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Biology A1 Notes 3
Biology A1 Notes 3
Biology A1 Notes 3
Date: •95
. - 08 - 21
PAPERS
Paper 1 Paper 4
Paper 2 Paper 5
60 marks 30 marks
Questions are based on the AS Level syllabus planning, analysis and evaluation.
content. The context of the questions may be outside
Externally assessed the syllabus content.
46% of the AS Level Externally assessed
23% of the A Level 11.5% of the A Level
Paper :
40 marks
syllabus.
The context of the questions may be outside
the syllabus content.
Externally assessed
23% of the AS Level
*
Tthe
Y.R
smalke a thing getsthemore 3.Ato
S.A 6 cm S.A 4 6 q6 Cm *
Yo|. 1 Cm Yo 4 64 cm
S..A S.A 1. 5
y.0 .R
Cn
"m 10
-2e
B est
I0
m
Smtalle = Bigediide
m l0* oe SmaliesMiy
lo9
a
nm
Smalles
Magailicatien Jage
Actual
UNiTsmustbe the same.
pndia
Mhochon
2.Chloco ast
3. Nucleus
Da
Mftochond a
Oganelle_ Ctuchaly fuacnally deint pact
Stalk hiot lickin _of a cell
U
Oer
Menbrane
Jme
MATRIx
M mbranc
C a
DNA
Cae
Ribosomes Eipids Jnter Mesmblane
0S
pc
Middle
Plasmodesma Lamela PuaN Cew
Vacuole
Go ai Boy
CełWal
Cytoplas
Ce Suface
Mitochondłion
Membrane
ob bosomes
Smoot
NocleaÉ
Eodoplasmc
Ret m Eovelop
N cltoluS, Rogh Endoplasnmic Reticlom
lchtonai
N CLEUS
Date:_
NoCLEUS
을
*8
어에 0 이
do 이
39
Date:_30- 08- 21
M HONDR N.
Funchon o Mitochondion
Glycolysis J r (Cytoplasm)
Reachion |Matx
nn
InnerMembraneh
fO
Cirvtax
DNA Thylakod
Membtane
(sik of chlosphylt)
locahion Palisade Mesophy|l Ces
SpnayMesophyl Cells
CuvasdCells
.
LgthJndependast Reochion
homa
Date:_
CENTRIOLES
Proto Flament
13 proto blameats
*
9 triplets makina cylindes
Functions:
Merlfcolion Resolurion
MicRoSCoPEs
At Ruer(os
Sinjeal Dawing
Plan Dagom Tee led Od
Qesokhion 」the obilly 2 dicelate beheen 2 points
* Mbre〈esoluhon Moredetail
Meotetien (o))(AOy)
Total Mae Lca Eyepid tcrveLens
agn
Date: 04 - 04 - 21
mRNA
Huclers to Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Proteins
Outer Nuclear Envelope 2. ATP Cytoplasm to Nucleos
IS RER 3 Hormones
Threads Chromatin
DNA Chemical DNA
Composition
Genes =
code. for single protein
Protein Synthesis Factory Analoqy
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
RER
flattened sacs CISTERNAL
RER is Continous with outer nuclear memblare
Mote layesed
Ribosomes outes
Date:
SER
FUNCTIONS
site
Loc pustio sypthesis producius of Rigids & steroids
muscle cels
GoLGA BoDy.
FUNCTIONS
2.
Date:
L S0ZoME
Foond in Plant Anúmalcell
Single Memlo(ane u0d
otgo helle
Hyd olylic_enzyme
ptocuced by Go a Body
Dia Old
Dałhogeh K 1 Y
To ins
(. Dead Cell
R1a0s50
* Smallest
voanelle
2 p
80S (22 1 Malle(Sub -un
70S ( 7 m lasgelSub - it
RasM 0E META
ea e
H,0 Aimno A ds TP
ucíe Minesals
JO a Hor
lot mone5
Date
Ceu acuoLE
Pgoe e waste
Ceul wAw
Plant Celolose
Bacleha =
Fu
" q
Peokdogloean
(hi
Yiros.
Acellular
Nocleic AcidONA / RNA
Doou Covetog* Paten Cat (Coso)
On (eplicôte nsidde ho st
FLAGELLA
Bołh aseiny háx/ whip She shwctves (inmony Gukatyotíc)
Cia Smaller in Size manyinnumber
Colum
mcrolvbules
2 Central mitotvbule
Ang o micohbole BasalBody
p (s
of 13 o proło(slameat tiptets
proteftlameats
10
| q + 0
No
Monome 5
1on sacchaide
oyme.
Plvo echarides
Polymeázathion
*Wałke(sa olarmolecule .
C EMICABo DS
Jonic
shaieg s eual
Complehe hiansle
Covalent — Shadng
Metallic
H,0
unegualsharing
Mol . Jorormula
6
H
H
hydogens hauč"
sive pole
( p le)
Polar Molecules
HydioBond
d
Date:
molecules
2: 05 in
2. Disacchaide
molecule Consisting two monosaccharides
Polysacchaide
polymes whose subunits are monosaccharides
Classified according to
of Carbon atoms
2.
려
GwcosEz
Glocose is a hexose
tseae malue ome품 CHa
Maj r Source of 9yi espratien in test Cells
taea
Basic Res loiy Subshake
olymes.
4
C
O
OHz 아H
OH OH
OH
z
J the
OH g p o0Carbon
gocose
piouels beo the ing
* J glueose the OHz
goup of Carbof atom 0
DıSACCHARIDEs
Malłose 2x - glocose
Suctose - glucose - dvctose
lacto6e (Al goillas ase mode black
H DrOLYS1
H 0
Dimes
MonomeS
CoNDEMSAmoHREaC ON.
H,0
MonomeS Dimers
CH,OH
( C.
D 0H
H,
e.g
MonoSacchaides Amino Acds Nucleotídes .
Po yME8
Giant Molecule
PoL SACCHARDE
PolymeS Contai inmany Monosaccharideslinked by olycosidic
dormedE Condensahíon feacns bonds,
by oo06 mononeis à 5 gcosidic bonds
e no of bonds Monomes - 1
C-
Stach Cellolose i plants
G Coge i an mals
Date:
Starch
Made
Op of 2 substances
2.
Glycogen
Made molecules
linted togethes by
aycosidic bonds (1,4 ¢ 1,6 linkages
Cellulose
Most abundant
ofqonic molecule
LIPIDS
tatty Acids
Unsaturated
IWo Types
OH
Acid
Head a. Monounsaturated
Tai o Polyunsaturated
H H A-A-^ 2 of moce Double Bonds
H H
H
Double Bond
causes Kink 2. Saturated
in tail
H H
Straight hydrocarbon toil
C H with ho double bonds
11
H - H
Alcohols
Condensation Reaction
Fatty Acids + Alcohols Esters +
HO - CoO C- H,O
PROTEIN:
Wide
Rage. $ Biological Roles
Structural
body tissues, eg moscle
moin Component skin etc
Amioo Acids
hove
each
the
one is
same
the
genera
nature the R
the only
difference between
de ines on omino acid
Central Carbon
Amino Group H Carboxylic Group
Acid
Side Chain
OH-
Dat
H0 4 H 0H
H
Ppde Bond
Dipeplde
OH
a.ka * Amide Bond
Polypedes
When mor amino acdse are odded to a di phde
Poypep de chan s dotmed
*A ptoteinCo sísts o mote pelypepidechains folded
oło higblyspch 3D shape
4 le ls o Shuochte in a Prohein
imaty1 era(y
Te
. Secondacy . va r t e s n a c y
Date:
Number
chain
and the amino acid seqpence 012
Only peptide bond is Dresent
Secondary Shtocture
A
polypeptide chain coils into Known as apha
Helix This is a secondary stucure
a result
o polas characteristics)
between co- and the
amino acid
Jous places sheod Bf it.
Tertiary Shrocture
CO - groups
lt is a spheical and
founded arrangement of 2 of more
polypeptides . of of polypeptide or
non protein
Component Such as Haem, in protein molecule.
ty Collies 02
26 Polypeptide chains
Canter
(p - 0050)
Hydlophobie Outer
Globular
Hydrophilic pottion on outside All
enzymes are
globular proteins
b. Insoluble + plas important roles in stroctoce
Collagen
Composed helical shaped chain
+ every
amino acid is Glycine
Alanine
above
helicals wind together to form collagen
molecule
Note
glycine is the simplest Amino Acd chains Can
Connected at
staggered ends"
Greates Strength
PRACTICAL. Date:
What is an expeiment 2
Effect of tempesature on enzyme action.
Enzyme Action
Directy Measured
i.e. No. of Bubbles Produced
* Independant Vaiable
Skil
Manslating inlormation from text to to tabulation
(tables)
Controlled Yatable
Time
Concentration
Volume
Date:
Proportional Dilution
Stock M,Y,
31.
Solution (4 )(z) : (3)(10)
7:5 cm 3
10 cm' 9.5cm® water
* We will use Stock Solution every
time to make dilution.
Serial Dilution
* We do nor
go back to
the stock solution for every new dilution.
UNIT 3 : ENzyMES Date: 18 - 1O |
Eazyme
Cloblar Rrokins
Hydtophilic
a. Sphe cal
b. Terhaty Skrovcture Hydłtophoic
C. Hydrophilic Gtoups Polar
dWatec Soluble
Bielojiea Callye
They catalysmetabolic eachions
Catabolic Anabolic (Bankdoan Bild -p)
Speeda o S do
A+ 8 ooiom
+D
D No alle
eg ilib m beh en eacłonts▇
n Concenhratíon + Nochemically used p ina
Chemicalreaction + Can be Sed
Exhtacellular: zymesthaCtlyseteacHens
outside cells + secreted by Ces.
Date:
Lowers (EA
the
Activation Enesay
Substrate
Products D
Rogtiess of Reaction
A Axis labelling Enesqy level of Products
Axis labelling level of Substrates
Graph line stairs com Substrate
D Graph terminates +
End of reaction
E EA
MECHANISM OF ENZYMES
locK Key
A mechonis ofenzyme achonthat demonshrates
hos the ubshahe iis fntothe enzyme jist
ke Hhelock key
Col1sion
Hydegan Bods
Tis ellectiely oes the E
Enzyme Resed
Date:
Shape substrate is
not exactly Complimentary
Active site
of the
enzyme Changes shape slightly
on
Enzyme Action
Re a c t i o n
20 30 40 60
temperature
D Denaturation storts €
Complete Denaturation
Date:
enzyme molecule
* Negates Poportionality
As Substate Conct - R.o.Rt
High @ Start
Best past to calculate then starts to decsease
tate Finally Ro.R reaches a plateau (
Substrate Concentration
man. voloe mak
Substrate molecules
Ho to determine Km9
Take Yatar
e 0
econcle Yaue
. Ym Y
* Reverble Ellect ed Comp. Ihi ihr on , K
0 Km valve Km
ntt
(al:iniy—
RoR
h6iłod
Yma *= Same
K Subshtołe Conc
Date:
Effect of mCg
IMMOBILIZATION OF ENZYME
a. Funchonsof Membanes
snli
becavse
has ecephe o ge zigoaling
which Couldbe a hofmone of
nerohransaHte
7. anchorsthe cyłoskeleton .
Conhos enhy exll e sobstoaces
8. Celmembrone selects Substances that enter o lea e a Ce1l
b.
Components ef Membranes
Phospholipids
Hydrophilic Head
Hydrophobic Tails
attracts water repels water
BILATER
Polar
head Jorms hydioggn bonds with water
membrane
Phospholipid molecules
Water
with heads
* Hydlophobic Cote
When mixed with water phospholipid molecules arrange
themselves into blayer: in which the hydrophobic
tails ase attracted to each other
Date:
two stroctores
Spherica
outer surface
phospholipid
inner surface
one phospho-
lipid molecule cholesterol proteins
in both layers
Fl idMoic Model
C LESIER
Słahilizes membfane
y oido chanical słabilily
Leddles the Ahidily o
menbrane byprev nting lateral
mo emenh phóspholipids,
Has a hydophilic heod a hydophobic hil pr▇
ossage of ions polatmolecoles thccah membane
Inhtinic Płote i s
PRoTEINS Gtliośic oleins
Eazyme 0
Cotier oteio
p
Gycopołein
Date:
Glycoproteins Receptors
2. Cell Adhesion
3.
Cell Signalling
b. Extrinsic
Cell
LIGAND
membrane.
Response Secretion
Movement
Metabolic Change.
UNIT 4 Date: 20 - I - 2
Active Tansprtt
Achiye Proces
Re es ATP
ee ou Guad en
Ue memloíone Haneport piohein (Cotier Rokein
Merbiane heanspr pottin specilic to the molecae tansported
Facilałated Di sion
Ooson Happenig thouah aty membtane Pioten
Date:
BULK MOVEMENT
b.
Chtomoomes |Hskone)
Chemical Compohion — DNA Pioteins
Cew DiviSION.
Mitofs Mesís
h Posent Cell
Pa eot Ce
Dpl id
2n
o
,0 o,0
Dau Dav hte(
agtite C ell
Gutoth
3 PHAsEs A) r RPe syuthesis
2 Grolh
(B) M 1TosIs
C) tokines
C2
Jntephase
piokóns
RNA
-Call giaalh
*A ytheas
Enzyim
SCyłtokeneis
D anelles
MIToTC Ce C Le Date: 29 - II - 2
a. JNTERPHASE
G1 : 2. S
Rotens DNA Replicahion Synthesis
RNA
Eozyme 3. C2:
Oi anelles Shorte phase
b. MI 5S
Rophase Hetecochiomal
Chromosomes Condense isíble
Mekaphase:
Ceorosome (each opppsite po es spndle
Sn e anond oy ma wmes
Spindle bess attach to cenhrometes.
Spindie ibesspfically attoch to theKinehochoies, on the
Ceoktomee
Date:
Anaphase
Spindle bers shotten € pull at the
Centromere
move
opposite oles
Chromosomes (Euchtomatin
CYTOKINESIS
Divison of Cytoplasm
Cell
Plant Cell Development 0. cell plate
Date: O4 12 21
CANCER
> Cell Cycle is controlled process
Errors
checked by oncogenes (tomor suppressor gene)
* ase
Carcinogens cause
Uncontrolled Mitosis
No death
No contact inhibition
Spread
Potential New
20
Ability to divide
cell
Date:_
cell
Totipotency ability to dwide into any type af specialized
Multiporent
iro
Adult stem cells only able to
specialize
cell
types
BONE MARROW = Only Blood Cells
TELOMERE
*
prevent the loss important genes TELOMERES
becomes shorter
This results in a loss
genes
par-
Thos to Prevent this felomeses ate used instead
1
DNA G PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNA Molecule
☐ DNA molecule
contains
information
determines inherited
that
characteristics .
'
Base
Nitrogenous
<
Pentose
S >
Sugar
<
DNA
DNA Nucleotide Phosphate Group P Nucleotide N
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Deoxyribose Sugar ,
S
Pentose is not
preferred -
Base Adenine
Nitrogenous :
Thymine
÷
: 4
Different types
* Basic unit
of DNA molecule
1-
Guanine of
nucleotides
Cytosine .
DNA
Nitrogenous :
Ribonucleic Acid
Thymine
Guanine
s
Ribose Uracil
>
PURINES PYRIMIDINES
° Adenine °
Thymine o Uracil
°
Guanine o
Cytosine
Double
ring Single ring
° °
> >
Heavier
Lighter
° °
DNA : A. T G. C
,
RIYA : A ,U ,
G. C
* Bases
follow a
principle of complimentality .
A with T G with C
A T G : : : :C
> Hydrogen Bonding
-
Bases
Nitrogenous
-
Sugar
TF5E
a-
Backbone
.
'
Uncoil '
3 5
Nitrogenous Base
pairs ' '
5 3
P A : : :: T P
s
S
P G C p
s S
P T : :: : A P
K
S
Phosphodiester
Bond
covalent Bond
Hydrogen Bonds
<
DNA Replication
DNA Replication
i. DNA double helix unwinds on coils to
form two
strands
single .
The DNA
2 .
enzyme
Helicase breaks
Hydrogen
Bonds between the base
complimentary pairs on
DNA strands
the two
poly nucleotide
used
3 .
Both
of the exposed original strands are as
templates .
4.
Complimentary base
pairing means that
free activated
DNA nucleotides added to their base
are pair -
Condensation
5. reaction
joins nucleotides
of the new
known bubble
collectively as replication .
8. Replication is semi -
9 .
DNA
polymerase is also involved at the end
of
replication in some
proof reading and repair .
Meselson and Stahl Experiment
1
Follow the Numbers for I.
Isotopes Nk Mis
the Experiment supplied with His and
left
2. DNA ☐
Nitrogen to divide
L
§
✓
p µ
Bacteria IN / His
•
* Divide until all Bacteria had
S
2 N15
3. Bacteria DNA
§ § >
4 .
Nia
3
To determine
if all bacteria Allowed to
•
¥¥§#
N14
"" -
His
His -
His
Allowed to replicate
#
"" more . N14 -
4 His -
Protein Synthesis
i.
Transcription 2. Translation
RNA
tRNA Transfer codons -
on
Protein Synthesis
tRNA i. Clover shaped 3 .
Hydrogen
bonds in some areas
5. Anticodon
types of
6 .
20 amino acids > 20 tRNA
7.
Specificity of Anticodon =
Substitution
haemoglobin .
DELETION
TAG TAG TAG TAG TAG
✗
Frameshift : A
type of gene
mutation caused
by insertion
or deletion
of one or more nucleotides
resulting in incorrect
readingcode
of theduesequence
of triplets in the genetic to a
Tissues What?
2
3
Organs Key Words
nutrients
"
source : source
of assimilates .
u
Organ systems sink : where assimilates are
required .
Mass Flow :
Cross-Section of a Stem
"""ar Bundle
-
-
cambium ÷ "
'
-
Epidermis
"
Cortex
"
Fibre
parenchyma
Phloem Xylem
PLAN DIAGRAM
Transport in Plants
Root Hair Cell
*
Responsible for 1-10 absorption
of
'
rate endosmosis
5. A to Volume Ratio Quick
* >
Absorption
WATER
of
Cross-Section of a Root
> Epidermis
cortex ✓
r
Phloem
Endodermis ←-
Xylem
Pericyde
Transport in Plants
Parenchyma (Packaging Cells)
•
Used tissue
as a
packaging
-
Metabolically very
active
.
Can be used
for storage of starch .
Support .
Prevent P.M
wilting cells
.
Collenchyma
•
-
Modified form of parenchyma
Extra Cellulose Cell Walls >
.
Thicker
-
Extra strength .
Sclerenchyma
•
Non -
functional xylem .
Phloem Structure
Phloem is tissue
a
comprising
> :
i.
Companion cells
2. Sieve Tube Element Technically not a cell
>
Align on top of one another to
form sieve tubes .
> Sieve
to
plates with sieve
pores at ends
of tube element
support them
Plasmodesmata
3 .
connect 14 2
allowing cytoplasm
to be shared
for loading &
unloading .
Transport in Plants
Loading and
Unloading
Loading:
i. This is an active process that
requires the use
of ATP
companion .
with sucrose
through a
special membrane protein
called Cotransporter Protein .
> As it allows Ht to
4. Sucrose
diffuses from companion cell into the
Mass Flow:
I .
The assimilates are inside the sieve tube elements ,
more
negative water potential .
3 .
This causes an increase in the volume
of water
in the sieve tube element in increased
leads resulting
an
,
Water Potential .
This to increase
an in
'
the
hydrostatic pressure !
and
4 .
Since at the sink
unloading occurs
Cohesion is as a result
of water molecules
being hydrophilic .
Transport in Plants Xerophytes
> Inside
surface of leaf iswhich
covered by hair like -
structures Trichomes
- moist
-
trap air ,
reducing
the water potential gradient ,
decreasing rate
of
transpiration
>
Have sunken stomata which too trap moist air ;
lower epidermis
i. Tick
waxy cuticle
minimises water loss
from the leaf .
Water
Reduced
3. number
of leafs : v5 A to Volume Ratio
.
v
loss
Harran Grass
4 .
Hairy leaves :
trichomes trap moist air
eg
5. Curled leaves 6 .
Succulent :
water stored in specialised
tissue
parenchyma .
Transport in Plants
"
passages
"
as
pits .
prevent water
from flowing .
>
> No
lignin exists in these Pits .
* Water on the
surroundings spongy mesophyll cells
is maintained Water Potential
via a
gradient .
Transport in Plants Casparian Strips
Casparian Strips:
Found in cells
Control
of Endo dermis .
water
transfer by :
1 .
Apo plastic Pathway
of adjacent cells via diffusion
as
I
•
>
8
A
8
É
of
2 .
Symplastic Pathway cells connected
a
ÉÉ
>
diffusion .
Made
from Sobering carbohydrate impermeable to water .
These
Casparian strips can block
symplastic apoplastic
,
or both
pathways depending
,
on how Soberin is
deposited .
Regulate movement
of water into the
xylem in the
foot .
Transport in Mammals
The
Heart
Heart:
An cardiac cells
organ comprising .
Semi lunar
-
Aorta
Yates
>
-
Pulmonary
Artery f.eptum
Pulmonary
.µ
•
Vein
Vena Cava
Right Atrium left Atrium
re muscular
eslj-i.H.iq?::::*
µ,µ,
"" Yates
or
- .
chordae
Tendineae > %Ñ" Y "
*
Coronary Arteries stem
from the Aorta .
Muscles
Transport in Mammals
Cardiac
Cycle
Cardiac Cycle:
i.
Deoxygenated blood
from the rest
of the body enters the
2 .
Once the threshold volume
of blood is achieved the muscles
,
of
walls
of the
right atrium contract .
right .
4 .
The muscles
of tothe walls
of the right ventricle contract and
blood the the semi lunar
moves
pulmonary artery as -
valves open .
* Blood passes
from the Heart Twice
i. Heart >
Lungs
>
Heart
Pulmonary Circulation
2. Heart >
Body > Heart systemic Circulation
Transport in Mammals
Cardiac
Stages
i. Atrial systole :
Both atria contract .
Blood flows
from the atria
Backflow ofclosure
blood into
Diastole Relaxation the veins is prevented by the
of valves .
flows from
the ventricles into the arteries .
Backflow
of blood is prevented by atrioventricular
Valles .
3. Ventricular Diastole :
Both ventricles relax .
Transport in Mammals Heart
Action
Atria .
3 .
Both atria contract .
4. Non
bundle
conducting tissues
to
of His prevent
to ventricles
waves
go .
Time
5.
delay 0 I -0.2s
.
6 .
AVN sends out waves
of excitation which
pass
through Purkyne Fibres
spread upwards .
Transport in Mammals
Oxygen
Dissociation
Curve
I .
Haemoglobin Quaternary -
Hb + 40 ,
-
.
HB08
Looking 4 Unloading of 02
2 .
RBC
loading Unloading
@
Lungs @
Respiring cells
3. Concentration
=
of Oz
Partial Pressure
of 02
for
in saturation
large change .
makes it easier the 2nd
0, molecule to combine & so
on & so
forth .
Transport in Mammals
Forms of
Carbon
Dioxide
The Story of Carbon Dioxide:
Oxyhaemoglobin
Hb +0, Forms: I .
Simple solution
form dissolved in plasma .
Acid
Haemoglobonic 2 .
C0, + Hb Carb amino
haemoglobin
Hb + Ht
"
3 .
carboxyhaemoglobin
Hb + CO s Within RBC >
Enzyme Carbonicanhydrase
£8
"
carbaminohaemoglobin t.CO, + 1-1,0 .
Haco, Carbonic Acid
Hb +
CO2 or
ÉÉ Ht
-
2 . Haco, -
-
+ HC0,
Hydrogen
ions carbonate
PROBLEMS :
"
i.
Decreasing pH of RBC since leaves RBC
HC0, leaves the cell and Ht
-
remains .
2.
Increasing
RBC
title
charge inside
.
Transport in Mammals Chloride
Shift
Chloride Shift:
Movement
of chloride ions into RBC
from blood plasma
,
to
balance the
of ions into the plasma from
-
movement HC03
RBC .
+
* Hb + H >
HHB Haemoglobonic Acid
0, and in
Helps in
Unloading of maintaining
>
RBC
the pH of .
Bohr’s Effect:
It is the decrease in
when C0, is
affinity of Hb
for 0 ,
that occurs
present .
affinity of Hb with 0 , ✓
ÉÉ
oÉ
É
Partial Pressure
of 0 ,
Transport in Mammals Capillaries
Venite
' ' ' '
Arteriole
'
End . . . .
. . .
£
?d
>
Wall
of Capillary is one
cell thick .
00000
LIVER CELLS
'
i.
Hydrostatic Pressure at arteriole end .
2.
Only blood plasma passes
through the
fenestration to
3. Glucose ,
amino acids and
oxygen diffuse down the
cone .
4.
Majority of H20 tissue fluid moves back into the
Artery
Tunica Media
i. Elastic Fibres
ii. Collagen
iii. Smooth Muscles
Tunica Externa
i.
Collagen Fibres
ii. Elastic Fibres
Vein
Tunica Media
i. Smooth Muscles
ii. Elastic Fibres
Tunica Externa
i. Collagen Fibres
Gas Exchange
Antagonistic Pair
oxygenated
blood
deoxygenated
blood
'
L
capillaries
Originate from Pulmonary Artery
Gas Exchange
Trachea:
Ciliated epithelium with Goblet cells .
Mucus cells .
Smooth Muscles
undergo rhythmic muscular contraction .
C- Shaped
cartilage in order to support the trachea walls
,
Connective tissue .
Walls of Trachea
Gas Exchange
Gas Exchange in the Alveoli:
Bronchus - - - _
Terminal Bronchus ✗ - -
✗
Bronchioles ✗ ✓ -
✗
Alveolus Duct ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Alveoli ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Immunity
-
External
Defence a. HCl in stomach
b. Airway epithelium
Defence System c. Blood clotting
b. Antibodies
Identification:
* Cell
surface Antigens proteins on cell
surface membrane
are used for identification .
Cell to Cell
- -
Recognition
*
Antigens can be
self
-
antigens or non -
self antigens :
are known as
self antigens .
self antigens .
Immunity
Vaccination:
Live attenuated pathogens dead .
> Non -
self Antigens
stimulates an immune
response .
Lymphocytes
Macrophages
monocytes earlier primitive
-
macrophages
B- Lymphocytes T -
lymphocytes
B-Cells T -
Killer Cells
Phagocytosis:
i. Invaded cell produces help signal
Histamine , a .
2 .
This stimulates chemotaxis in a Neutrophil .
hydrolytic enzymes
s .
Fusion
of IY20mes la phagocytic Yacoole ,
DIGESTION .
Immunity
Lymphocytes:
Made : Bone Marrow
B- Cells Mature :
Bone Marrow
Made :
Bone Marrow
T Killer cells
Thymus Gland
-
Mature :
Production
of AntibodytheReceptors they & become
self
it compliments the
Antigen & thus ,
shape .
Immunity
B-Cells Immune
Response
Immunity Immune Response
Helper Cells:
1st help secretes
cytokines
stimulate
2nd help phagocytosis
3rd help stimulate killer T-cells
the
surface of infected cell .
Immunity
Active Immunity Passive Immunity
short term
longterm Breastfeeding
colostrum
natural r
Mixture
of Two Cells = HYBRIDONIA CELLS