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Magnetism
Magnets
A magnet is a physical object that has the ability to attract or repel other
magnetic materials, such as iron, without the need for an external electric current. It has
distinct poles, typically labeled as the north pole and the south pole, which exhibit
opposite magnetic behaviors. The force between magnetic poles is similar to the force
between electric charges, but unlike charges, magnetic poles always occur in pairs of
opposite signs. Magnetism can be induced in materials through various means, such as
stroking with a magnet or exposure to a strong magnetic field. Soft magnetic materials
are easily magnetized but lose their magnetization easily, while hard magnetic
materials are used in permanent magnets due to their ability to provide a persistent
magnetic field without the use of electricity. The strength and direction of a magnetic field
are defined by its magnitude and direction at any given location.
Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is the space surrounding a magnetic substance or a mobile
electric charge where the force of magnetism operates.
Magnetic Field Lines
Used as visual aid to depict magnetic fields. They show the direction in which a
north magnetic pole would move at any particular location. The concentration of these
lines represents the strength of the magnetic field. In other words, the magnetic field is
stronger and more crowded near the poles of a magnet, whereas it becomes weaker and
less dense as we move further away from the poles.

The properties of magnetic fields:

1. Non-intersection- Magnetic field lines do not intersect each other, as this would imply that the
magnetic field has contradictory values at a single point, which is not physically possible.

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2. Density- The density of magnetic field lines is a direct indication of the strength of the magnetic
field in that region. The closer the lines are, the stronger the magnetic field is in that area.
3. Closure- Magnetic field lines form closed loops, which is a consequence of the fact that
magnetic fields are conservative in nature. This means that the magnetic field has a potential
function, and its integral around any closed loop is always zero.
4. Polarity- In a magnet, magnetic field lines emerge or start from the north pole and terminate at
the south pole. This is a result of the fact that opposite poles attract each other, while like poles
repel each other. In other words, the north pole of one magnet is attracted to the south pole of
another magnet, and vice versa.

Magnetic Flux(φ)
The entire group of magnetic field lines, which can be considered flowing
outward from the North pole of a magnet.
UNIT:
• Maxwell – equals one magnetic field line
•Weber – equals 1 x 10^8 lines

Example Problems:
1. Convert 25,000 Maxwells to Weber
8
1 ×10 Wb
25,000 mx x =0.00025 weber
1mx
2. Convert 0.005 Wb to Mx
0.005 wb x 11 mx 8
×10 w b
=500,000 maxwell

Magnetic flux density (B)

The quantity of magnetic field lines per unit area of a cross-sectional plane
perpendicular to the direction of flux.

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Formula: B = φ / A
Unit:
• Gauss (G) = 1Mx / cm^2
• Tesla (T) = 1 Wb / m^2
Example Problems:
1. With a flux of 10,000 Mx through a perpendicular area of 5cm2, what is the flux
density in gauss?
10,000 mx
B= 2
=2000 G
5c m
2. With a flux of 400μWb through an area of 0.0005m2 , what is the flux density (B)
in Tesla?
400 μWb
B= =0.8T
0.0005 m2

Magnetic Permeability ( μ)
It is a property of a material that describes how much it increases or decreases the
strength of the magnetic field inside it compared to the external magnetic field. It is calculated
by dividing the magnetic flux density (B) inside the material by the external magnetic field
strength (H). In other words, magnetic permeability is the relative increase or decrease in the
resultant magnetic field inside a material compared to the magnetizing field outside it. A
material with a magnetic permeability greater than 1 is said to be magnetically soft, while a
material with a magnetic permeability less than 1 is said to be magnetically hard.
Magnetic Behaviors:
1. Diamagnetism- refers to a property found in specific materials that results in their
rejection by a magnetic field. These materials possess a relative magnetic

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permeability below 1, causing a reduction in the magnetic field's strength when

they are placed within an external magnetic field. Diamagnetic effects are
relatively weak and are typically observed in materials that aren't inherently
magnetic, such as particular gases, liquids, and some solids like copper, silver,
and gold.
2. Paramagnetism- magnetic property exhibited by certain materials that are not
naturally magnetic but become weakly magnetized in a magnetic field. This
phenomenon occurs due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the material's
atoms, which align themselves with the magnetic field. The degree of
magnetization in paramagnets is directly proportional to the strength of the
applied magnetic field and inversely proportional to temperature. The
permeability of paramagnets is slightly greater than that of vacuum, but much
less than that of ferromagnetic materials.
3. Ferromagnetism- the strong mutual attraction between certain materials like iron
due to the alignment of their permanent magnetic moments, forming a long-range
ordering responsible for magnetism in objects. These materials exhibit high
permeability.

Magnetic Materials:
1. Diamagnetic (very weak, negative magnetic, and repelled by the magnetic field)
µ slightless less than 1 (when the value goes down, it becomes repulsive)
Ex.
Water, Wood, Rubber, Plastic
2. Paramagnetic (weak magnetic attraction) *temporary magnet
µ slightly more than 1( weakly magnetize)
Ex.
Aluminum, chromium, Carbon, Platinum
3. Ferromagnetic (capable of forming a permanent magnet)
µ >> 1 (forms magnetic domains
Ex.
Iron, cobalt, nickel, steel

Magnetic reluctance

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Reluctance in a magnetic circuit is comparable to resistance in an electrical

circuit, as it represents the opposition to the presence of magnetic flux. The reluctance of
a particular part of the circuit depends on its length, cross-sectional area, and the
permeability of the material it is made of. Iron, for instance, has a lower reluctance than
air due to its higher permeability. In a series magnetic circuit, the total reluctance is the
sum of individual reluctances encountered around the closed flux path.
Formula:
Fm ¿ l l
S= = = =
ϕ BA ( B/ H ) A u r μ 0 A

μ0= 4 π × 10−7 H ∕ m
ur = relative permeability of the material
A= area
l = Length

Example Problem:
1. Calculate the reluctance of a magnetic coil which is wounded uniformly on an
iron core provided that the relative permeability of the iron is 1400. Also, the
length of the magnetic circuit is 70 cm and the cross-sectional area of the core is
5 cm^2.
Given:
−2
l=70 ×10
ur =140 0
−7
uo =4 π ×10
A=¿ 5 ×10−4
Solution :

−2
l 70 ×10 −5
R= = =7.95 ×10 AT ∕ wb
ur μ 0 A 4 π ×10−7 × 1400 ×5 ×10−4

https://testbook.com/question-answer/calculate-the-reluctance-of-a-magnetic-coil-which--
5b7baa0d11af210c3a2d09ce

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Magnetic Field Energy

It is the energy stored in a magnetic field generated by an electric current flowing through
a conductive material, such as a coil or wire. This energy can be harnessed in various electrical
and electronic applications, including inductors and transformers. The amount of magnetic field
energy is proportional to the square of the current and the inductance of the coil. This energy can
be converted back into electrical energy, making it useful in power supplies, energy storage
systems, and DC-DC converters.
https://www.electricity-magnetism.org/magnetic-field-energy/

Magnetic Field Strength (H)

Also called, magnetizing force refers to the portion of the magnetic field that is
generated by external currents and is not intrinsic to the material itself.

Formula:
H= ¿ ampere−turns per meter
l

N- number of turns
I-current
l- length

Example problem:
1. A magnetizing force of 8000 A/m is applied to a circular magnetic circuit of mean
diameter 30 cm by passing a current through a coil wound on the circuit. If the
coil is uniformly wound around the circuit and has 750 turns, find the current in
the coil.
Given:

A
H=8000
m
−2
l=30 x 10 m
N=75 0
Formula:

H= ¿
l

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Derived Equation:
Hl
I=
N
Solution:
A −2
8000 x π x 30 x 10 m
m I =10.05 A
I=
750

Inductance
It refers to a circuit's characteristic where a changing current generates an
electromotive force (e.m.f.) inducing a voltage in the same or nearby circuit due to flux
changes. The SI unit of inductance is Henry, and the inductance is represented by the
letter L. The definition of 1 Henry is the amount of inductance needed in a conductor to
generate an emf of 1 volt when the conductor's current changes at a rate of 1 amp per
second.

Types of Inductance

1. Self-inductance- the property exhibited by a coil wherein an electromotive force is

induced as a result of alterations in the coil's magnetic flux or current. This
phenomenon, occurring intrinsically within the coil, signifies that the magnetic flux
is proportionate to the current flowing through the circuit, particularly when the
current initiates within the coil.
2. Mutual inductance - the ability of two electric circuits to generate a voltage in
each other when a current changes in one of the circuits. This phenomenon is
caused by the magnetic field that is generated by the changing current in one
circuit and induces a voltage in the second circuit through electromagnetic
induction.

Formula:
2
N µA
L=
I
µ = µo µr
µ o µr N 1 N 2 A
M=
l

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Where:
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys
N = Number of turns in wire coil
µ = Permeability of core material
µo= 1.26 X 10−6 T-m/At permeability of free space
µr = Relative permeability, dimensionless
A = area of coil in square meters = πr 2
I = Average length of coil in meters

Magnetomotive Force (m.m.f)

Also called magnetic potential, is the property of certain substances or
phenomena that gives rise to magnetic fields. Magnetomotive force is analogous to
electromotive force or voltage in electricity.

The standard unit of magnetomotive force is the ampere-turn (AT), represented

by a steady, direct electrical current of one ampere (1 A) flowing in a single-turn loop of
electrically conducting material in a vacuum . Sometimes a unit called the gilbert (G) is
used to quantify magnetomotive force. The gilbert is defined differently, and is a slightly
smaller unit than the ampere-turn.

Example problems:
1. Consider a solenoid with 500 turns which are wound on an iron core whose
relative permeability is 800. 40 cm is the length of the solenoid, while 3 cm is the
radius. The change in current is from 0 to 3 A. Calculate the average emf
induced for this change in the current for a time of 0.4 seconds.

Given: Solution:

2
N µA
N = 500 turns L=
I
µr = 800 L= (4)(3.14)(1 0−7 )(800)(50 02 )(3.14)¿ ¿
l = 40 cm = 0.4 m L = 1.77 H
r = 3 cm = 0.03 m ε = L di/dt
di = 3 – 0 = 3 A ε = (1.77×3)/0.4

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dt = 0.4 sec ε = 13.275 V

2. There are two coils such that the current flowing through the first coil experiences
a change in current flow from 2 A to 10 A in 0.4 sec. Calculate mutual inductance
between the two coils when 60 mV emf is induced in the second coil. Determine
the induced emf in the second coil if the current changes from 4 A to 16 A in 0.03
sec in the first coil.
Given: Solution:

di = 10 -2 = 8 A M 21 = ε 2/(di/dt)
dt = 0.4 sec M 21 = 60 X 1 0−3 X 0.4 /8❑
ε2 = 60×10-3 V M 21 = 3 X 1 0−3 H
−3
di = 16 – 4 = 12 A ε 2 = M 21 (di/dt) = 3 X 1 0 X 12
0.03
dt = 0.03 sec ε 2 = 1.2 V

Electromagnetism

It is a field of physics that deals with electromagnetic forces that occur between
charged particles. Electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces and
includes electromagnetic fields such as magnetic fields, electric fields, and light.

Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction

It is established by Michael Faraday in 1831, serves as a fundamental principle in

electromagnetism. This law elucidates how a magnetic field interacts with an electric
circuit, giving rise to the generation of an electromotive force (EMF). The phenomenon,
aptly termed electromagnetic induction, stems from Faraday's meticulous experiments,
wherein he conducted three main trials to observe and formulate the principles
underlying the law of electromagnetic induction.

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Faraday’s First Law states that when a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic
field, an electromotive force (emf) is induced. This induced emf arises each time the
magnetic field interacting with the circuit undergoes alterations.

Faraday's Second Law establishes that the induced electromotive force (emf) within a
coil is determined by the product of the coil's turns and the associated flux. This induced
emf is precisely equivalent to the rate of change of flux linkage within the coil.

Formula:

F = BIL sin θ

F = magnetic force on the current-carrying conductor

(N)
B = magnetic flux density of external magnetic field (T)
I = current in the conductor (A)
L = length of the conductor in the field (m)

emf = Bℓv sin θ

If v is perpendicular to B, then θ is the angle between ℓ
and B. If ℓ is perpendicular to B, then θ is the angle
between v and B.

Practice Problems

1. There is a particle with a charge of 11μC moving 4.7⋅107m/s perpendicular

through a magnetic field with a strength of 7T. What is the force on the particle?

Given:
q = 11μC
v = 4.7⋅10^7m/s
B=7T

Solution:
F = qxB F= (11μC)(4.7.107m/s)(7T)
F = 3619N

Therefore, the force experienced by the particle is 3619N.

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2. A conductive rod is moving through a region of magnetic field, directed out of the
page as diagrammed above. As a result of its motion, the mobile charge in the
rod separates, creating an electric potential across the length of the rod. The
length of the rod is 0.12m and the magnitude of the magnetic field is 0.022T. If
the rod is moving with velocity v=17m/s, what is the magnitude and direction of
the potential from one end of the rod to the other?

Given:
B = 0.022T
L = 0.12m
v = 17m/s

Solution:

ε = Blv sin θ
ε = 0.022T∗0.12m∗17m/s
Answer: ε = 0.045 V

References

“[Solved] Calculate the Reluctance of a Magnetic Coil Which Is Wounded.” Testbook,

testbook.com/question-answer/calculate-the-reluctance-of-a-magnetic-coil-

which--5b7baa0d11af210c3a2d09ce. Accessed 30 Dec. 2023.

BYJU'S. “What Is Faraday’s Law? First & Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction.”

BYJUS, 2023, byjus.com/physics/faradays-law/.

---. “What Is Faraday’s Law? First & Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction.” BYJUS,

2023, byjus.com/physics/faradays-law/.

“Magnetic Field Energy.” Electricity - Magnetism,

www.electricity-magnetism.org/magnetic-field-energy/. Accessed 30 Dec. 2023.

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“Solve for Flux Density (in Gauss) from a Magnetic Flux of 5,000 Mx through a

Perpendicular Are of 2 Cm X 5 Cm ___.” Engineers Community, 7 Apr. 2021,

engineerscommunity.com/t/solve-for-flux-density-in-gauss-from-a-magnetic-flux-

of-5-000-mx-through-a-perpendicular-are-of-2-cm-x-5-cm/16975. Accessed 30

Dec. 2023.

State faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. byju. (n.d.). https://byjus.com/question-

answer/state-faradays-law-of-electromagnetic-induction/

Magnetism and electromagnetism - AP physics 2. Private Tutoring. (n.d.).

https://www.varsitytutors.com/ap_physics_2-help/electricity-and-magnetism/magnetism-
and-electromagnetism

Contributor, T. (2011, March 24). What is magnetomotive force (magnetic potential):

Definition from TechTarget. WhatIs.
https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/magnetomotive-force-magnetic-potential

Admin. (2022, May 20). What is inductance? - definition, self inductance, mutual
inductance, difference. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/physics/induction/

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