each marking the active acquisition of new
capabilities. The concrete and formal operations stages are most relevant
to middle school, so let’s take a close look at some of the differences be-
tween concrete and formal operational thinking as manifested on three
Piagetian tasks.
Concrete and Formal Thought
One indication of the acquisition of formal operations is the ability to
recognize all variables in a situation, generate hypotheses about the roles
of the variables, and finally manipulate them systematically to ascertain
whether or not the hypotheses conform with reality. For example, when
presented with the appropriate apparatus and asked to figure out what
determines the period of a simple pendulum, the formal operational
youngster can isolate the relevant factors and systematically control each
to discover that the pendulum’s length determines its period. While the
formal operational youngsters know they must devise appropriate
experiments that hold constant all but one factor to detect its effect, the
concrete operational child will vary two factors simultaneously and in-
correctly conclude that both affect the period of oscillation. The child
who is not formal operational simply is not aware of all the logical possi-
bilities and combinations to be tested.
Formal operations also enable the construction and manipulation of
second order operations, or relations between relations. This is revealed
in the capacity to use proportions, equalities between ratios which are
themselves relations between whole numbers. The development of this
capacity can be seen in performance on the following two tasks.
In the first, called Equilibrium in the Balance (Inhelder & Piaget,
1958), the child is given an equal-arm balance with equally spaced pegs
and asked where various weight combinations may be placed to balance
the beam. At best the concrete operational child realizes that greater
weight compensates for less distance from the pivot point, but does not
suspect a general rule. The formal operational thinker, if not intuitively
aware of a general rule involving proportions, can, and will, experiment
with various weight placements and discover the rule. Again the more
general nature of formal operations motivates the search for a general
rule, in this case one involving proportions, or relations between rela-
tions.

6 Piaget and Middle School Mathematics
A third task that illustrates the attainment of these more powerful
cognitive schemes involves intuitive notions of chance (Piaget, 1975).
When shown two sets of marbles, each containing blue and white
marbles, and asked from which set one is more likely to select at random
a white marble, formal operational students will base their decisions
upon a comparison of ratiosrelations between whole numbersrather
than upon a comparison of simple whole numbers, as does the concrete
operational child. Suppose one set contains two white and two blue mar-
bles, while the other contains three white and four blue. The concrete
operational child is very likely to predict the better chance for the second
set because it contains more white marbles, or perhaps the first set be-
cause there are fewer total marbles there. In neither case is the decision
based upon ratios and proportions. The formal youngster will base a
preference for the first set upon a comparison of ratios, in terms of com-
"... the development of new mental operations through

maturation, experience, and social transmission, is the direct
result of the self-regulation process."
mon fractions or percents, and may wonder why anyone would ever use
any other strategy.
In summary, while the concrete youngster can apply simple logic to
actions on familiar, perceivable things of only modest abstraction, the
formal youngster can go beyond the immediate and perceivable and rea-
son about more abstract entities, such as relations and verbal proposi-
tions. Concrete operations are bound by the immediate and "real";
formal operations are not. The formal youngster can also perform more
sophisticated mental operations, intuitively using proportions to explain
compensations and devise valid experiments to test for the possible ef-
fects of variables. The key difference, and the source of the above stage
distinctions, is that, with concrete operations, reality dominates thought,
but with formal operations, possibility dominates thought. Awareness of
the stage distinctions naturally leads one to wonder about what causes
them, that is, what contributes to cognitive growth.

Factors in Cognitive Development
According to Piagetian theory, cognitive development results from the
interplay of four factors: physical maturation, experience, social trans-
mission, and self-regulation (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Physical matura-
tion refers to organic maturation of the nervous and endocrine systems.
Experience consists of both physical experience involving actions on ob-
jects, and logico-mathematical experience involving mental coordination
of the physical actions. Social transmission involves linguistic and educa-
tional experiences, as well as social interactions.
Self-regulation is the process of actively generating new mental
schemes when existing schemes are insufficient and comprises the com-
plementary phases of assimilation and accommodation. Recall the prob-
ability task, described earlier, where one is asked to predict from which
of two containers of marbles there is a greater likelihood of randomly se-
lecting a white marble. If the scheme of basing predictions upon the com-
parison of only the number of white marbles in each set produces satis-
factory results, youngsters are not motivated to change their reasoning.
But when confronted with two new sets, one composed of two white and
two blue marbles, the other containing three white and eight blue mar-
bles, the child may feel uncomfortable choosing the set with more white
marblesit just doesn’t feel right. This cognitive discomfort, or disequi-
librium, forces the realization that the existing scheme is insufficient.
Ideally, through self-regulation, the child restores equilibrium by accom-
modating and develops a new reasoning pattern, in this case, one involv-
ing the use of proportions to make predictions. For Piaget, the develop-
ment of new mental operations through maturation, experience, and so-
cial transmission is the direct result of the self-regulation process.
So far we have examined the characteristics of concrete and formal op-
erational thought, together with the factors that influence intellectual de-
velopment. Now let’s explore the implications for teaching mathematics
to early adolescents.
Implications/or Middle School Mathematics
Although Piaget himself has made only general remarks about the
meaning of his research for education, there have been many educators
willing to list implications of his theory for practice in science and mathe-
matics classrooms. (See Adier, 1966; Case, 1973; Karplus, 1977; Lamb,
1977.) Most of these focus on the elementary school. However, I hope
the following will persuade the reader that Piaget’s theory is equally rele-
vant for the middle school.

A primary consideration is the recent accumulation of evidence that
only about one-half of all fifteen-year-old youngsters have reached the
stage of formal operations (Blasi & Hoeffel, 1974). This implies that the
typical middle school class most likely contains a few students who are
concrete operational and a few who are formal operational, with the ma-
jority being in some transitional phase between the two stages. What if,
as the reader may have already conjectured, formal operations are neces-
sary for the assimilation of many of the important mathematical con-
cepts in the middle school curriculum? In this regard, Piaget has asserted
that not until children reach the stage of formal operations are they capa-
ble of genuine understanding of proportions, similarity, and probability.
(Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Other empirical evidence supports this
proposition.
Lovell (1971-a) reported studies indicating that an understanding of
formal proof and an intuitive grasp of negative numbers are not evident
until the formal operations stage. Lawson and Wollman (1980) and Lov-
ell (1971-b) found that formal operations appeared necessary for success
with proportions problems. Collis (1975), on the basis of several interest-
ing studies, concluded that not until this stage can one understand
mathematical structures in terms of properties and relationships between
operations. He found, for example, that unlike formal operational stu-
dents, those who were concrete operational had trouble understanding
the inverse relationship between addition and subtraction when working
at the symbolic level.
It does, therefore, seem plausible that real understanding of some
mathematical concepts demands formal operations. Couple this with the
fact that the majority of middle school students have not fully attained
this stage of development, and one might infer that there is little hope for
the effective teaching of many basic mathematical ideas in these grades.
Such a pessimistic judgment, however, is far from justified when one
considers the following.
Juraschek and Grady (1981) administered Piaget’s balance beam task
to over 200 junior high and college students, the majority having been as-
sessed, on the basis of other tasks, as being in transition between the con-
crete and formal operations stages. They found a significant number of
the students manifested formal operations "when allowed to experiment
and manipulate the apparatus. Suydam and Higgins (1977), after a thor-
ough review of the literature on activity-based instruction in mathemat-
ics, concluded that "lessons using manipulative materials have a higher
probability of producing greater mathematical achievement than do non-

manipulative lessons (p. 83)." The findings of both of these studies are
consistent with Skemp’s bold assertion in The Psychology of Learning
Mathematics that <(
... the ’intuitive-before-reflective’ order may be
partially true for each new field of mathematical study (p. 66)." Quite
plausibly, activity-based lessons and the use of manipulatives are of sig-
nificant help for the transitional, as well as the concrete operational stu-
dent, when trying to learn mathematics.
Unfortunately, as Fey (1979) reported, the activity-based mode is not
the mode. After examining several recent surveys of instructional pat-
terns in mathematics classrooms, he reported that the predominant
teaching style in middle schools consists of a teacher lecture followed by
tt. . . the middle school teacher must recognize the implica-

tions of the diversity of developmental levels among early
adolescents, as well as the relation between cognitive devel-
opment and mathematics learning ..."
student seat-work on paper-and-pencil assignments. If we assume that

one goal of schooling is to maximize each student’s intellectual develop-
ment, the middle school teacher must recognize the implications of the
diversity of developmental levels among early adolescents, as well as the
relation between cognitive development and mathematics learning and,
accordingly, provide a curriculum and classroom environment that en-
courages the acquisition of formal operations along with mathematical
achievement. In light of the foregoing discussions, it seems appropriate
to urge that traditional instructional methods be replaced, or at least aug-
mented, by activity-based teaching, incorporating manipulative mate-
rials wherever possible. Fully aware that, in many middle school settings,
the task may be difficult, I offer the following suggestings for teaching
mathematics to early adolescents. The suggestings are not necessarily
new, but I hope that the reader has by this point been persuaded that they
belong in the middle school teacher’s repertoire.
Teaching Suggestions
Proceed from the concrete to the abstract. We all know how frustrat-
ing it can be to try to assimilate material that is too abstract for us. Our

first reaction is to plead to see some examples. In doing this we are asking
for something more concrete and familiar for reference and mental ma-
nipulation. What is concrete in a particular situation is, naturally, some-
what relative. It is probably safe to assume that for most adolescents
whole numbers, the number line, and geometric figures are not too ab-
stract or unfamiliar to use as referents. With fractions, however, we must
be more cautious. The fraction (rational number) concept is relational. It
involves a numerator, a denominator, and, most importantly, the rela-
tion between these two abstractions. Although early adolescents have
gained some facility manipulating the symbolic representations (decimal
or common notation), to encourage a better understanding of the con-
cept they almost certainly need to work extensively with something more
concrete such as Cuisenaire rods, fraction bars, paper folding, rulers,
grid paper, and geometric sketches. As many teachers already know,
these aids can be very helpful, even when used only briefly.
When teaching probability and statistics, which is an excellent topic
for this age group because of the meaningful use of ratios, conduct many
hands-on activities and experiments. To ensure familiarity with concrete
referents, have students toss dice, draw cards, gather data from their
classmates, and play simple games before analyzing the experiences and
developing any formal subject matter.
When teaching geometry use rulers, protractors, and compasses often.
Make polyhedron models and use them for area and volume activities.
Use geoboards to explore polygons, the Pythagorean theorem, and area.
The students need to get their hands on something more concrete and
real than a picture in the textbook.
Base teaching on student activities. One of the most important propo-
sitions one can derive from Piaget’s theory is that we learn by performing
actions on objects and ideas. This requirement is not satisfied by merely
requiring homework and lots of drill and practice. The students must be
encouraged to manipulate things, as mentioned above, and become ac-
tive participants in structured and unstructured settings. For example,
when teaching about area, don’t merely tell students what a tessellation
is. Have them actually tessellate cardboard regions using various shapes
or a transparent grid sheet. For a better understanding of volume, have
them determine the volume of some regular solids by the immersion
method and compare their results with those found by measuring and
using a formula. Have students determine the area of an irregular penta-
gon using a ruler and the formula for the area of a triangle. This forces

Volume 83 (I) January 1983
them to focus on what the b and h refer to in the formula A = Vibh. Let
them use calculators to explore number relationships and make conjec-
tures. Excellent sources of activities are commercially available (see for
example the Creative Publications catalog), and many good ideas appear
in this and other professional journals. And, above all, don’t overlook
the fertile imagination of the classroom teacher.
Teach for self-regulation. If self-regulation is, as Piaget claims, the
key factor in intellectual development, schooling should provide ample
opportunities for students to grow through this process. Robert Karplus
(1977) has developed the concept of the learning cycle, a ’Tiagetian-
based" teaching model designed explicitly to encourage self-regulation.
It forms the basis for the pedagogy of the Science Curriculum Improve-
ment Study (SCIS) units in elementary school science. Karplus’ model is
well known among science educators and is readily applicable to activity-
based mathematics teaching.
A learning cycle consists of three phases, exploration, concept intro-
duction, and application. During exploration, the learner is involved in
experience with concrete or familiar materials. These experiences, which
can be very structured or fairly free, are designed so learners encounter
information slightly beyond their capability for assimilation. When they
become aware of this shortcoming, disequilibrium occurs, and the teach-
er begins the concept introduction phase. The particular concept intro-
duced helps the learner accommodate and attain a new level of under-
standing. Once they have grapsed the concept, learners are ready for the
application phase. In this phase they apply the newly acquired concept to
other appropriate ideas and information. This provides opportunities for
further self-regulation, reinforcement, and a broader grasp of the con-
cept. Depending upon the concept or concepts, learning cycles can be
completed in one brief lesson or extended over several days or weeks.
Consider the following example, based upon the probability task de-
scribed earlier.
Target concept: The probability of an event is the ratio of favorable outcomes to total
possible outcomes.
Exploration: Students are shown two sets of marbles, some blue, some white, and two
accompanying soft drink cans. The teacher poses the situation: Set A is placed in can
A and Set B is placed in can B. Each can is shaken and one marble poured from each.
From which can is there a better chance of pouring a white marble? The question is
repeated for various sets of marbles, including some that make the students aware
that predictions based upon simple comparisons of the numbers of white marbles
don’t make sense. This produces disequilibrium.

Concept Introduction: Mention that the best technique for making predictions in all
cases is by comparing the ratios of white marbles to total marbles in the sets.
Application: Conduct empirical tests to see if this new technique really provides accu-
rate predictions in the long run. Use the ratio definition of probability in other prob-
ability experiments. Work appropriate verbal problems.
The reader probably recognizes that many teachers already use meth-
ods equivalent to learning cycles, although they don’t identify them as
such. Certainly, many guided discovery lessons implicitly follow this
model. Nevertheless, the learning cycle provides one more useful model
for sequencing curriculum and activities, especially when one wants to
teach for self-regulation.
Conclusion
The primary purpose of this paper has been to increase teachers’
awareness of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and its implica-
tions for mathematics in the middle school. The reader no doubt detected
the inevitable oversimplifications and leaps of faith inherent in such an
effort to link educational practices with psychological theory. Piaget’s
theory does not, and cannot, explain all mathematics learning. Much
learning occurs simply through imitation and following rules and is pri-
marily association learning. Also, Piaget’s theory is not directed at ex-
plaining individual differences, but rather focuses on common develop-
mental characteristics. Nevertheless, it is hoped that knowledge of his
theory and the cognitive capabilities of early adolescents will compel
teachers to adapt strategies that help their students gain more from their
mathematical experiences. As mentioned at the outset, insights from Pia-
get’s research can provide the impetus to begin needed innovation and
exploration. In this writer’s opinion, we can’t start soon enough.
REFERENCES
1. ADLER, I. Mental Growth and the Art of Teaching. The Arithmetic Teacher. 1966, 13,
576-84.
2. BEILIN, H. The Training and Acquisition of Logical Operations. In Piagetian Cogni-
tive-Development Research and Mathematical Education. Washington, D.C.: Na-
tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1971.
3. BLASI, A. and E. C. HOEFFEL. Adolescence and Formal Operations. Human Develop-
ment, 1974,77,344-363.
4. CASE, R. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development and Its Implications. Phi Delta
Kappan. 1973,55,20-25.
5. COLLIS, K. A Study of Concrete and Formal Operations in School Mathematics: A
Piagetian Viewpoint. Victoria, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Re-
search, 1975.
6. COPELAND, R. How Children Learn Mathematics. New York: Macmillan, 1979.

7. FEY, J. Mathematics Teaching Today: Perspectives from Three National Surveys. The
Mathematics Teacher. 1979, 72, 490-504.
8. INHELDER, B. and J. PIAGET. The Growth of Logical Thinking/row Childhood to
Adolescence. New York: Basic Books, 1958.
9. JURASCHEK, W. and M. GRADY. Format Variations on Equilibrium in the Balance.
Journal for Research in Science Teaching, 1981,18, 47-49.
10. KARPLUS, R. Science Teaching and the Development of Reasoning. Journal of Re-
search in Science Teaching. 1977, 14,169-75.
11. LAMB, C. Application of Piaget’s Theory to Mathematics Education. In Piagetian
Theory and the Helping Professions. Los Angeles: University of Southern California
Bookstore, 1977.
12. LAWSON, A. and W. WOLLMAN. Developmental Level and Learning to Solve Problems
of Proportionality in the Classroom. School Science and Mathematics. 1980, 80, 69-
75.
13. LOVELL, K. A Follow-up Study of Inhelder and Piaget’s "The Growth of Logical
Thinking." British Journal of Psychology. 1961, 52, 143-53.
14. LOVELL, K. The Development of the Concept of Mathematical Proof in Abler Pupils.
In Piagetian Cognitive-Development Research and Mathematical Education. Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1971-a.
15. LOVELL, K. Proportionality and Probability. In Piagetian Cognitive-Development Re-
search and Mathematical Education. Washington, D.C.: National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics, 1971-b.
16. PIAGET, J. Development and Learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 1964,
2, 176-186.
17. PIAGET, J. and B. INHELDER. [The Origin of the Idea of Chance in Children] (Leake,
Burrell, and Fishbein, translators.) New York: Norton, 1975.
18. PIAGET, J. and B. INHELDER. The Psychology of the Child. New York: Basic Books,
1969.
19. SKEMP, R. The Psychology of Learning Mathematics. Baltimore: Penguin Books,
1971.
20. SUYDAM, M. and I. HIGGINS. Activity-based Learning in Elementary School Mathe-
matics: Recommendations from Research. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED 144 840).
Dr. William Juraschek

University of Colorado
1100 Fourteenth Street
Denver, Colorado 80202
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Piaget and

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"... the development of new mental operations through

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tt. . . the middle school teacher must recognize the implica-

student seat-work on paper-and-pencil assignments. If we assume that

School Science and Mathematics

School Science and Mathematics

School Science and Mathematics

School Science and Mathematics

Dr. William Juraschek

School Science and Mathematics

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