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Introduction To Physical Anthropology 2013 2014 Edition 14Th Edition Ebook PDF All Chapter Scribd Ebook PDF
Introduction To Physical Anthropology 2013 2014 Edition 14Th Edition Ebook PDF All Chapter Scribd Ebook PDF
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Brief contents
Primates
chAPter 6 Survey of the Living Primates 135
chAPter 7 Primate Behavior 175
chAPter 8 Overview of the Fossil Primates 217
hominin evolution
chAPter 9 Paleoanthropology: Reconstructing Early Hominin Behavior and Ecology 255
chAPter 10 Hominin Origins in Africa 277
chAPter 11 The First Dispersal of the Genus Homo: Homo erectus and Contemporaries 307
chAPter 12 Premodern Humans 331
chAPter 13 The Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans 363
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contents
vii
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viii contents
The Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel 78 What Are Fossils and How Do They Form? 122
Segregation 78 Humans Are Vertebrates: Distant Connections 124
Dominance and Recessiveness 79 A Closer Look Deep Time 126–127
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans 83 Humans Are Also Mammals: Closer Connections 128
Misconceptions about Dominance and Recessiveness 83 The Emergence of Major Mammalian Groups 130
Patterns of Mendelian Inheritance 85 Processes of Macroevolution 130
Non-Mendelian Inheritance 89 Adaptive Radiation 130
Polygenic Inheritance 89 Generalized and Specialized Characteristics 131
Working Together: Microevolution and
At a glance Mendelian vs. Polygenic Traits 92 Macroevolution 132
Mitochondrial Inheritance 92
How Do We Know? 133
Pleiotropy 93
Summary of Main Topics 133
Genetic and Environmental Factors 93
Critical Thinking Questions 133
Modern Evolutionary Theory 94
The Modern Synthesis 94
A Current Definition of Evolution 94
Factors That Produce and Redistribute Variation 95
Mutation 95
Gene Flow 96
Genetic Drift and Founder Effect 97
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contents ix
Primates
C h a p te r 7
Primate Behavior 175
The Evolution of Behavior 176
Some Factors That Influence Social Structure 178
A Closer Look Types of Nonhuman Primate Social
Groups 180
Why Be Social? 181
Primate Social Behavior 182
Richard Mittleman/Gon2Foto/Alamy
Dominance 182
At a glance Primate Social Strategies 183
Communication 184
Aggressive and Affiliative Behaviors within Groups 186
Aggression 186
Affiliative Behaviors 187
Reproduction and Reproductive Behaviors 188
Reproductive Strategies 189
Sexual Selection 189
Infanticide as a Reproductive Strategy? 190
C h a p te r 6
Mothers, Fathers, and Infants 192
Survey of the Living Primates 135
Nonhuman Primate Models for the Evolution of Human
Primate Characteristics 136 Behavior 194
Primate Adaptations 139 Brain and Body Size 195
Evolutionary Factors 139 Language 197
A Closer Look Primate Cranial Anatomy 140–141 The Evolution of Language 200
Geographical Distribution and Habitats 141 Primate Cultural Behavior 202
Diet and Teeth 144 At a glance Evolution of Human Language 203
Locomotion 145 Conflict between Groups 207
Primate Classification 146
Prosocial Behaviors: Affiliation, Altruism, and
A Survey of the Living Primates 148 Cooperation 210
Lemurs and Lorises 148 Altruism 210
Tarsiers 150 The Primate Continuum 212
Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Humans 151
How Do We Know? 213
Hominoids: Apes and Humans 158
Summary of Main Topics 214
Endangered Primates 166
Critical Thinking Questions 215
A Closer Look Aye-Ayes: Victims of Derived
Traits and Superstition 168
The Bushmeat Trade 169
How Do We Know? 172
Summary of Main Topics 172
Critical Thinking Questions 173
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x contents
hominin evolution
C h a p te r 9
Paleoanthropology: Reconstructing Early
Hominin Behavior and Ecology 255
Understanding Our Direct Evolutionary Connections:
What’s a Hominin? 256
What’s in a Name? 256
Biocultural Evolution: The Human Capacity for Culture
257
Discovering Human Evolution: The Science of
Paleoanthropology 259
A Closer Look What Were Early Hominins Doing, and
How Do We Know? 260–261
Connecting the Dots through Time:
Paleoanthropological Dating Methods 264
A Closer Look Chronometric Dating Estimates 267
Experimental Archaeology 268
David Lordkipanidze
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contents xi
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xii contents
C h a p te r 13
The Origin and Dispersal of Modern
Humans 363
Approaches to Understanding Modern Human
Origins 364
The Regional Continuity Model: Multiregional
Evolution 364
Replacement Models 365
The Earliest Discoveries of Modern Humans 368
Africa 368
The Near East 371
At a glance Key Early Modern Homo sapiens
Discoveries from Africa and the Near East 373
Asia 373
Australia 375
Central Europe 375
ff
Western Europe 377 Wo
lpo
rd
ilfo
Something New and Different: The “Little People” 378 M
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contents xiii
C h a p te r 15 C h a p te r 17
Modern Human Biology: Patterns The Human Disconnection 469
of Adaptation 413 Human Impacts on the Planet and Other Life-
The Adaptive Significance of Human Variation 413 Forms 470
Solar Radiation and Skin Color 415 Humans and the Impact of Culture 470
The Thermal Environment 419 Global Climate Change 472
A Closer Look Skin Cancer and UV Radiation Impact on Biodiversity 476
422–423 Acceleration of Evolutionary Processes 479
High Altitude 425 Looking for Solutions 480
Infectious Disease 427 Is There Any Good News? 481
The Continuing Impact of Infectious Disease 430 How Do We Know? 482
At a glance Zoonoses and Human Infectious Summary of Main Topics 483
Disease 431 Critical Thinking Questions 483
Human Skeletal Biology: What Bones Can Tell Us about
Ancient Diseases, Trauma, and Lifestyles 433 a ppe n d i x a
Evidence of Prehistoric Diseases 433 Atlas of Primate Skeletal Anatomy 484
Reconstruction of Prehistoric Behavioral Patterns 436
How Do We Know? 438
a ppe n d i x B
Summary of Main Topics 439
Sexing and Aging the Skeleton 492
Critical Thinking Questions 439
Media Resources 439
Glossary 497
C h a p te r 16 Bibliography 506
Index 532
Legacies of Human Evolutionary History and
the Human Life Course 441
Evolved Biology and Contemporary Lifestyles—Is There
a Mismatch? 442
Biocultural Evolution and the Life Course 442
From Embryo to Adult: Human Growth and
Development Today and in the Past 443
Nutritional Effects on Growth, Development, and Later-Life
Health 444
A Closer Look Diabetes 448
At a glance Diet, Lifestyle, and Consequences 449
Other Factors Affecting Growth and Development: Genes,
Environment, and Hormones 450
Life History Theory and the Human Life Course 453
iStockphoto.com/Joseph Luoman
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xxxxof Features
List
A Closer Look
Forensic Anthropology in Practice 21 Dragon Bone Hill: Cave Home or Hyena Den? 322–323
Rosalind Franklin: The Fourth (but Invisible) Member of The Evolution of Language 352
the Double Helix Team 52
Are They Human? 356–357
Noncoding DNA—Not Junk After All 59
Maybe You Can Take It with You 384
Evo-Devo: The Evolution Revolution 112–113
Racial Purity: A False and Dangerous Ideology
Deep Time 126–127 392–393
Primate Cranial Anatomy 140 What DNA Tells Us about Ancient Human
Migrations 400–401
Aye-Ayes: Victims of Derived Traits and
Superstition 168 Calculating Allele Frequencies: PTC Tasting in a
Hypothetical Population 406
Types of Nonhuman Primate Social Groups 180
Skin Cancer and UV Radiation 422–423
Building Family Trees from Genes 220
Diabetes 448
Primate Diversity in the Fayum 232
Chronometric Dating
Estimates 267
In Search of Ancient
Human Ancestors—
and a Little Shade 318–319
Drawing by Robert Greisen
xiv
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contents xv
At a Glance
The Mechanism of Natural Selection 45 Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils from
Africa 335
Coding and Noncoding DNA 61
Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils from
Mendelian vs. Polygenic Traits 92 Europe 336
Comparing Two Approaches to Interpretation Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils from
of Evolutionary Relationships 117 Asia 337
Primate Social Strategies 183 Key Neandertal Fossil Discoveries 350
Evolution of Human Language 203 Key Early Modern Homo Sapiens Discoveries from
Africa and the Near East 373
Key Early Primate Names 226
Key Early Modern Homo Sapiens Discoveries from
Key Early Anthropoid Names 239
Europe and Asia 378
Key Fossil Ape Names 244
Genetic Polymorphisms Used to Study Human
Key Pre-Australopith Discoveries 288 Variation 399
Key Homo erectus Discoveries from Africa 315 Population Genetics Research 405
Key Homo Erectus Discoveries from Asia 324 Zoonoses and Human Infectious Disease 431
Key Homo erectus and Contemporaneous Discoveries Diet, Lifestyle, and Consequences 449
from Europe 326
Barbara Walton/epa/Corbis
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Preface
This textbook is about where we come from and the sci- our specific human evolutionary history over the past 6
entific ways we can explore our beginnings. Our species, million years. This evolutionary journey begins with our
like all species on earth, evolved from earlier life-forms. small-brained, apelike ancestors in Africa and follows the
As a result of this long shared ancestry, we and all other development of their descendants through time and over
life are connected in a variety of ways: genetically, ana- an expanding geographical range into Asia and Europe,
tomically, physiologically, and even behaviorally. These and much later into Australia and the Americas.
connections are the main focus of the book and are high- In the last section of this book (Chapters 14–17), we
lighted in every chapter. cover the most recent part of our evolutionary jour-
Physical anthropology, also called “biological anthro- ney with a discussion of modern human biology, and we
pology,” is the study of human adaptation, variability and trace the ongoing evolution of our species. Major top-
evolution as well as of our living and fossil relatives from ics include the nature of human variation (including an
a biological perspective. Consequently, throughout this anthropological discussion of the concept of “race”), pat-
text, you will encounter topics that emphasize basic bio- terns of adaptation in recent human populations, and
logical concepts. This broad biological framework allows the developmental changes experienced by humans
us to connect our evolutionary history with that of other through the course of their lives. In our new concluding
life-forms in order to better understand the evolutionary chapter, “The Human Disconnection,” we discuss how
pressures that shaped our species. contemporary humans are severely altering the planet.
In the last few years scientific knowledge in many fields We compare these recent and sudden developments
has accumulated amazingly fast. What’s more, the bio- with our species’ long evolutionary past, when humans
logical sciences are certainly among the most rapidly were not so numerous or so dependent on nonrenewable
expanding areas of knowledge as information increases resources.
dramatically every year—indeed, every month. This edi-
tion has been updated to reflect these changes and to pro-
vide the most current information available.
But, in reality, our presentation is just a beginning for
What’s new in the 2013–2014
students new to this field of study. It is our goal to give edition
students a strong foundation relating to the key aspects
of evolutionary biology, which includes physical anthro- First, as previously mentioned, we have incorporated the
pology. Our aim is to provide fundamental informa- unifying concept of our “connection” to all life as the
tion which will allow you to better understand some of framework for presenting material throughout the text.
the dramatic scientific advances that almost surely will To further reinforce this central focus, each chapter now
directly affect you in coming years. opens with a pedagogical aid that clearly shows students
Because genetic mechanisms lie at the heart of under- the biological connections as they are organized within
standing evolution, in the early chapters (2 though 5) we and between chapters. Students are also now presented
address the basic aspects of life, cells, DNA, and the ways with the learning objectives they are expected to mas-
species change. In Chapters 6 and 7, we turn to an explo- ter after reading the chapter. In addition, at the end of
ration of our evolutionary cousins, the nonhuman pri- each chapter we have included a new section (How Do
mates, and show how they are closely connected to us We Know?) which briefly summarizes the basic scien-
genetically, physically and behaviorally. In Chapters 8 tific information that allows physical anthropologists and
through 13, we first discuss the evolutionary history of other biologists to draw accurate conclusions regarding
early primates and how they relate to living nonhuman our evolutionary history.
primates and our own earliest ancestors (Chapter 8). In As genetic technology continues to grow at an unprec-
Chapters 9–13, we turn to a more detailed exploration of edented pace, it is our task to present the most rele-
xvi
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Preface xvii
vant new discoveries in as simple a manner as possible. mation about Ardipithecus as well as a new find of foot
Chapter 3 includes a new discussion of the ENCODE remains that suggest many of these early hominins were
(Encyclopedia of DNA Elements) project that involves likely bipedal, but in a very different way from us or even
more than 400 geneticists from around the world. The some other contemporary hominin species.
goal of the project is to identify the functions of the “non- Our coverage of Homo erectus in Chapter 11 covers a
coding” DNA that comprises about 98 percent of the new find from Java as well as new and more precise dating
human genome. This discussion is important because of several key sites. Chapter 12 contains a new framework
some of this DNA is involved in regulatory functions and for understanding premodern humans, especially as they
changes in regulatory genes are critical to the evolution- occupied wider areas of the Old World with some popu-
ary process. We also increased our discussion of regu- lations becoming more isolated. In addition, we cover the
latory DNA and types of regulatory genes to emphasize amazing new DNA results obtained from a finger bone
their role in evolution. found in Siberia that have allowed researchers to deter-
A major change to this edition is the reduction of the mine not only that the individual was female but also her
number of nonhuman primate chapters from 3 to 2. This hair, skin, and eye color. Chapter 13 concludes the sec-
change was in response to reviewer comments that there tion on fossil hominins with a discussion of the origins
be somewhat less coverage. However, all major topics have of modern humans. Updates include further evidence
been retained, and there is added material on cooperation showing more precisely the evolutionary relationships
and empathy in nonhuman primates. We have also added of Homo floresiensis as well as new archaeological dis-
more information emphasizing the endangered status of coveries pushing back the dates of cave painting in west-
many nonhuman primates, both in the text, and in a new ern Europe and the development of sophisticated tools in
table (Table 6.1) that lists some of the 25 species consid- southern Africa.
ered most endangered by the IUCN (International Union In Chapters 14 through 16, our focus turns to modern
for the Conservation of Nature). The table includes esti- human biology. Our understanding of human variation
mated numbers and the major threats to these species. (discussed in Chapter 14) has been completely trans-
Chapter 8 (formerly Chapter 9) has been trimmed and formed by more complete DNA data, published in just the
extensively updated to include new discoveries as well last five years. We have updated and modified our main
as ongoing reinterpretations of fossil primates. These perspective in this chapter to reflect the remarkable new
changes include a reassessment of molecular dating for findings contributed by molecular biology. New data from
primate origins and the evolution of all groups, as well contemporary hunter-gatherer populations in Africa tell
as an updated and streamlined treatment of lower pri- us about human origins; other very recent research fur-
mates. This new approach relies less on nomenclature and ther clarifies how migrations outside of Africa led to the
instead emphasizes key trends in primate adaptation and peopling of Eurasia, Australia, and the New World.
relation to living groups. Three new “At a Glance” boxes In Chapter 15, there’s a new discussion of recent
call attention to significant transitional primate groups research demonstrating a population-wide genetic muta-
and act as handy study tools. A complete revision of ape tion in Tibetan highlanders that increases their ability
origins is supplemented by a detailed map showing the to adapt to living at high altitude. We have also included
dispersal patterns of early apes from Africa to Europe a major new section on “Human Skeletal Biology: What
and Eurasia and then back into Africa. The chapter, as a Bones Can Tell Us about Ancient Diseases and Lifestyles.”
whole, includes attractive new art emphasizing important The discussion of diseases found in bone is linked to the
primate traits and differences between groups in an easy- overall human adaptation theme of the chapter and is
to-understand visual format. heavily illustrated with new photos.
Remarkable new discoveries of fossil hominins and In Chapter 16, now titled “Legacies of Human
evidence of their behavior are discussed in Chapters 9 Evolutionary History: Effects on the Individual,” we focus
through 13. In Chapter 9 we provide further informa- on ways in which our biology, resulting from millions of
tion that sheds light on the controversial interpretation years of evolution, seems to be mismatched with the lives
of what some researchers have claimed are the earliest we lead today, leading in some cases to compromised
stone tools (ostensibly used for butchering) as well the health. For example, the biology of women may not be
latest chemical evidence used to reconstruct early hom- well suited to the highly frequent menstrual cycling that
inin diets. Chapter 10 covers the earliest hominins and results from the use of modern forms of birth control.
presents varied interpretations, including further infor- Some health disorders that we are dealing with today may
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii Preface
stem from the dramatic differences between the diets of A Closer Look boxes are high-interest features found
our ancestors and the foods we eat today. throughout the book. They supplement chapter material
Finally, in the new concluding Chapter 17 (“The and include more in-depth discussion of selected stimu-
Human Disconnection”), we focus on another theme that lating topics.
runs through the book—why it is so crucial that we know
How Do We Know? chapter concluding sections sum-
and understand human evolutionary history, its impact
marize the basic scientific information used in drawing
on the world today, and how we have distanced ourselves
accurate conclusions about our evolutionary history.
from other living species with which we share so many
connections. We humans and the consequences of our Video Media Resources are now listed at the end of half
activities are probably the most important influences on of the chapters. Students are referred to the anthropology
evolution today, causing the extinction or near-extinction CourseMate at www.cengagebrain.com for access.
of thousands of other life-forms and threatening the very
A running glossary in the margins provides definitions
planet on which we live. Our disconnection from other
of terms immediately adjacent to the text where the term
species and from our own evolutionary past pose the
is first introduced. A full glossary is provided at the back
biggest challenges our species has ever faced. Only by
of the book.
understanding how we got to this point can we begin to
respond to the challenges that are in our future and the At a Glance boxes found throughout the book briefly
futures of our children and grandchildren. summarize complex or controversial material in a visually
We also expanded our treatment of climate change in simple fashion.
Chapter 17, including two new figures. The discussion Figures, including numerous photographs, line drawings,
provides current information from the National Snow and maps, most in full color, are carefully selected to clar-
and Ice Data Center showing that in September 2012, ify text materials and directly support the discussion in
the Arctic sea ice minimum was 49 percent less than the the text.
average figure for the years 1979 to 2000. We point out
that there has been a steady decline in Arctic sea ice since Critical Thinking Questions at the end of each chapter
the year 2000 and we briefly deal with the likely conse- reinforce key concepts and encourage students to think
quences of continued melting. critically about what they have read.
Full bibliographical citations throughout the book pro-
vide sources from which the materials are drawn. This
In-chapter Learning Aids type of documentation guides students to published, peer-
reviewed source materials and illustrates for students the
Connections graphic at the beginning of each chap- proper use of references. All cited sources are listed in the
ter shows the biological relationships emphasized in the comprehensive bibliography at the back of the book.
chapter in the context of topics in other chapters.
Student Learning Objectives are listed on the opening
page of each chapter.
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxxx
Acknowledgments
Over the years, many friends and colleagues have James Westgate, Randy White, Milford Wolpoff, Xinzhi
assisted us with our books. For this edition we are espe- Wu, and João Zilhão.
cially grateful to the reviewers who so carefully com- Over the years, many students have pledged their
mented on the manuscript and made such helpful time and expertise to help improve Chapter 8. We would
suggestions: Jerusha Achterberg, Harvard University; especially like to thank K. Lindsay Eaves for her invalu-
Autumn Cahoon, Sierra College; Meredith Dorner, able help editing and researching this and earlier edi-
Saddleback College; Samantha Hens, California State tions of the manuscript and for facilitating coordination
University Sacramento; Melissa Remis, Purdue University of the text and art within the context of the Ciochon
West Lafayette; Kathleen Rizzo, University of Illinois at Lab. We also thank Kiran Patel for her unfailing atten-
Chicago; Patricia Vinyard, University of Akron; and Brita tion to detail, Toby Avalos for his research on fossil apes
Wynn, Sacramento City College. and Mike Hussey for help with photographs. For the cur-
We wish to thank the team at Cengage Learning: rent and past three editions, John Fleagle has made ana-
Aileen Berg, Lin Marshall Gaylord, Liz Rhoden, Michelle tomical diagrams available that were originally used in
Williams, Mallory Ortberg, John Chell, Caryl Gorska, his book, Primate Adaptation and Evolution (Academic
and Cheri Palmer. Moreover, for their unflagging exper- Press, 1999). Others who have assisted in forming the
tise and patience, we are grateful to our copy editor, Heidi concepts that we have put into written form include
Thaens, our production coordinator, Gary Hespenheide, David Begun, Eric Delson, John Fleagle, Terry Harrison,
and his skilled staff at Hespenheide Design: Patti Zeman, Pat Holroyd, Gregg Gunnell, Andrew Kitchen, Philip
Randy Miyake, and Bridget Neumayr. Rightmire, Nelson Ting, Kirstin Sterner, Iyad Zalmout,
To the many friends and colleagues who have gen- and Tim White.
erously provided photographs, we are greatly apprecia-
tive: Zeresenay Alemsegel, Nanette Barkey, Chris Beard, Robert Jurmain
Günter Bechly, David Begun, Brenda Benefit, Lee Berger, Lynn Kilgore
Jonathan Bloch, C. K. Brain, Günter Bräuer, Peter Brown, Wenda Trevathan
Ray Carson, Desmond Clark, Ron Clarke, Bill Clemens, Russell Ciochon
Raymond Dart, Henri de Lumley, Louis de Bonis, Didier December 2012
Descouens, Michael Donnenberg, John Fleagle, Diane
France, Robert Franciscus, David Frayer, Kathleen In memory of Phillip Tobias
Galvin, Philip Gingerich, Gregg Gunnell, David Haring,
Terry Harrison, John Hodgkiss, Almut Hoffman, Pat
Holroyd, Ellen Ingmanson, Fred Jacobs, Don Johanson,
Peter Jones, Mushtaq Kahn, John Kappelman, Richard
Kay, William Kimbel, Charles Knowles, Arlene Kruse,
Yutaku Kunimatsu, Julie Lesnik, Linda Levitch, Thomas J.
Loebel, David Lordkipanidze, Carles Lalueza-Fox, Giorgio
Manzi, Tetsuro Matsuzawa, Monte McCrossin, National
Museums of Kenya, Gerald Newlands, Xijum Ni, John
Oates, Bonnie Pedersen, David Pilbeam, Gul Reyman,
Charlotte Roberts, Duane Rumbaugh, Sastrohamijoyo
Sartono, Peter Schmid, Rose Sevick, Elwyn Simons,
Meredith Small, Fred Smith, Thierry Smith, Kirstin
Jeffrey McKee
xix
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Supplements
Introduction to Physical Anthropology 2013–2014 comes and concepts. The site also provides an eBook version
with an outstanding supplements program to help of the text with highlighting and note-taking capabili-
instructors create an effective learning environment so ties. For instructors this text’s CourseMate also includes
students can more easily master the latest discoveries and Engagement Tracker, a first-of-its-kind tool that monitors
interpretations in the field of physical anthropology. student engagement in the course. Go to login.cengage.
com to access these resources.
xx
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Supplements xxi
Telecourse Course Student Guide for Introduction to Basic Genetics in Anthropology CD-ROM: Principles
Physical Anthropology, 2013–2014 Edition and Applications, Version 2.0 by Jurmain/Kilgore/
Entitled “Physical Anthropology: The Evolving Human,” Trevathan
this distance-learning course provides online and print This student CD-ROM expands on basic biological con-
companion study guide options that include quizzing, cepts covered in the book, focusing on biological inher-
study aids, interactive exercises, video, and more. itance (such as genes and DNA sequencing) and its
applications to modern human populations. Interactive
Classic and Contemporary Readings in Physical animations and simulations bring these important con-
Anthropology cepts to life so that students can fully understand the
Edited by Mary K. Sandford and Eileen Jackson, this essential biological principles underlying human evolu-
accessible reader presents primary articles with intro- tion. Also available are quizzes and interactive flash cards
ductions and questions for discussion, helping students for further study.
to better understand the nature of scientific inquiry.
Students will read highly accessible classic and contem- Hominid Fossils CD-ROM: An Interactive Atlas by
porary articles on key topics, including the science of James Ahern
physical anthropology, evolution and heredity, primates, This CD-based interactive atlas includes over 75 key fos-
human evolution, and modern human variation. sils that are important for a clear understanding of human
evolution. The QuickTime® Virtual Reality (QTVR)
Lab Manual and Workbook for Physical “object” movie format for each fossil will enable students
Anthropology, Seventh Edition to have a near-authentic experience working with these
Written by Diane L. France, this edition of the workbook important finds by allowing them to rotate the fossil 360°.
and lab manual includes a new “Introduction to Science Unlike some VR media, QTVR objects are made using
and Critical Thinking” that precedes the first. Using actual photographs of the real objects and thus better
hands-on exercises, this richly illustrated full-color lab preserve details of color and texture. The fossils used are
manual balances the study of genetics, human osteology, high-quality research casts and real fossils.
anthropometry, and forensic anthropology with the study The organization of the atlas is nonlinear, with three
of primates and human evolution. In addition to provid- levels and multiple paths, enabling students to start with
ing hands-on lab assignments that apply the field’s per- a particular fossil and work their way “up” to see how the
spectives and techniques to real situations, this edition fossil fits into the map of human evolution in terms of
provides more explanatory information and sample exer- geography, time, and evolution. The CD-ROM offers stu-
cises throughout the text to help make the concepts of dents an inviting, authentic learning environment, one
physical anthropology easier to understand. Contact your that also contains a dynamic quizzing feature that will
Cengage sales representative to package with the text. allow students to test their knowledge of fossil and species
identification as well as provide more detailed informa-
Physical Anthropology Lab Manual by John tion about the fossil record.
Kappelman offers a focused sampling of laboratory exer-
cises that range across the breadth of the discipline, from
examples of heredity and evolution to primate behavior,
the fossil record of apes and early humans, and questions
about human biology that are linked to environmental
change. Exercises are designed with a succinct focus on
particular problems, and the labs follow a fixed format
with the introduction of a problem followed by the collec-
tion of data that are in turn used to test and evaluate the
hypothesis. Students who complete the labs will greatly
expand their knowledge of physical anthropology.
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Connections
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Introduction to
Physical Anthropology
Introduction
Student Learning Objectives
After mastering the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
1
O
ne day, perhaps during the ▶ Describe the discipline of anthropology as it is practiced in the
rainy season some 3.7 million United States, its subfields, and the general anthropological
years ago, two or three animals perspective on how humans are biologically and behaviorally
walked across a grassland savanna in connected to other species.
what is now northern Tanzania, in East ▶ Provide a brief description of the major subfields of physical or
Africa. These individuals were early biological anthropology.
hominins, members of the same evo-
lutionary lineage that includes our own ▶ Understand the fundamentals of the scientific method and the
species, Homo sapiens. Fortunately importance of hypothesis testing.
for us, a record of their passage on that
▶ Explain why scientific theories are not simply guesses or hunches,
long-forgotten day remains in the form
as the term (theory) is often incorrectly used and interpreted.
of fossilized footprints, preserved in
hardened volcanic deposits. As chance ▶ Appreciate how understanding the nature of scientific research
would have it, shortly after heels and can lead to the development of critical thinking skills, which, in
toes were pressed into the damp soil, turn, are an extremely important outcome of a college education.
a nearby volcano erupted. The ensu-
ing ash fall blanketed everything on the
ground. In time, the ash layer hardened
into a deposit that remarkably pre- ensis. Because the remains have been
served the tracks of numerous animals, extensively studied, we know that these
including those early hominins, for hominins were anatomically similar to
nearly 4 million years (Fig. 1-1). ourselves, although their brains were
These now famous prints indicate only about one-third the size of ours.
that two individuals, one smaller than They may have used stones and sticks
savanna (also spelled savannah) A
the other, perhaps walking side by side, as simple tools, but there is no evidence
large flat grassland with scattered trees
left parallel sets of tracks. But because that they actually made stone tools. In
and shrubs. Savannas are found in many
the larger individual’s prints are fact, they were very much at the mercy regions of the world with dry and warm-to-
obscured, possibly by those of a third, of nature’s whims. They certainly hot climates.
it’s unclear how many actually made could not outrun most predators, and
hominins Colloquial term for members
that journey so long ago. What is clear their canine teeth were fairly small, so
of the evolutionary group that includes
is that the prints were made by an ani- compared to many other animals, they modern humans and now-extinct bipedal
mal that habitually walked bipedally were pretty much defenseless. relatives.
(on two feet), and that fact tells us that We’ve asked hundreds of questions
species A group of organisms that
those ancient travelers were hominins. about the Laetoli hominins, but we will
can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
In addition to the footprints, scien- never be able to answer them all. They
Members of one species are reproductively
tists working at this site (called Laetoli) walked down a path into what became isolated from members of all other species
and at other locations have discovered their future, and their journey ended (i.e., they cannot mate with them to pro-
many fossilized parts of skeletons of an so long ago that we cannot really grasp duce fertile offspring).
animal we call Australopithecus afar how much time has passed since that
bipedally On two feet; walking habitu-
3 ally on two legs.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
4 ChApter 1 Introduction to Physical Anthropology
day. But it remains for us to learn as You may wonder why anyone would
much as we can about them, and as we care about early hominin footprints
continue to do this, their greater jour- and how they can possibly be relevant
ney continues. to your life. You may also wonder why a
On July 20, 1969, a television audi- physical anthropology textbook would
ence numbering in the hundreds of begin by discussing two such seemingly
millions watched as two human beings unrelated events as ancient hominins
stepped out of a spacecraft onto the walking across an African savanna and
surface of the moon. People born after a moonwalk. But the fact is, these two
that date have always lived in an age of events are very closely connected.
space exploration, and many may now Physical, or biological, anthropology
take that first moon landing more or (both terms are used) is a scientific
less for granted. But the significance of discipline concerned with the biologi-
that first moonwalk can’t be overstated, cal and behavioral characteristics of
because it represents humankind’s pre- human beings; our closest relatives,
sumed mastery over the natural forces the nonhuman primates (apes, mon-
that govern our presence on earth. keys, tarsiers, lemurs, and lorises); and
For the first time ever, people actually our ancestors. This kind of research
walked upon the surface of a celestial helps us explain what it means to
body that, as far as we know, has never be human and how we came to be
given birth to biological life. the way we are. This is an ambitious
As the astronauts gathered geologi- goal and it probably isn’t fully attain-
cal specimens and frolicked in near able, but it’s certainly worth pursuing.
weightlessness, they left traces of their We’re the only species to ponder our
fleeting presence in the form of foot- own existence and question how we
prints in the lunar dust (Fig. 1-2). On fit into the spectrum of life on earth.
the surface of the moon, where no rain Most people view
falls and no wind blows, the footprints
remain undisturbed to this day. They
survive as silent testimony to a brief
visit by a medium-sized, big-
brained creature that pre-
sumed to challenge the
very forces that cre-
ated it.
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The Human Connection 5
humanity as quite separate from the ance of a new species (or spe
rest of the animal kingdom. But at the ciation), especially when
same time, many are curious about those populations are
the similarities we share with other isolated from one
species. Maybe, as a child, you looked another. Change at
at your dog and tried to figure out how this level is called
her front legs might correspond to macroevolution.
your arms. Or perhaps during a visit At the other
to the zoo, you recognized the simi- level, there are
larities between a chimpanzee’s hands genetic altera-
or facial expressions and your own. tions within
Maybe you wondered if he also shared populations;
your thoughts and feelings. If you’ve and though
ever had thoughts and questions like this type of
these, then you’ve indeed been curious change may not
about humankind’s place in nature. lead to speciation,
How did Homo sapiens, a result of it does cause popu-
the same evolutionary forces that pro- lations of a species to
SA
duced all other forms of life on this differ from one another NA
planet, gain the power to control the in the frequency of certain
flow of rivers and even alter the cli- traits. Evolution at this level is
mate on a global scale? As tropical ani- referred to as microevolution. Evolution ▲Figure 1-2 Human footprints left
mals, how were we able to leave the at both these levels will be discussed in on the lunar surface during the Apollo
tropics and eventually occupy most of this book. mission.
the earth’s land surfaces? How did we
adjust to different environmental con-
ditions as we dispersed? How could our
species, which numbered fewer than
The Human
1 billion until the mid-nineteenth cen- Connection
tury, come to number more than 7 bil-
lion worldwide today and, as we now
do, add another billion people approxi-
mately every 11 years?
T he unifying theme of this textbook
is how human beings are linked to
all other life on earth. We can see how evolution A change in the genetic
These are some of the many ques- we are connected to other organisms structure of a population. the term is also
tions that physical anthropologists try in countless ways, as you will learn frequently used to refer to the appearance
to answer through the study of human throughout this book. For example, our of a new species.
evolution, variation, and adaptation. DNA is structurally identical to that adaptation An anatomical, physi-
These issues, and many others, are cov- of every living thing. Indeed, we share ological, or behavioral response of organ-
ered in this textbook, because physical genes that are involved in the most fun- isms or populations to the environment.
anthropology is, in large part, human damental life processes with even the Adaptations result from evolutionary
biology seen from an evolutionary per- simplest of animals, such as sponges. change (specifically as a result of natural
spective. On hearing the term evolu These genes have changed very little selection).
tion, most people think of the appear- over the course of several hundred mil- genetic having to do with the study
ance of new species. Certainly new lion years of evolution. With few excep- of gene structure and action and the pat-
species are one important consequence tions, our cells have the same struc- terns of inheritance of traits from parent
of evolution, but not the only one. ture and work the same way as in all to offspring. Genetic mechanisms are the
Evolution is an ongoing biological life forms. Anatomically, we have the foundation of evolutionary change.
process with more than one outcome. same muscles and bones as other ani- behavior Anything organisms do that
Simply stated, evolution is a change in mals. What’s more, many aspects of involves action in response to internal or
the genetic makeup of a population our behavior have direct connections external stimuli; the response of an indi-
from one generation to the next, and it to nonhuman species, especially other vidual, group, or species to its environment.
can be defined and studied at two lev- primates. Such responses may or may not be deliber-
ate, and they aren’t necessarily the result
els. Over time, some genetic changes The countless connections we
of conscious decision making (which is
in populations do result in the appear- share with other organisms show that
absent in single-celled organisms, insects,
and many other species).
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
6 ChApter 1 Introduction to Physical Anthropology
humans are a product of the same evo- ers; and clothing, from animal skins
lutionary forces that produced all liv- to high-tech synthetic fibers (Fig. 1-4).
ing things. But, clearly we aren’t iden- Technology, religion, values, social
tical to any other species. In fact, all organization, language, kinship, mar-
species are unique in some ways. We riage rules, gender roles, dietary prac-
humans are one contemporary compo- tices, inheritance of property, and so
nent of a vast biological continuum at on are all aspects of culture. Each cul-
a particular point in time; and in this ture shapes people’s perceptions of the
regard, we aren’t really all that special. external environment, or worldview,
Stating that humans are part of a con- in particular ways that distinguish a
tinuum doesn’t imply that we’re at the particular society from all others.
peak of development on that contin- One important point to remember
uum. Depending on the criteria used, is that culture isn’t genetically passed
humans can be seen to exist at one end from one generation to the next. We
of the spectrum or the other, or some- aren’t born with innate knowledge that
where in between, but we don’t occupy leads us to behave in ways appropriate
a position of inherent superiority over to our own culture. Culture is learned,
other species (Fig. 1-3). and the process of learning one’s cul-
However, human beings are unques- ture begins, quite literally, at birth.
tionably unique regarding one highly All people are products of the culture
significant characteristic, and that is they’re raised in, and since most human
intellect. After all, humans are the behavior is learned, it follows that most
only species, born of earth, to stir the human behaviors, perceptions, values,
lunar dust. We’re the only species to and reactions are shaped by culture.
develop language and complex culture It’s important to emphasize that
as a means of buffering nature’s chal- even though culture isn’t genetically
lenges, and by doing so we have gained determined, the human predisposi-
the power to shape the planet’s very tion to assimilate culture and func-
destiny. tion within it is very much influenced
by biological factors. Most nonhuman
animals rely to varying degrees on
Biocultural Evolution learned behavior. This is especially true
of the great apes (gorillas, chimpan-
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Biocultural Evolution 7
▶Figure 1-3 Traditional and recent
technologies. (a) An early stone tool
from East Africa. This artifact repre-
Lynn Kilgore
sents one of the oldest types of stone
tools found anywhere. (b) The Hubble
Space telescope, a late twentieth-
century tool, orbits the earth every 96
minutes at an altitude of 360 miles. b
Because it is above the earth’s atmo-
sphere, it provides distortion-free
images of objects in deep space. a
(c) A cuneiform tablet. Cuneiform,
the earliest form of writing, involved
pressing symbols into clay tablets. It
originated in southern Iraq some 5,000
years ago. (d) Text messaging, a fairly
titute
recent innovation in satellite communi-
c
ce Ins
cation, has generated a new language
Museum of Primitive Art and Culture, Peace Dale, RI.
cien
pe S
text messages are sent every day
sco
worldwide. (e) A Samburu woman in
e
Tel
East Africa building a traditional but
ce
pa
/S
complicated dwelling of stems, small S
A
NA
branches, and mud. (f) These Hong
Kong skyscrapers are typical of cities d
in industrialized countries today.
iStockphoto.com/Ravi Tahilramani
Lynn Kilgore
f
iStockphoto.com/Justin Horocks
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Connections
Figure 1-4
Humans are biologically
connected to all forms of
life. This central theme
will be addressed in every
chapter of this textbook
as shown in this figure.
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 17
CHAPTER 15
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
ix
hel
ou ble
Ad
DN
G
C
C
G
A
T ir
the
w ay d to
der t r a cte eby
n t e r
T nu re a nd th
A
atio sa a
C
G
e plic o t ide ides
R le ot
A
T nuc ucle
a c hed tary n
A at t e n n d
T C
G Un plem w stra
G
com a ne
m
A C for
TA
ds T
ran
G
l st G G
C
new
C
gina C H A CP T E R 3 C H lA PTER 4
Ori T A ete
p
om
T A ionc
G T at
C
old old A plic
A Re
T
The DNA molecule is C
G
Evolution occurs when DNA
le-
oub ule
s the basis
new
of allAlife.
T C
G changes and genetic variation
al d molec
t i
en NA
c G is further influenced by natural
o id D C
Tw nded selection and other factors.
s t r a
C G
CHAPTER 5
nds
w stra
Ne Hominins began
Humans are both ver-
to disperse out of
tebrates and mammals,
Africa around 2
and their evolutionary
million years ago,
history over many mil-
and during the
lions of years explains
next 1 million years
our early roots.
inhabited much of
CHAPTER 11 Eurasia.
CHAPTER 7
Partly because of
common evolutionary
history, many human
behaviors are also seen
in other primates.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
10 ChApter 1 Introduction to Physical Anthropology
Biocultural interactions have result- change. But while it’s clear that we
ed in many anatomical, biological, and humans have influenced the develop-
behavioral changes during the course ment and spread of infectious disease,
of human evolution. Alterations in the we still don’t know the many ways
shape of the pelvis, increased brain size, that changes in infectious disease pat-
reorganization of neurological struc- terns are affecting human biology and
tures, smaller teeth, and the devel- behavior. Anthropological research
opment of language are some of the in this one area alone is extremely rel-
results of the evolutionary process in evant to all of us, and there are many
our lineage. Today biocultural inter- other critical topics that biological
actions are as important as ever, espe- anthropologists explore.
cially with regard to health and disease.
Air pollution and exposure to dan-
gerous chemicals have increased the What Is Anthropology?
prevalence of respiratory disease and
cancer. While air travel makes it pos-
sible for people to travel thousands of
miles in just a few hours, we aren’t the
M any anthropology students con-
template this question when their
parents or friends ask, “What are you
only species that can do this. Millions studying?” The answer is often fol-
of disease-causing organisms travel on lowed by a blank stare or a comment
airplanes with their human hosts, mak- about dinosaurs. So, what is anthropol-
ing it possible for infectious diseases to ogy, and how is it different from several
spread within hours across the globe. related disciplines?
Many human activities have Like physical anthropologists,
changed the patterns of such infec- biologists investigate human adap-
tious diseases as tuberculosis, influ- tation and evolution. Similarly, his-
enza, and malaria. After the domes- torians and sociologists also study
tication of nonhuman animals, close aspects of human societies past and
contact with chickens, pigs, and cat- present. But when biological or social
tle greatly increased human expo- research also considers the interactions
sure to some of the diseases these ani- between evolutionary and cultural fac-
mals carry. Through this contact we’ve tors, it’s included in the discipline of
also changed the genetic makeup of anthropology.
disease-causing microorganisms. For In the United States, anthropology
example, the H1N1 “swine flu” virus is divided into four main subfields: cul-
that caused the 2009 pandemic actu- tural, or social, anthropology; archaeol-
ally contains genetic material derived ogy; linguistic anthropology; and physi-
from bacteria that infect three differ- cal, or biological, anthropology. Each
ent species: humans, birds, and pigs. As of these, in turn, is divided into several
it turned out, that pandemic wasn’t as specialized areas of interest. This four-
serious as had originally been feared, field approach concerns all aspects of
but the next one could be. Because we humanity across space and time. Each
have overused antibiotics, we’ve made subdiscipline emphasizes different
many bacteria resistant to treatment aspects of the human experience, but
and many are even deadly. Likewise, together they offer a means of explain-
although we’re making progress in ing variation in human biological and
treating malaria, the microorganism behavioral adaptations. In addition,
that causes it has developed resistance each of these subfields has practical
to some treatments and preventive applications, and many anthropologists
medications. We’ve also increased the pursue careers outside the university
geographical distribution of malaria- environment. This kind of anthropolo-
applied anthropology the practi- gy is called applied anthropology, and
carrying mosquitoes through agri-
cal application of anthropological and
cultural practices and global climate it’s extremely important today.
archaeological theories and techniques.
For example, many biological anthropolo-
gists work in the public health sector.
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Linguistic Anthropology 11
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Another random document with
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.