Ashley Christine Ritos BSN1-E

Lesson 1
Brotherhood or violence

1.This segment introduces the urgency of addressing real-world ethical dilemmas rather than engaging in
theoretical exercises. It emphasizes the practical significance of ethics in responding to pressing issues in
society.

Example:
When a corporation faces a decision regarding labor practices, it must consider the real-world implications of
its choices on workers' rights and well-being, rather than solely focusing on abstract ethical theories.

2.This section narrates a specific incident of fraternity violence resulting in the death of a student, highlighting
the lack of accountability among fraternity members and the absence of clarity regarding the circumstances
leading to the tragic event.

Example:
In 2016, a student at a university in California died during a fraternity initiation ritual, sparking a national
conversation about the dangers of hazing and the need for stricter regulations within Greek organizations.

3.Here, the text discusses the aftermath of the student's death, including public outcry, demands for justice,
and the university's response. It underscores the unresolved nature of the case and the refusal of fraternity
members to cooperate with authorities.

Example:
Following the death of a student in a fraternity-related incident, campus activists organized protests and called
for increased transparency and accountability within Greek life, prompting the university to review its policies
on student organizations.

4.This paragraph raises philosophical questions about the value of life, the morality of fraternity practices, and
broader issues such as bullying in schools. It underscores the relevance of ethical inquiry in examining the
complexities of violence and harmful behavior.

Example:
In the wake of a cyberbullying incident involving students at a local high school, educators initiated discussions
about the ethical responsibilities of online behavior and the importance of fostering a culture of empathy and
respect in schools.

ASSESS

1. The wrong things identified in the reported story could include instances of hazing, coercion, physical or
emotional abuse, and violations of organizational policies or ethical standards.

2. Hazing can take various forms, such as physical exertion, forced consumption of alcohol or drugs,
humiliation, or bullying. Consequences may range from physical injury and emotional trauma to legal
repercussions and damage to personal and organizational reputations.
3. Pros of holding on to fraternities and their traditions may include fostering camaraderie, networking
opportunities, and philanthropic activities. Cons may involve perpetuating harmful behaviors like hazing,
reinforcing exclusivity, and maintaining outdated traditions that promote inequality or discrimination. The
importance of each aspect can vary depending on individual perspectives and societal values.

4. Agreement and disagreement among classmates regarding the pros and cons of fraternities and their
traditions are likely. Points of agreement may include recognizing the potential benefits of brotherhood and
community service, while disagreements may arise over the acceptability of hazing practices or the extent to
which traditions should be preserved versus reformed for modern sensibilities.

5.CHALLENGE

This segment discusses the broader context of initiation rites and qualifications required for membership in
various organizations, extending beyond fraternities to clubs and communities. It prompts reflection on
personal experiences with such practices, examines their acceptability, and explores the parallels between
hazing and bullying.

Example:
In my school, sports teams often have initiation rituals for new members, such as performing certain tasks or
challenges. While some of these practices foster team bonding, others can create an unhealthy environment of
exclusivity and pressure, which I find unacceptable.

Regarding bullying, students today face various forms such as cyberbullying, verbal harassment, and social
exclusion. While confronting these challenges can build resilience, they ultimately perpetuate harm and should
be addressed through education and intervention.
5. Acceptable initiation practices promote camaraderie; unacceptable ones involve coercion or harm. Bullying
forms include cyberbullying and verbal harassment, all detrimental.

6. HARNESS
This paragraph shifts the focus to the broader societal context, acknowledging that intimidation, coercion, and
bullying exist beyond the school environment. It prompts consideration of proactive measures individuals can
take to protect themselves and advocates for societal changes to address these issues.

Example:
Individuals can protect themselves by setting boundaries, seeking support from trusted allies, and documenting
instances of mistreatment. Societal changes should include implementing stricter regulations in workplaces,
promoting a culture of respect and accountability, and providing resources for victims of harassment and
abuse.

6. Individuals can set boundaries and seek support; society needs stricter regulations, a culture of respect, and
support systems for victims.
LESSON 2
Valuation

1. This segment distinguishes between different approaches to ethics: enforcing rules versus encouraging
ideals. It emphasizes the importance of addressing real-life issues that prompt value judgments and explores
the differences between ethical and non-ethical value judgments.

Example:
When discussing ethics, one might consider whether lying is universally wrong or if compassion towards others
is an ideal worth striving for. However, the text suggests focusing on concrete real-life issues that elicit
immediate value judgments rather than abstract philosophical debates.

2. Here, the text discusses ethics in terms of pursuing the good and avoiding the bad, as well as fulfilling
obligations and meeting ideals. It seeks to clarify the concept of values as the grounds for significant ethical
considerations.

Example:
Ethical considerations may involve determining whether certain actions are morally right or wrong, such as
helping those in need or refraining from causing harm. Values serve as the foundation for making these
judgments and guiding ethical behavior.

3. The paragraph delves into the distinction between monetary values and ethical values, highlighting that not
all value judgments pertain to ethics. It clarifies that ethical values concern human well-being and life, unlike
material values.

Example:
While monetary values assign a price to goods and services, ethical values concern matters of human welfare
and existential significance. For instance, valuing honesty and integrity in relationships reflects ethical
considerations rather than monetary concerns.

4. It explores the realm of aesthetics and technical judgments, which involve personal preferences and proper
techniques, respectively, distinguishing them from ethical judgments. Aesthetic judgments relate to personal
tastes, while technical judgments concern proper methods of doing things.

Example:
Appreciating art or evaluating sports performance involves aesthetic and technical judgments, respectively,
which are based on personal preferences or adherence to established standards. These judgments differ from
ethical considerations regarding right and wrong behavior.

5. This part discusses actions that may involve right or wrong behavior but are not necessarily ethical
concerns. Examples include following baking instructions or obeying rules in sports, which are technical
evaluations rather than ethical considerations.

Example:
Following the correct steps in a recipe or adhering to the rules of a game are examples of technical
evaluations, focusing on proper procedures rather than moral implications. These actions do not inherently
involve ethical judgments.
6. The paragraph examines actions related to etiquette, which involve societal norms of behavior but may not
reach the level of ethical concern. It distinguishes between minor breaches of etiquette and more significant
ethical transgressions.

Example:
Observing social customs such as knocking before entering a room or using polite language are matters of
etiquette, reflecting societal norms of behavior. While breaching these norms may be considered impolite, they
do not necessarily entail ethical wrongdoing.

7. Ethics involves valuations of actions with gravity concerning human well-being or life itself, such as war,
poverty, or sexual identity. It distinguishes ethical discussions from other spheres by their concern for human
welfare and existential matters.

Example:
Ethical considerations encompass issues like the morality of war, addressing poverty, and ensuring equal
treatment regardless of sexual orientation. These discussions prioritize human well-being and existential
concerns, distinguishing them from other domains.

8. This section acknowledges the complexity of delineating ethical and non-ethical domains, as some matters
may blur the distinction. It raises questions about whether certain behaviors, like revealing clothing or verbal
abuse, warrant ethical judgment.

Example:
Debates may arise regarding whether personal choices, such as clothing styles, involve ethical considerations
or remain matters of individual preference. Similarly, determining whether verbal abuse constitutes a breach of
etiquette or an ethical transgression can be contentious.

9. The paragraph prompts reflection on instances where individuals find certain content offensive not just due
to personal taste but because they perceive it as morally objectionable. It encourages readers to consider why
they believe certain content should be universally offensive.

Example:
Individuals may find certain songs or videos offensive not solely due to personal taste but because they
contain themes or messages deemed morally objectionable, such as promoting violence or discrimination.
Reflecting on these instances prompts consideration of broader ethical principles.

Question 1:
In my last school, initiation rituals and qualifications for organizations were common. Acceptable practices
foster camaraderie, but coercion or harm are unacceptable due to their negative effects.

Question 2:
Students face various forms of bullying like cyberbullying and verbal harassment. While some may argue
adversity builds resilience, the harm caused outweighs any benefits, making bullying definitively bad and
necessitating prevention efforts.
ASSESS

1. The Greek term to refer to practical knowledge is "phronesis."

2. The Greek term to refer to feeling or sense is "pathos."

3. The term to refer to socially accepted behavior on matters that are generally trivial is "convention."

4. Examples of convention include etiquette for table manners and dress codes for formal events.

5. Matters of greater gravity that would more likely belong to a discussion of ethics include topics like human
rights, environmental sustainability, corporate governance, and medical ethics regarding issues such as
euthanasia or organ donation.

CHALLENGE

Obligations we are expected to fulfill:

- Honesty in communication and dealings.
- Respect for the rights and dignity of others.
- Fulfillment of contractual agreements.
- Duty to provide assistance to those in need.
- Responsibility towards one's family and dependents.

Prohibitions we are required to respect:

- Avoidance of harming others physically or emotionally.
- Adherence to laws and regulations governing society.
- Respect for the property and belongings of others.
- Refrain from engaging in deceptive or fraudulent practices.
- Prohibition against discrimination based on race, gender, religion, or other factors.

Ideals encouraged to meet (ethical in nature):

- Compassion and empathy towards others.
- Integrity and moral courage in decision-making.
- Promotion of justice and fairness in interactions and institutions.
- Commitment to environmental stewardship and sustainability.
- Cultivation of virtues such as honesty, kindness, and humility.

HARNESS

The controversy surrounding Mideo Cruz's "Politeismo" exhibit demonstrates how artwork can provoke ethical
judgment despite subjective aesthetic taste. While art is often considered subjective, certain works may raise
ethical concerns, as seen in the public outcry and legal proceedings surrounding the exhibit. This raises
questions about the boundaries of artistic expression and the ethical responsibilities of artists towards their
audience's sensitivities.
LESSON 3
THINKING OF ETHICS

Thinking About Ethics:

Before studying ethics formally, people already make ethical judgments in everyday life. For example, they
consider the responsibilities friends owe each other or how parents should treat their children.

Example:
Deciding whether to share confidential information about a friend prompts ethical reflection even without formal
ethics education.

Clarifications on Language Use:

When discussing ethics, it's vital to clarify terms like "ethics" and "morals." For instance, saying "lying is not
ethical" could mean lying isn't a topic of ethical discussion or that lying is morally wrong, depending on context.

Example:
If someone says "cheating in exams is not ethical," it's important to understand whether they mean cheating
isn't inherently a moral issue or that cheating is morally wrong. Clarifying these distinctions aids in precise
ethical communication.

1. Ethical vs. Moral Terminology:

- The terms "ethical" and "moral" are often used interchangeably, with "unethical" opposing "ethical" and
"immoral" opposing "moral." Additionally, "amoral" describes matters outside ethical considerations, such as
cooking or reading.

Example:
When discussing business practices, one might refer to actions as either "ethical" or "unethical," depending
on whether they align with accepted moral standards in the industry.

1. Ethical: Relating to principles of right and wrong behavior, adhering to moral principles or standards.

2. Moral: Concerned with principles of right and wrong behavior and the goodness or badness of human
character.

3. Amoral:Having no moral sense or principles, unconcerned with right or wrong.

4. Unethical:Behaving in a way that violates moral principles or standards, not conforming to accepted
standards of behavior.

5. Immoral: Acting in a way that goes against moral principles or standards, morally wrong or wicked.

2. Distinction between "Morals" and "Ethics":

- While some differentiate between "morals" and "ethics," ordinary conversation tends to blur these
distinctions, using the terms interchangeably. The term "morals" may refer to individual beliefs or attitudes,
while "ethics" can denote the discipline of studying human behavior and ideal thinking patterns.
 Example:
In a classroom discussion, students might debate whether an action is morally wrong or ethically unjust,
highlighting the interchangeable use of the terms in everyday discourse.

3. Descriptive vs. Normative Studies of Ethics:

- There's a fundamental difference between descriptive and normative approaches to ethics. Descriptive
studies observe how different groups make moral judgments without endorsing or criticizing them, while
normative studies, typical in moral philosophy, prescribe what actions should be considered morally right.

Example:
A researcher might conduct a descriptive study to examine how various cultures perceive honesty differently,
while a normative study would assess whether honesty should universally be considered a moral virtue.

1. Ethical: Pertaining to principles of right and wrong conduct.

2. Moral Terminology: Vocabulary used to discuss principles of right and wrong behavior.
3. Morals: Principles or beliefs about what is right or wrong.
4. Ethics: Study of moral principles governing behavior.

1. Philosophical Discussion of Ethics:

- Discussion: Philosophy of ethics involves more than just describing the ethical beliefs of a particular group.
It critically evaluates various normative theories, analyzing their strengths and weaknesses.
- Example:Instead of simply accepting a cultural practice, philosophers may question why a society considers
certain actions right or wrong, examining different ethical theories to understand the underlying principles.

2. Moral Issues, Decisions, and Judgments:

- Discussion:This paragraph clarifies terms like "moral issue," "moral decision," "moral judgment," and "moral
dilemma." It distinguishes between making choices, assessing others' actions, and dealing with conflicting
moral values.
- Example:Deciding whether to lie to protect someone's feelings, judging a friend's decision to shoplift, or
facing a dilemma between stealing food to feed a hungry child illustrate different aspects of moral reasoning.

3. Reasoning and Moral Theory:

- Discussion:Explores the reasoning behind moral judgments, beyond simple motivations like fear of
punishment or desire for reward. It delves into the role of principles in guiding moral decisions and the
importance of moral theories in justifying these principles.
- Example:Reflecting on why cheating is wrong might lead to considerations of fairness or the importance of
academic integrity. Different moral theories, such as deontology, utilitarianism, or virtue ethics, provide
frameworks for evaluating these reasons and justifying moral principles.

4. Why Do We Suppose Certain Actions are Right or Wrong:

- Discussion:This paragraph delves into the reasons behind why certain actions are considered morally right
or wrong. It questions whether motivations like fear of punishment or desire for reward are sufficient reasons
for moral behavior and suggests that moral reasoning often involves deeper considerations.
 - Example:Choosing not to cheat on an exam or praising a friend for refusing to cheat illustrates moral
decisions that go beyond immediate rewards or punishments. Instead, they may stem from principles like
fairness or honesty.

5. Moral Principles and Their Maintenance:

- Discussion: This paragraph explores how moral principles are established and maintained. It distinguishes
between maintaining principles and questioning why they should be upheld, emphasizing the importance of
justifying moral beliefs with good reasons.
- Example:Upholding the principle that taking another person's life is wrong might be justified by different
reasons, such as religious beliefs, respect for human dignity, or the promotion of overall happiness.

6. Moral Theory and Frameworks:

- Discussion: Finally, this paragraph introduces the concept of moral theory as a systematic attempt to
establish the validity of certain moral principles. It highlights moral theories as frameworks through which
individuals evaluate and justify their moral beliefs and decisions.
- Example:Utilizing moral theories like deontology, which prioritizes duty and rules, or utilitarianism, which
focuses on maximizing overall happiness, provides structured frameworks for evaluating moral principles and
making ethical decisions.

Question: Why do we suppose that a certain way of acting is right and its opposite wrong?

Answer: The study of ethics delves into the reasoning behind why certain actions are deemed right or wrong.

Question: Why do we decide to consider one way of acting as acceptable while regarding its opposite as
unacceptable?

Answer: Ethics seeks to understand the principles and justifications that lead individuals to consider one
course of action as acceptable while regarding its opposite as unacceptable.

Question: What reasons do we give to decide or to judge that a certain way of acting is either right or wrong?

Answer: Essentially, ethics explores the reasons behind our moral judgments and decisions, aiming to uncover
the underlying principles that guide our ethical beliefs and behaviors.

LESSON 4
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY

1. Introduction to Ethics: Ethics is complex and sometimes uncertain, leading some to seek guidance from
authority figures like the law, religion, or culture.
Example: Considering whether to donate to a charity event or not, unsure of the moral implications, one
might seek guidance from an authority like their religious teachings.

2. Influence of Institutions: Various institutions like the law, religion, and culture shape our moral thinking and
behavior, guiding us on what actions to take or avoid.
Example: A person refrains from eating pork due to their religious beliefs, which dictate dietary restrictions.
3. Authority of Law: Some view the law as the ultimate guide to ethical behavior, with legal constraints dictating
what actions are permissible or forbidden.
Example: Speed limits on highways serve as legal constraints, influencing drivers' behavior to comply with
the law.

4. Benefits and Limitations of Legal Authority: While obeying the law is generally accepted, relying solely on it
for ethical guidance overlooks situations where legal compliance doesn't equate to moral correctness.
Example: A company exploiting legal loopholes to mistreat employees reveals the limitations of equating
legality with morality.

5. Challenges to Legal Authority: Questioning whether ethics can be entirely defined by the law, considering
situations where legal compliance doesn't align with ethical principles.
Example: Reflecting on whether obeying laws against protest in oppressive regimes is morally justifiable.

6. Nature of Legal Prohibitions: Recognizing that laws primarily restrict certain actions rather than prescribe
positive behaviors, raising concerns about a solely negative ethical framework.
Example: Laws against theft prohibit certain actions but don't necessarily dictate positive behaviors like
charity or empathy.

7. Ethical Considerations Beyond Legal Constraints: Acknowledging situations where actions not prohibited by
law may still be ethically questionable, suggesting ethical evaluations extend beyond legal boundaries.
Example: Critiquing businesses that exploit legal loopholes to exploit workers without technically breaking
any laws.

8. Ethical Judgment and Legal Compliance: Reflecting on instances where individuals may be ethically
culpable despite legal compliance, challenging the notion that ethics can be solely defined by legal obedience.
Example: Passers-by failing to help a child in need, highlighting moral responsibility beyond legal obligations.

9. Introduction to Religious Authority: Exploring the idea of divine command theory, where ethical obligations
stem from religious teachings and divine commands.
Example: Following religious scriptures' guidance to treat others with kindness and compassion.

10. Benefits and Challenges of Religious Authority: Recognizing the appeal of religious ethics but also
acknowledging potential conflicts between different religious doctrines and the difficulty of determining divine
commands.
Example: Reflecting on differing interpretations of religious teachings on issues like abortion or euthanasia.

11. Diverse Ethical Standards in Religion: Highlighting the diversity of religious beliefs and practices, which can
lead to conflicting ethical standards and challenges in defining universal moral principles.
Example: Contrasting views on marriage equality between different religious groups.

12. Practical and Conceptual Challenges to Religious Authority: Identifying practical and conceptual challenges
in equating ethics solely with religious teachings, including cultural diversity and interpretational differences.
Example: Contemplating conflicting interpretations of religious scriptures regarding gender roles and
relationships.

13. Euthyphro's Dilemma: Introducing Euthyphro's dilemma, questioning whether actions are right because
God commands them or if God commands them because they are right.
Example: Considering whether moral values are inherent and independent of divine commands.
14. Implications of Divine Command Theory: Exploring the implications of accepting divine command theory,
including the potential arbitrariness of moral values and the dangers of justifying harmful actions in the name of
religion.
Example: Critiquing historical instances of violence justified by religious beliefs, such as the Crusades.

15. Alternative Perspectives on Ethical Standards: Considering the possibility of objective ethical standards
independent of divine commands, challenging the exclusivity of religious authority in defining morality.
Example: Exploring secular ethical frameworks like utilitarianism or deontology.

16. Reflections on Religious Ethics: Acknowledging the value of religious ethics while also advocating for a
more nuanced understanding that integrates multiple perspectives and avoids simplistic equating of religious
teachings with moral truth.
Example: Appreciating the moral teachings of one's faith while also critically evaluating them in light of
broader ethical considerations.

17. Introduction to Cultural Relativism: Discussing cultural diversity and the notion that ethical standards are
relative to cultural norms, introducing cultural relativism as a perspective.
Example: Recognizing different cultural attitudes towards punctuality, with some cultures valuing strict
adherence to schedules while others prioritize flexibility.

18. Appeal and Challenges of Cultural Relativism: Acknowledging the appeal of cultural relativism in promoting
tolerance and humility while also recognizing practical and conceptual challenges, including moral
disagreement within and between cultures.
Example: Considering the moral implications of cultural practices like female genital mutilation in different
societies.

19. Critique of Cultural Relativism: Presenting criticisms of cultural relativism, including the potential for moral
relativism to undermine moral judgment and the difficulty in defining culture in an increasingly globalized world.
Example: Examining the dilemma of whether to intervene in cultural practices that conflict with human rights
norms.

20. Limitations of Cultural Relativism: Questioning the premise that moral disagreement implies moral
relativism and highlighting the danger of moral passivity in the face of cultural practices that violate universal
human rights.
Example: Considering whether cultural relativism justifies inaction in response to cultural practices like honor
killings or child marriage.

21. Reflections on Cultural Identity and Moral Judgment: Examining the implications of cultural relativism for
individual identity and moral autonomy, advocating for critical reflection on cultural norms and values.
Example: Reflecting on the influence of cultural upbringing on one's moral beliefs and practices.

22. Complexity of Cultural Identity: Acknowledging the complexity of cultural identity and the diversity within
cultures, challenging the notion of a monolithic cultural authority and advocating for critical engagement with
cultural norms.
Example: Exploring the diversity of cultural practices and beliefs within a multicultural society like the United
States.
23. Challenges to Defining Culture: Recognizing the challenges in defining culture and the fluidity of cultural
boundaries in an interconnected world, questioning the validity of cultural relativism as a universal ethical
framework.
Example: Considering how globalization blurs traditional cultural distinctions and challenges cultural relativist
perspectives.

24. Critique of Cultural Relativism's Implications: Highlighting the potential consequences of cultural relativism
for moral discernment and cross-cultural understanding, advocating for a balanced approach that
acknowledges cultural diversity while promoting critical reflection on ethical values.
Example: Examining the limitations of cultural relativism in addressing human rights abuses in diverse
cultural contexts.

25. Conclusion on Cultural Relativism: Concluding with a reflection on the limitations of cultural relativism and
the importance of critical thinking in navigating ethical dilemmas within diverse cultural contexts.
Example: Recognizing the value of cultural diversity while also advocating for universal human rights and
ethical principles.

26. Personal Reflection Question: Prompting readers to reflect on the influence of law, religion, and culture in
shaping their ethical beliefs and behaviors.
Example: Considering whether one's upbringing in a religious community has influenced their moral decision-
making more than legal or cultural factors.

ASSESS

1. Problem with law as sole basis for ethics: Legal systems may not always align with moral principles, leading
to unjust outcomes.

2. Problem with religion as sole basis for ethics: Religions differ in moral perspectives, leading to intolerance
and potential conflicts with secular laws.

3. Problem with culture as sole basis for ethics: Cultural norms vary and may not uphold universal ethical
principles, perpetuating harmful practices.

CHALLENGE

Common Filipino values:

1. Utang na loob (Debt of gratitude)

2. Bayanihan (Community spirit)
3. Pakikisama (Harmony)
4. Respect for elders (Paggalang sa nakatatanda)
5. Hospitality (Pagiging mabait sa bisita)
6. Strong family ties (Pamilya)
7. Hiya (Sense of shame)
8. Religiosity (Pananampalataya)
9. Filial piety (Pagpapakita ng pagmamahal sa magulang)
10. Optimism (Pagiging positibo)
Strengths: Promotes social cohesion, resilience, and cultural identity.

Weaknesses: Can perpetuate outdated norms, limit individual freedom, and lead to conflicts with modern
ideologies.

HARNESS
When law, religion, and culture conflict, navigating ethical decisions becomes complex. An example is the
Reproductive Health Law in the Philippines, opposed by Catholic leaders due to contraception conflicts.
Resolving such conflicts requires dialogue, legal reforms, and cultural sensitivity to uphold rights while
respecting diverse views.

1. What happens when law, religion, and culture disagree?

- Resolving conflicts requires balancing principles of justice, religious freedoms, and cultural rights.

2. What do we do when clerics object to a proposed law?

- Example: Catholic leaders opposed the Reproductive Health Law in the Philippines due to contraception
conflicts.

3. What do we do when a law disadvantages certain cultures?

- Resolving such conflicts requires dialogue, legal reforms, and cultural sensitivity to uphold rights while
respecting diverse views.

4. What do we do when emerging cultures clash with religious communities?

- Example: The Reproductive Health Law in the Philippines faced opposition from Catholic leaders due to
conflicts with religious teachings on contraception.

LESSON 5
SENSES OF THE SELF

1. Exploring the complexity of ethical reasoning while avoiding blind obedience to authority, some suggest
understanding the relationship between ethics and the self. This approach identifies three theories:
subjectivism, psychological egoism, and ethical egoism.
- Explanation: The paragraph introduces the idea of examining ethics in relation to the self and mentions the
three theories that will be discussed.

2. The focus shifts inward, suggesting that moral standards shouldn't rely on external authority but rather on
self-reflection. Three theories—subjectivism, psychological egoism, and ethical egoism—offer varying
perspectives on the relationship between the self and ethics.
- Explanation: This paragraph sets the stage for discussing how different theories view the self in relation to
ethics.

3. Subjectivism starts with the acknowledgment that individuals are central to moral judgments, asserting that
individuals determine what is morally good or bad.
- Explanation: This paragraph introduces subjectivism and its core idea that individuals are the sole arbiters
of moral judgments.

4. While statements asserting personal independence may seem appealing, subjectivism raises inherent
problems upon closer examination.
 - Explanation: This paragraph highlights the attractiveness of subjectivist statements but suggests there are
underlying issues.

5. The assertion "No one can tell me what is right and wrong" is partially valid, but it overlooks the potential for
correction and the fallibility of personal judgments.
- Explanation: This paragraph challenges the absoluteness of the statement by pointing out the possibility of
error and the value of external input.

6. While individuals may have unique experiences, dismissing others' perspectives entirely may hinder
personal growth and understanding.
- Explanation: This paragraph critiques the notion that personal situations are entirely unique and suggests
the value of considering others' viewpoints.

7. Asserting the right to an opinion can lead to closed-mindedness if it precludes criticism and correction.
- Explanation: This paragraph examines the misconception that having an opinion grants immunity from
scrutiny and highlights the need for openness to critique.

8. Subjectivism's core assertion—that personal judgment determines what is good—falls apart when
questioned about its basis.
- Explanation: This paragraph delves into the fundamental flaw of subjectivism, which lacks a rational basis
for moral judgments.

9. Psychological egoism posits that all human actions stem from self-interest, serving as a descriptive theory
rather than prescribing behavior.
- Explanation: This paragraph introduces psychological egoism and its view that all actions are motivated by
self-interest.

10. Many daily actions align with self-interest, such as leisure activities or educational pursuits.
- Explanation: This paragraph illustrates how psychological egoism applies to common behaviors.

11. Psychological egoism suggests that even seemingly altruistic actions are ultimately driven by self-interest.
- Explanation: This paragraph explores how psychological egoism interprets altruistic behavior as ultimately
self-serving.

12. Psychological egoism's simplicity and plausibility contribute to its appeal as a theory, making it difficult to
refute.
- Explanation: This paragraph outlines the strengths of psychological egoism, including its simplicity and
perceived validity.

13. Psychological egoism is deemed irrefutable because it posits self-interest as the underlying motivation for
all actions, presenting challenges to objections.
- Explanation: This paragraph discusses the difficulty in disputing psychological egoism and raises questions
about its acceptance and implications.

14. Explanation: This paragraph presents an analogy where A asserts an irrefutable claim about B, likening it
to the irrefutability of psychological egoism. It raises the question of whether an irrefutable claim must be
accepted.
- Example: A claims that B's behavior is driven by an Oedipal complex, regardless of B's objections.
- Question: Must an irrefutable claim, such as A's assertion about B, be accepted?
 - Answer: No, an irrefutable claim does not necessarily have to be accepted.

15. Explanation: The paragraph questions the necessity of accepting the cynical view of human nature
proposed by psychological egoism.
- Example: Proposing that human nature is inherently self-interested, denying genuine benevolence.
- Question: Must we accept the cynical view of human nature presented by psychological egoism?
- Answer: No, we are not obliged to accept the cynical view of human nature proposed by psychological
egoism.

16. Explanation: It highlights the moral implications of psychological egoism by contrasting two scenarios of
self-serving behavior and questioning the theory's impact on moral judgment and decision-making.
- Example: Comparing two women's actions—one spending on herself, the other donating to charity—under
the lens of psychological egoism.
- Question: Do we sacrifice our moral intuitions for the sake of psychological egoism?
- Answer: No, sacrificing moral intuitions for psychological egoism may not be justified.

17. Explanation: It discusses the bleak outlook psychological egoism offers and its implications for normative
ethics.
- Example: Psychological egoism leads to a cynical view of humanity, nullifying normative ethics.
- Question: Does psychological egoism undermine the possibility of normative ethics?
- Answer: Yes, psychological egoism undermines the possibility of normative ethics.

18. Explanation: Introducing ethical egoism as distinct from psychological egoism, emphasizing self-interest as
the primary concern.
- Example: Ethical egoism prioritizes one's own interests but doesn't assert all actions as inherently self-
serving.
- Question: Why prioritize one's own interests in ethical egoism?
- Answer: Ethical egoism prioritizes one's interests under the assumption that it leads to overall benefit.

19. Explanation: It delves into the rationale behind ethical egoism and its focus on self-interest over altruism.
- Example: Ethical egoism argues for prioritizing self-interest over concerns for others.
- Question: Why consider self-interest a priority in ethical egoism?
- Answer: Ethical egoism prioritizes self-interest to align with individual well-being.

20. Explanation: Exploring Glaucon's argument from Plato's Republic in support of ethical egoism.
- Example: Glaucon's myth of Gyges illustrates the inclination towards self-interest if consequences are not
enforced.
- Question: Does Glaucon's myth support the premise of ethical egoism?
- Answer: Yes, Glaucon's myth aligns with the premise of ethical egoism.

21. Explanation: Introducing Socrates's response in the Republic to the question of ethical pursuit's worthiness.
- Example: Socrates argues that a harmonious soul leads to ethical behavior, contrasting with the chaotic
soul of a tyrant.
- Question: Is ethical pursuit justified, according to Socrates's argument?
- Answer: Yes, ethical pursuit is justified as it leads to a harmonious soul and societal benefit.

22. Explanation: Reflecting on the potential consequences of ethical egoism and its implications for individual
and societal well-being.
 - Example: Ethical egoism may lead to a destructive pursuit of self-interest, disregarding the welfare of
others.
- Question: What are the consequences of embracing ethical egoism?
- Answer: Embracing ethical egoism may lead to destructive self-interest pursuits and disregard for others'
welfare.

23. Explanation: Inviting readers to reflect on personal experiences and struggles regarding the pursuit of
ethics and concern for others.
- Example: Recalling instances where one questioned the importance of being good or caring for others
beyond oneself.
- Question: What circumstances prompt individuals to question the importance of being good or caring for
others?
- Answer: Individuals may question the importance of being good or caring for others when facing personal
dilemmas or ethical uncertainties.

1. What approach does the paragraph suggest for understanding ethics?

- Answer: The paragraph suggests understanding the relationship between ethics and the self.

2. What does the paragraph suggest should be the basis for moral standards?
- Answer: The paragraph suggests that moral standards should be based on self-reflection rather than
external authority.

3. What is the central idea of subjectivism?

- Answer: The central idea of subjectivism is that individuals determine what is morally good or bad.

4. What is the appeal of statements expressing personal independence?

- Answer: The appeal lies in expressing a sense of personal independence that many cherish.

5. What potential issue does the paragraph raise about the assertion "No one can tell me what is right and
wrong"?
- Answer: The paragraph raises the issue that personal judgments can be fallible and subject to correction.

6. Why might dismissing others' perspectives hinder personal growth?

- Answer: Dismissing others' perspectives might hinder personal growth by limiting exposure to different
viewpoints.

7. What problem can arise if one asserts the right to an opinion without considering criticism?
- Answer: Closed-mindedness can arise if one asserts the right to an opinion without considering criticism.

8. What fundamental flaw does the paragraph highlight about subjectivism?

- Answer: The paragraph highlights that subjectivism lacks a rational basis for moral judgments.

9. What is the central idea of psychological egoism?

- Answer: The central idea of psychological egoism is that all human actions stem from self-interest.

10. What are some examples of actions aligned with self-interest mentioned in the paragraph?
- Answer: Examples include watching a movie, reading a book, or engaging in leisure activities.

11. What does psychological egoism propose about altruistic actions?

 - Answer: Psychological egoism suggests that even seemingly altruistic actions are ultimately driven by self-
interest.

12. What are the strengths of psychological egoism mentioned in the paragraph?
- Answer: The strengths mentioned include simplicity and plausibility.

13. Why is psychological

l egoism considered irrefutable according to the paragraph?
- Answer: Psychological egoism is considered irrefutable because it posits self-interest as the underlying
motivation for all actions, presenting challenges to objections.

ASSESS

Assessing the Theories:

1. Subjectivism:
- Pros:
- Emphasizes individual autonomy in moral decision-making.
- Acknowledges the importance of personal perspectives and experiences.
- Allows for diversity in moral values and beliefs.
- Cons:
- Subject to inconsistency and arbitrariness in moral judgments.
- Lacks objective standards for evaluating moral actions.
- May lead to moral relativism and moral isolationism.

2. Psychological Egoism:
- Pros:
- Offers a simple and straightforward explanation for human behavior.
- Aligns with observations of self-interested actions in daily life.
- Highlights the importance of self-awareness and introspection.
- Cons:
- Ignores instances of genuine altruism and selfless behavior.
- Oversimplifies human motivation, neglecting complexities of moral agency.
- Can lead to a cynical view of human nature and relationships.

Explanation of Gyges's Ring:

The story of the ring of Gyges, as presented in Plato's Republic, serves as a cautionary tale against the
unchecked pursuit of self-interest. Gyges discovers a ring that grants him invisibility, enabling him to act
without consequence. This newfound power leads Gyges to commit immoral acts, highlighting the corrupting
influence of unchecked power. The story warns against the dangers of ethical egoism, illustrating how
individuals may prioritize their own interests at the expense of others when they believe they can act with
impunity.

Commentary on the Statement:

The statement "What I believe must be true if I feel very strongly about it" reflects a common misconception
known as emotional reasoning. While emotions can provide valuable insights into our beliefs and values, they
are not sufficient grounds for determining truth. Beliefs should be evaluated based on evidence, reason, and
critical thinking, rather than solely relying on subjective feelings. Embracing this statement uncritically can lead
to confirmation bias and the perpetuation of false beliefs.

Analysis of Nepotism and Cronyism:

Nepotism and cronyism, which prioritize personal connections over merit, can indeed be viewed as
manifestations of egoism. By favoring one's family and friends at the expense of others, individuals in positions
of power demonstrate a self-serving mindset that disregards the broader welfare of society. Such behavior
perpetuates inequality and undermines trust in institutions. Addressing these issues requires a commitment to
meritocracy and accountability, rather than perpetuating self-serving practices.

Challenge:

The statement "What I believe must be true if I feel very strongly about it” is like saying, "If I really feel
something, then it must be true." But just because we feel strongly about something doesn't mean it's actually
true. Sometimes our emotions can cloud our judgment, making us believe things that might not be accurate.
It's important to think critically and consider evidence before accepting something as true, even if we really
believe in it.

Harness:

Nepotism and cronyism, where people give special treatment to their family and friends, are like when
someone in power hires their relatives or helps out their buddies, even if they're not the best for the job. This
kind of behavior puts personal connections above fairness and can harm society by creating unfair advantages
and weakening trust in institutions. To tackle this problem, we need to promote fairness, honesty, and equal
opportunities for everyone, regardless of their connections. This way, we can build a more just and trustworthy
society where everyone has a fair chance to succeed.