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Student Solutions Manual Chapters 10 17 For Stewarts Multivariable Calculus 8Th James Stewart Calculus 8Th All Chapter Scribd Ebook PDF
Student Solutions Manual Chapters 10 17 For Stewarts Multivariable Calculus 8Th James Stewart Calculus 8Th All Chapter Scribd Ebook PDF
Problems Plus 41
11.1 Sequences 43
11.2 Series 50
11.3 The Integral Test and Estimates of Sums 58
11.4 The Comparison Tests 62
11.5 Alternating Series 65
11.6 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests 67
11.7 Strategy for Testing Series 71
11.8 Power Series 73
11.9 Representations of Functions as Power Series 77
11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 82
11.11 Applications of Taylor Polynomials 91
Review 97
vii
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viii ■ CONTENTS
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CONTENTS ■ ix
■ APPENDIX 357
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10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
1. = 1 − 2 , = 2 − 2 , −1 ≤ ≤ 2
−1 0 1 2
0 1 0 −3
−3 0 1 0
3. = + sin , = cos , − ≤ ≤
− −2 0 2
− −2 + 1 0 2 + 1
−1 0 1 0 −1
5. = 2 − 1, = 12 + 1
(a)
−4 −2 0 2 4
−9 −5 −1 3 7
−1 0 1 2 3
(b) = 2 − 1 ⇒ 2 = + 1 ⇒ = 12 + 12 , so
= 12 + 1 = 12 12 + 12 + 1 = 14 + 14 + 1 ⇒ = 14 + 5
4
7. = 2 − 3, = + 2, −3 ≤ ≤ 3
(a)
−3 −1 1 3
6 −2 −2 6
−1 1 3 5
(b) = + 2 ⇒ = − 2, so
= 2 − 3 = ( − 2)2 − 3 = 2 − 4 + 4 − 3 ⇒
= 2 − 4 + 1, −1 ≤ ≤ 5
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2 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
√
9. = , = 1 −
(a)
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 1414 1732 2
1 0 −1 −2 −3
√
(b) = ⇒ = 2 ⇒ = 1 − = 1 − 2 . Since ≥ 0, ≥ 0.
So the curve is the right half of the parabola = 1 − 2 .
1 1
13. (a) = sin = csc , 0
2
. = csc = = . (b)
sin
For 0
2
, we have 0 1 and 1. Thus, the curve is
the portion of the hyperbola = 1 with 1.
−5 −3
19. = 5 + 2 cos , = 3 + 2 sin ⇒ cos = , sin = . cos2 () + sin2 () = 1 ⇒
2 2
2 2
−5 −3
+ = 1. The motion of the particle takes place on a circle centered at (5 3) with a radius 2. As goes
2 2
2 2
−5 −3
from 1 to 2, the particle starts at the point (3 3) and moves counterclockwise along the circle + = 1 to
2 2
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SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS ¤ 3
2 2
21. = 5 sin , = 2 cos ⇒ sin = , cos = . sin2 + cos2 = 1 ⇒ + = 1. The motion of the
5 2 5 2
particle takes place on an ellipse centered at (0 0). As goes from − to 5, the particle starts at the point (0 −2) and moves
23. We must have 1 ≤ ≤ 4 and 2 ≤ ≤ 3. So the graph of the curve must be contained in the rectangle [1 4] by [2 3].
25. When = −1, ( ) = (1 1). As increases to 0, and both decrease to 0.
27. When = −1, ( ) = (0 1). As increases to 0, increases from 0 to 1 and
31. (a) = 1 + (2 − 1 ), = 1 + (2 − 1 ), 0 ≤ ≤ 1. Clearly the curve passes through 1 (1 1 ) when = 0 and
through 2 (2 2 ) when = 1. For 0 1, is strictly between 1 and 2 and is strictly between 1 and 2 . For
2 − 1
every value of , and satisfy the relation − 1 = ( − 1 ), which is the equation of the line through
2 − 1
1 (1 1 ) and 2 (2 2 ).
− 1 − 1
Finally, any point ( ) on that line satisfies = ; if we call that common value , then the given
2 − 1 2 − 1
parametric equations yield the point ( ); and any ( ) on the line between 1 (1 1 ) and 2 (2 2 ) yields a value of
in [0 1]. So the given parametric equations exactly specify the line segment from 1 (1 1 ) to 2 (2 2 ).
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4 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
33. The circle 2 + ( − 1)2 = 4 has center (0 1) and radius 2, so by Example 4 it can be represented by = 2 cos ,
= 1 + 2 sin , 0 ≤ ≤ 2. This representation gives us the circle with a counterclockwise orientation starting at (2 1).
(a) To get a clockwise orientation, we could change the equations to = 2 cos , = 1 − 2 sin , 0 ≤ ≤ 2.
(b) To get three times around in the counterclockwise direction, we use the original equations = 2 cos , = 1 + 2 sin with
the domain expanded to 0 ≤ ≤ 6.
(c) To start at (0 3) using the original equations, we must have 1 = 0; that is, 2 cos = 0. Hence, =
2
. So we use
= 2 cos , = 1 + 2 sin ,
2
≤≤ 3
2
.
Alternatively, if we want to start at 0, we could change the equations of the curve. For example, we could use
= −2 sin , = 1 + 2 cos , 0 ≤ ≤ .
35. Big circle: It’s centered at (2 2) with a radius of 2, so by Example 4, parametric equations are
= 2 + 2 cos = 2 + 2 sin 0 ≤ ≤ 2
Small circles: They are centered at (1 3) and (3 3) with a radius of 01. By Example 4, parametric equations are
Semicircle: It’s the lower half of a circle centered at (2 2) with radius 1. By Example 4, parametric equations are
= 2 + 1 cos = 2 + 1 sin ≤ ≤ 2
To get all four graphs on the same screen with a typical graphing calculator, we need to change the last -interval to[0 2] in
order to match the others. We can do this by changing to 05. This change gives us the upper half. There are several ways to
get the lower half—one is to change the “+” to a “−” in the -assignment, giving us
= 2 + 1 cos(05) = 2 − 1 sin(05) 0 ≤ ≤ 2
We get the entire curve = 23 traversed in a left to Since = 6 ≥ 0, we only get the right half of the
right direction. curve = 23 .
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SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS ¤ 5
41. It is apparent that = || and = | | = | |. From the diagram,
= || = cos and = | | = sin . Thus, the parametric equations are
sin2 = ()2 and cos = ⇒ cos2 = ()2 . Adding the two
43. = (2 cot 2), so the -coordinate of is = 2 cot . Let = (0 2).
Then ∠ is a right angle and ∠ = , so || = 2 sin and
= ((2 sin ) cos (2 sin ) sin ). Thus, the -coordinate of
is = 2 sin2 .
(b) A collision point occurs when 1 = 2 and 1 = 2 for the same . So solve the equations:
From (2), sin = 2 cos − 1. Substituting into (1), we get 3(2 cos − 1) = −3 + cos ⇒ 5 cos = 0 () ⇒
cos = 0 ⇒ =
2
or 3
2
. We check that = 3
2
satisfies (1) and (2) but =
2
does not. So the only collision point
occurs when = 3
2
, and this gives the point (−3 0). [We could check our work by graphing 1 and 2 together as
functions of and, on another plot, 1 and 2 as functions of . If we do so, we see that the only value of for which both
(c) The circle is centered at (3 1) instead of (−3 1). There are still 2 intersection points: (3 0) and (21 14), but there are
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6 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
47. = 2 = 3 − . We use a graphing device to produce the graphs for various values of with − ≤ ≤ . Note that all
the members of the family are symmetric about the -axis. For 0, the graph does not cross itself, but for = 0 it has a
cusp at (0 0) and for 0 the graph crosses itself at = , so the loop grows larger as increases.
curves roughly follow the line = , and they start having loops when
is between 14 and 16. The loops increase in size as increases.
While not required, the following is a solution to determine the exact values for which the curve has a loop,
that is, we seek the values of for which there exist parameter values and such that and
In the diagram at the left, denotes the point ( ), the point ( ),
and the point ( + cos + sin ) = ( + cos + sin ).
= 2 − 3
4
−= 5
4
− , the relation = implies that
+= 3
2 (1).
√
Since = distance(( ) ( )) = 2( − )2 = 2 ( − ), we see that
1 √
( − ) 2 √
cos = 2 = , so − = 2 cos , that is,
√
− = 2 cos − 4 (2). Now cos − 4 = sin 2 − − 4 = sin 3
4 − ,
√ 0
so we can rewrite (2) as − = 2 sin 3 0
4 − (2 ). Subtracting (2 ) from (1) and
√
dividing by 2, we obtain = 3
4
− 2
2
sin 3
4
− , or 3
4
−=
√
2
sin 3
4
− (3).
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SECTION 10.2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES ¤ 7
Since 0 and , it follows from (20 ) that sin 3
4 − 0. Thus from (3) we see that 4 .
3
[We have
implicitly assumed that 0 by the way we drew our diagram, but we lost no generality by doing so since replacing
by + 2 merely increases and by 2. The curve’s basic shape repeats every time we change by 2.] Solving for in
√ 3 √
2 4 − 2 √
(3), we get = . Write = 4 − . Then =
3
, where 0. Now sin for 0, so 2.
sin 34
− sin
− √
As → 0+ , that is, as → 3 4 ,→ 2 .
51. Note that all the Lissajous figures are symmetric about the -axis. The parameters and simply stretch the graph in the
- and -directions respectively. For = = = 1 the graph is simply a circle with radius 1. For = 2 the graph crosses
itself at the origin and there are loops above and below the -axis. In general, the figures have − 1 points of intersection,
all of which are on the -axis, and a total of closed loops.
√ 1 1 (1 + )(1) − (1) 1
1. = , = 1+ ⇒ = (1 + )−12 = √ , = = , and
1+ 2 2 1 + (1 + )2 (1 + )2
√
1(2 1 + ) (1 + )2 1
= = 2
= √ = (1 + )32 .
1(1 + ) 2 1+ 2
43 + 1
3. = 3 + 1, = 4 + ; = −1. = 43 + 1, = 32 , and = = . When = −1, ( ) = (0 0)
32
and = −33 = −1, so an equation of the tangent to the curve at the point corresponding to = −1 is
When = , ( ) = (− 0) and = −(−1) = , so an equation of the tangent to the curve at the point
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8 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
1 2
7. (a) = 1 + ln , = 2 + 2; (1 3). = 2 = and = = = 22 . At (1 3),
1
= 1 + ln = 1 ⇒ ln = 0 ⇒ = 1 and = 2, so an equation of the tangent is − 3 = 2( − 1),
or = 2 + 1.
2 + 1
9. = 2 − , = 2 + + 1; (0 3). = = . To find the
2 − 1
value of corresponding to the point (0 3), solve = 0 ⇒
2
The curve is CU when 0, that is, when 0.
2
2
0, that is, when 32 .
2
17. = 3 − 3, = 2 − 3. = 2, so =0 ⇔ =0 ⇔
( ) = (0 −3). = 32 − 3 = 3( + 1)( − 1), so =0 ⇔
= −1 or 1 ⇔ ( ) = (2 −2) or (−2 −2). The curve has a horizontal
tangent at (0 −3) and vertical tangents at (2 −2) and (−2 −2).
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SECTION 10.2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES ¤ 9
19. = cos , = cos 3. The whole curve is traced out for 0 ≤ ≤ .
= −3 sin 3, so = 0 ⇔ sin 3 = 0 ⇔ 3 = 0, , 2, or 3 ⇔
= 0, 3 , 2
3
, or ⇔ ( ) = (1 1), 12 −1 , − 12 1 , or (−1 −1).
= − sin , so = 0 ⇔ sin = 0 ⇔ = 0 or ⇔
( ) = (1 1) or (−1 −1). Both and equal 0 when = 0 and .
−3 sin 3 H −9 cos 3
To find the slope when = 0, we find lim = lim = lim = 9, which is the same slope when = .
→0 − sin →0 − cos
→0
Thus, the curve has horizontal tangents at 12 −1 and − 12 1 , and there are no vertical tangents.
21. From the graph, it appears that the rightmost point on the curve = − 6 , =
is about (06 2). To find the exact coordinates, we find the value of for which the
√
graph has a vertical tangent, that is, 0 = = 1 − 65 ⇔ = 1 5 6.
Hence, the rightmost point is
√ √ √
5
−15
1 5 6 − 1 6 5 6 1 6 = 5 · 6−65 6 ≈ (058 201).
23. We graph the curve = 4 − 23 − 22 , = 3 − in the viewing rectangle [−2 11] by [−05 05]. This rectangle
We estimate that the curve has horizontal tangents at about (−1 −04) and (−017 039) and vertical tangents at
32 − 1
about (0 0) and (−019 037). We calculate = = 3 . The horizontal tangents occur when
4 − 62 − 4
= 32 − 1 = 0 ⇔ = ± √13 , so both horizontal tangents are shown in our graph. The vertical tangents occur when
= 2(22 − 3 − 2) = 0 ⇔ 2(2 + 1)( − 2) = 0 ⇔ = 0, − 12 or 2. It seems that we have missed one vertical
tangent, and indeed if we plot the curve on the -interval [−12 22] we see that there is another vertical tangent at (−8 6).
When = 3
2
, = 1 and = −1. So = −1. Thus, = and
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10 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
sin
(a) = − cos , = sin , so = .
− cos
(b) If 0 , then | cos | ≤ , so − cos ≥ − 0. This shows that never vanishes,
32 1 1
29. = 32 + 1, = 3 − 1 ⇒ = = = . The tangent line has slope when = ⇔ = 1, so the
6 2 2 2 2
()2 + ()2 = (1 − 2 cos )2 + (2 sin )2 = 1 − 4 cos + 4 cos2 + 4 sin2 = 5 − 4 cos .
4 √
Thus, = ()2 + ()2 = 0 5 − 4 cos ≈ 267298.
41. = 1 + 32 , = 4 + 23 , 0 ≤ ≤ 1. = 6 and = 62 , so ()2 + ()2 = 362 + 364 .
1 1 2 √ 1
Thus, = 362 + 364 = 6 1 + 2 = 6 2 [ = 1 + 2 , = 2 ]
0 0 1
2 √
= 3 23 32 = 2(232 − 1) = 2 2 2 − 1
1
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SECTION 10.2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES ¤ 11
43. = sin , = cos , 0 ≤ ≤ 1. = cos + sin and = − sin + cos , so
2 2
+ = 2 cos2 + 2 sin cos + sin2 + 2 sin2 − 2 sin cos + cos2
= 2 (cos2 + sin2 ) + sin2 + cos2 = 2 + 1.
1√ 21 √ √ 1 √ √
Thus, = 0
2 + 1 = 12 2 + 1 + 1
2
ln + 2 + 1 0 = 12 2 + 1
2
ln 1 + 2 .
47. The figure shows the curve = sin + sin 15, = cos for 0 ≤ ≤ 4.
= cos + 15 cos 15 and = − sin , so
()2 + ()2 = cos2 + 3 cos cos 15 + 225 cos2 15 + sin2 .
4 √
Thus, = 0 1 + 3 cos cos 15 + 225 cos2 15 ≈ 167102.
49. = − , = + , −6 ≤ ≤ 6.
2 2 6 √
+
= (1 − )2 + (1 + )2 = (1 − 2 + 2 ) + (1 + 2 + 2 ) = 2 + 22 , so = −6
2 + 22 .
√ 6−(−6)
Set () = 2 + 22 . Then by Simpson’s Rule with = 6 and ∆ = 6
= 2, we get
()2 + ()2 = (2 sin cos )2 + (−2 cos sin )2 = 8 sin2 cos2 = 2 sin2 2 ⇒
3 √ √ 2 √ 2 √ √
Distance = 0
2 |sin 2| = 6 2 0 sin 2 [by symmetry] = −3 2 cos 2 = −3 2 (−1 − 1) = 6 2.
0
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12 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
(0) 6= (2). In fact, we must take ∈ [0 4] in order to obtain the
complete curve, since the first term in each of the parametric equations has
(b) We use the CAS to find the derivatives and , and then use Theorem 5 to find the arc length. Recent versions
4 √
of Maple express the integral 0 ()2 + ()2 as 88 2 2 , where () is the elliptic integral
1√
1 − 2 2 √
√ and is the imaginary number −1.
1 − 2
0
Some earlier versions of Maple (as well as Mathematica) cannot do the integral exactly, so we use the command
evalf(Int(sqrt(diff(x,t)ˆ2+diff(y,t)ˆ2),t=0..4*Pi)); to estimate the length, and find that the arc
length is approximately 29403. Derive’s Para_arc_length function in the utility file Int_apps simplifies the
4
integral to 11 0 −4 cos cos 11
2
− 4 sin sin 11
2
+ 5 .
57. = sin , = cos , 0 ≤ ≤ 2. = cos + sin and = − sin + cos , so
()2 + ()2 = 2 cos2 + 2 sin cos + sin2 + 2 sin2 − 2 sin cos + cos2
= 2 (cos2 + sin2 ) + sin2 + cos2 = 2 + 1
2 √
= 2 = 0
2 cos 2 + 1 ≈ 47394.
59. = + , = − , 0 ≤ ≤ 1.
= 1 + and = −− , so ()2 + ()2 = (1 + )2 + (−− )2 = 1 + 2 + 2 + −2 .
1 √
= 2 = 0
2− 1 + 2 + 2 + −2 ≈ 106705.
2 2 2
61. = 3 , = 2 , 0 ≤ ≤ 1.
+
= 32 + (2)2 = 94 + 42 .
1
2
2 1 1
= 2
+
= 22 94 + 42 = 2 2 2 (92 + 4)
0 0 0
13
−4 √ 1 2 2
= 9 + 4, = ( − 4)9, 2 13
= 2 18 = (32 − 412 )
9 = 18 , so = 18
1
9 · 18
4 4
13 13
2 52
=
81 5
− 83 32 =
81
· 2
15
352 − 2032
4 4
√ √ √
= 2
1215
3 · 132 13 − 20 · 13 13 − (3 · 32 − 20 · 8) = 2
1215
247 13 + 64
2 2
63. = cos3 , = sin3 , 0 ≤ ≤
2
.
+
= (−3 cos2 sin )2 + (3 sin2 cos )2 = 92 sin2 cos2 .
2 2 2
= 0
2 · sin3 · 3 sin cos = 62 0
sin4 cos = 65 2 sin5 0 = 65 2
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SECTION 10.2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES ¤ 13
2 2
65. = 32 , = 23 , 0 ≤ ≤ 5 ⇒ + = (6)2 + (62 )2 = 362 (1 + 2 ) ⇒
5 5 √ 5 √
= 0
()2 + ()2 = 0 2(32 )6 1 + 2 = 18 0 2 1 + 2 2
2
26
26 √ = 1 + 2 26
= 18 1 ( − 1) = 18 1 (32 − 12 ) = 18 25 52 − 23 32
= 2 1
2 √ 2
√ √
= 18 5 · 676 26 − 3 · 26 26 − 25 − 23 = 24
5 949 26 + 1
67. If 0 is continuous and 0 () 6= 0 for ≤ ≤ , then either 0 () 0 for all in [ ] or 0 () 0 for all in [ ]. Thus,
is monotonic (in fact, strictly increasing or strictly decreasing) on [ ]. It follows that has an inverse. Set = ◦ −1 ,
that is, define by () = ( −1 ()). Then = () ⇒ −1 () = , so = () = ( −1 ()) = ().
1 ̇
69. (a) = tan−1 = tan−1 ⇒ = . But = = ⇒
1 + ()2 ̇
̇ ̈ ̇ − ̈̇ 1 ̈ ̇ − ̈̇ ̇̈ − ̈̇
= = ⇒ = = 2 . Using the Chain Rule, and the
̇ ̇2 1 + (̇̇)2 ̇2 ̇ + ̇2
2 2 2
2 12
fact that =
+
⇒
=
+
= ̇2 + ̇2 , we have that
0
̇̈ − ̈̇ 1 ̇̈ − ̈̇ ̇̈ − ̈̇ |̇̈ − ̈̇|
. So =
=
=
̇2 + ̇2 (̇2 + ̇ 2 )12
=
(̇2 + ̇ 2 )32
= (̇2 + ̇2 )32 = (̇2 + ̇2 )32 .
2
(b) = and = () ⇒ ̇ = 1, ̈ = 0 and ̇ = , ̈ = .
2
2
1 · (2 2 ) − 0 · () 2
So = = .
[1 + ()2 ]32 [1 + ()2 ]32
characterized by a horizontal tangent, and from Example 2(b) in Section 10.2, the tangent is horizontal when = (2 − 1),
|cos − 1| |−1 − 1| 1
so take = 1 and substitute = into the expression for : = = = .
(2 − 2 cos )32 [2 − 2(−1)]32 4
73. The coordinates of are ( cos sin ). Since was unwound from
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14 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
(b) −2 3
2 0: −(−2) 3
2 − = 2 2
0: −2 3
2
+ 2 = −2 7
2
(c) 3 − 3 0: 3 − 3 + 2 = 3 5
3
0: −3 − 3 + = −3 2 3
√ √ 1 √ √ 1
(b) = 2 cos = 2 √ = 1 and = 2 sin = 2 √ =1
4 2 4 2
give us the Cartesian coordinates (1 1).
√ √
3 3
(c) = −1 cos − = −1 =− and
6 2 2
1 1
= −1 sin − = −1 − = give us the Cartesian
6 2 2
√
3 1
coordinates − .
2 2
√
5. (a) = −4 and = 4 (−4)2 + 42 = 4 2 and tan = −4
⇒ = 4
= −1 [ = − 4 + ]. Since (−4 4) is in the
√ 3 √ 7
second quadrant, the polar coordinates are (i) 4 2 4 and (ii) −4 2 4 .
√
√ √ 2 √ 3 3 √
(b) = 3 and = 3 3 ⇒ = 3 + 3 3 = 9 + 27 = 6 and tan =
2 = 3 [ = 3 + ].
3
√
Since 3 3 3 is in the first quadrant, the polar coordinates are (i) 6 3 and (ii) −6 4
3
.
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°
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SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES ¤ 15
11. 2 3, 5
3
≤≤ 7
3
√
13. Converting the polar coordinates 4 4
3
and 6 5
3
to Cartesian coordinates gives us 4 cos 4
3
4 sin 4
3
= −2 −2 3
√
and 6 cos 5
3
6 sin 5
3
= 3 −3 3 . Now use the distance formula
√ √ 2
= (2 − 1 )2 + (2 − 1 )2 = [3 − (−2)]2 + −3 3 − −2 3
√ 2 √ √ √
= 52 + − 3 = 25 + 3 = 28 = 2 7
√
15. 2 = 5 ⇔ 2 + 2 = 5, a circle of radius 5 centered at the origin.
2
17. = 5 cos ⇒ 2 = 5 cos ⇔ 2 + 2 = 5 ⇔ 2 − 5 + 25 2
4 + = 4
25
⇔ − 52 + 2 = 4 ,
25
a circle of radius 52 centered at 52 0 . The first two equations are actually equivalent since 2 = 5 cos ⇒
( − 5 cos ) = 0 ⇒ = 0 or = 5 cos . But = 5 cos gives the point = 0 (the pole) when = 0. Thus, the
equation = 5 cos is equivalent to the compound condition ( = 0 or = 5 cos ).
19. 2 cos 2 = 1 ⇔ 2 (cos2 − sin2 ) = 1 ⇔ ( cos )2 − ( sin )2 = 1 ⇔ 2 − 2 = 1, a hyperbola centered at
the origin with foci on the -axis.
2
21. = 2 ⇔ sin = 2 ⇔ = ⇔ = 2 csc
sin
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16 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
29. = −2 sin
33. = , ≥ 0
35. = 3 cos 3
37. = 2 cos 4
39. = 1 + 3 cos
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SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES ¤ 17
41. 2 = 9 sin 2
43. = 2 + sin 3
45. = sin(2)
47. For = 0, , and 2, has its minimum value of about 05. For =
2
and 3
2
, attains its maximum value of 2.
We see that the graph has a similar shape for 0 ≤ ≤ and ≤ ≤ 2.
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18 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
+
→ 2 , so lim = lim sin2 = 1. Therefore, lim = 1 ⇒ = 1 is
→−∞ →2+ →±∞
a vertical asymptote. Also notice that = sin2 ≥ 0 for all , and = sin2 ≤ 1 for all . And 6= 1, since the curve is not
53. (a) We see that the curve = 1 + sin crosses itself at the origin, where = 0 (in fact the inner loop corresponds to
negative -values,) so we solve the equation of the limaçon for = 0 ⇔ sin = −1 ⇔ sin = −1. Now if
|| 1, then this equation has no solution and hence there is no inner loop. But if −1, then on the interval (0 2)
the equation has the two solutions = sin−1 (−1) and = − sin−1 (−1), and if 1, the solutions are
= + sin−1 (1) and = 2 − sin−1 (1). In each case, 0 for between the two solutions, indicating a loop.
(b) For 0 1, the dimple (if it exists) is characterized by the fact that has a local maximum at = 3
2
. So we
2
determine for what -values is negative at = 2 ,
3
since by the Second Derivative Test this indicates a maximum:
2
2
= sin = sin + sin2 ⇒ = cos + 2 sin cos = cos + sin 2 ⇒ = − sin + 2 cos 2.
2
At = 2 ,
3
this is equal to −(−1) + 2(−1) = 1 − 2, which is negative only for 12 . A similar argument shows that
1
When = , = − cot 2 · = cot = √ . [Another method: Use Equation 3.]
3 3 3 3
−0 + (−1) −
When = , = = = −.
−(−1) − (0) 1
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SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES ¤ 19
Note that the tangent is horizontal, not vertical when = , since lim = 0.
→
67. = 1 + 2 sin(2). The parameter interval is [0 4]. 69. = sin − 2 cos(4).
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20 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
73. It appears that the graph of = 1 + sin −
6
is the same shape as
75. Consider curves with polar equation = 1 + cos , where is a real number. If = 0, we get a circle of radius 1 centered at
the pole. For 0 ≤ 05, the curve gets slightly larger, moves right, and flattens out a bit on the left side. For 05 1,
the left side has a dimple shape. For = 1, the dimple becomes a cusp. For 1, there is an internal loop. For ≥ 0, the
rightmost point on the curve is (1 + 0). For 0, the curves are reflections through the vertical axis of the curves
with 0.
− tan − tan
tan − tan
77. tan = tan( − ) = = =
1 + tan tan
1+ tan 1+ tan
sin2
− tan sin + cos − tan cos − sin cos + ·
= = = cos
+
tan
sin2
cos − sin + tan sin + cos cos + ·
cos
cos2 + sin2
= =
cos2 + sin2
1. = −4 , 2 ≤ ≤ .
−4 2 1 −2
= 1 2
2 = 1
2 ( ) = 2 = 1
2
−2−2 = −1(−2 − −4 ) = −4 − −2
2 2 2 2
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SECTION 10.4 AREAS AND LENGTHS IN POLAR COORDINATES ¤ 21
3. = sin + cos , 0 ≤ ≤ .
1 2 1 1 1
= = (sin + cos )2 = (sin2 + 2 sin cos + cos2 ) = (1 + sin 2)
0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2
1 1
= 2
− 2 cos 2 = 12 − 12 − 0 − 12 = 2
0
2.
7. = 4 + 3 sin , − 2 ≤ ≤
2 2
= 1
2
((4 + 3 sin )2 = 1
2
(16 + 24 sin + 9 sin2 )
−2 −2
2
= 1
2
(16 + 9 sin2 ) [by Theorem 4.5.6(b) [ET 5.5.7(b)]]
−2
2
= 1
2
·2 16 + 9 · 12 (1 − cos 2) [by Theorem 4.5.6(a) [ET 5.5.7(a)]]
0
2
41 9
2 41
= 2
− 2
cos 2 = 41
2
− 9
4
sin 2 0
= 4
− 0 − (0 − 0) = 41
4
0
Also, note that this is a circle with radius 1, so its area is (1)2 = .
2 2 2
1 2
11. = 2
= 1
2
(3 + 2 cos )2 = 1
2
(9 + 12 cos + 4 cos2 )
0 0 0
1
2
= 2
9 + 12 cos + 4 · 12 (1 + cos 2)
0
1
2
1
2
= 2 (11 + 12 cos + 2 cos 2) = 2
11 + 12 sin + sin 2 0
0
1
= 2
(22) = 11
2 2 2
1 2
13. = 2
= 1
2
(2 + sin 4)2 = 1
2
(4 + 4 sin 4 + sin2 4)
0 0 0
1
2
= 2
4 + 4 sin 4 + 12 (1 − cos 8)
0
1
2 9 1
2
= 2 2
+ 4 sin 4 − 2
cos 8 = 12 92 − cos 4 − 1
16
sin 8 0
0
= 12 [(9 − 1) − (−1)] = 92
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22 ¤ CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
2 2 2
1 2
15. = 2
= 1
2
1 + cos2 5
0 0
2 2
= 1
2
(1 + cos2 5) = 1
2
1 + 12 (1 + cos 10)
0 0
1
3 1
2 1
= 2 2
+ 20
sin 10 0
= 2
(3) = 32
17. The curve passes through the pole when = 0 ⇒ 4 cos 3 = 0 ⇒ cos 3 = 0 ⇒ 3 =
2
+ ⇒
=
6
+ 3 . The part of the shaded loop above the polar axis is traced out for
= 0 to = 6, so we’ll use −6 and 6 as our limits of integration.
6 6
2
= 1
2
(4 cos 3) = 2 1
2
(16 cos2 3)
−6 0
6
1
1
6
= 16 2
(1 + cos 6) = 8 + 6
sin 6 0
=8 6
= 43
0
19. = 0 ⇒ sin 4 = 0 ⇒ 4 = ⇒ = 4 .
4 4 4
1 2 1 2 1 1
= 2 (sin 4) = 2 sin 4 = 2 2 (1 − cos 8)
0 0 0
4
= 14 − 1
8
sin 8 0
= 1
4 4
= 1
16
out between = 7
6
and 11
6
[found by
solving = 0].
32
32 32
= 2 1
2
(1 + 2 sin )2 = 1 + 4 sin + 4 sin2 = 1 + 4 sin + 4 · 12 (1 − cos 2)
76 76 76
32 √ √ √
= − 4 cos + 2 − sin 2 = 9
2
− 7
2
+2 3− 2
3
=− 3 3
2
76
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SECTION 10.4 AREAS AND LENGTHS IN POLAR COORDINATES ¤ 23
25. To find the area inside the leminiscate 2 = 8 cos 2 and outside the circle = 2,
we first note that the two curves intersect when 2 = 8 cos 2 and = 2,
that is, when cos 2 = 12 . For − ≤ , cos 2 = 1
2
⇔ 2 = ±3
or ±53 ⇔ = ±6 or ±56. The figure shows that the desired area
is 4 times the area between the curves from 0 to 6. Thus,
6 1 6
= 4 0 2
(8 cos 2) − 12 (2)2 = 8 0 (2 cos 2 − 1)
6 √ √
= 8 sin 2 − = 8 32 − 6 = 4 3 − 43
0
3 sin
29. 3 sin = 3 cos ⇒ = 1 ⇒ tan = 1 ⇒ = 4 ⇒
3 cos
4 4 4
1 2 2
= 2 2
(3 sin ) = 9 sin = 9 · 12 (1 − cos 2)
0 0 0
4
4 9 9
9 9
9 9
= 2
− 2
cos 2 = 2
− 4
sin 2 = 8
− 4
− (0 − 0)
0 0
9 9
= 8
− 4
sin 2
31. sin 2 = cos 2 ⇒ = 1 ⇒ tan 2 = 1 ⇒ 2 =
4
⇒
cos 2
= 8
⇒
8 8
= 8·2 1
2 sin 2 2 = 8 1
2 (1 − cos 4)
0 0
8
1
=4 − 4
sin 4 = 4 8 − 1
4
·1 =
2
−1
0
33. From the figure, we see that the shaded region is 4 times the shaded region
2 sin 2 = 12 ⇒ sin 2 = 1
2
⇒ 2 =
6
⇒ =
12
.
12 4
= 4 1
2
(2 sin 2) +4 1
2
(1)2
0 12
12 4 12 4
= 4 sin 2 + 2 = −2 cos 2 + 2
0 12 0 12
√ √
= − 3 + 2 + 2 − 6 = − 3 + 2 +
3
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.