MECHANISM OF PHOTOPERIODS

Photoreceptor:
 A light sensitive pigment phytochrome (a chromoprotein) is responsible for
flowering induction and is present in leaves.
 The wavelengths of lights are absorbed by the leaves. This becomes evident by
the fact that defoliated (leaves removed) plant doesn’t flower.
 Presence of even a single leaf is sufficient to receive required amount of
photoperiod.
 Partially mature leaves are more sensitive to light whole very young or mature
leaves are much less sensitive to photoperiodic induction.

 Garner and Allerd early work led to the discovery, isolation and much of the
characterisation of the pigment responsible for absorbing light involved in
phtperiodic phenomenon of plants.
 Borthwick, Hendricks and their colleagues later termed this pigment
phytochrome. Pigment is isolated by Butter et al. This pigment controls several
light dependent developmental processes in plants besides flowering.
 Phytochrome exists in two interconvertible forms: The red (660 nm), absorbing
form Pr and the far red (730 nm) absorbing Pfr. Pfr is converted to Pr rapidly
absorbing far red light or slowly in darkness. The show conversion to red
absorbing form is under thermal control.
 During the day when the white light available, Pfr accumulates on the plant.
This form of phytochrome is inhibitory to flowering in long day plants.
 In evening, Pfr undergoes thermal and spontaneous decay to change into Pr.
This pigment is stimulatory to flowering in short day plants and inhibitory to
flowering in long day plants.
 Therefore, in SDP interruption of dark periods with a flask of red light converts
Pr into Pfr and flowering is inhibited.
 Stimulation of critical photoperiod is perceived by leaves.
 It has been hypothesised that there is a hormonal substance that is responsible
for flowering. This hormonal substance migrates from leaves to shoot apices for
inducing flowering.
Character Pr form Pfr form
Form Inactive Active
Absorption 660 nm in red region of 730 nm in far red region of
light light
Location of cytosol Diffused Found in discrete areas
Centrifugation Present as supernatant Settles down as pellet
Activity Less active in presence of More active in presence of
urea and metal ions urea and metal ions

Importance of phytochrome: Phytochrome is located in plasma membrane. Pfr

form is considered to be Biologically active form and is responsible to initiate a
number of physiological processes such as
 Elongation of stem and leaves
 Plastids morphology and differentiation in stomata
 Seed germination
 Photoperiodism and transpiration
According to Chailakhyan, the Florigen complex, the true flowering hormone
includes two groups of substances formed in leaves:
 Gibberellins: Which are necessary for formation and growth of stem.
 Anthesis: Substances which are necessary for flower formation.
 PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS
When plants are grown in continuous darkness, they become etiolated, I.e., such
plants are longer, weaker, having yellowish half opened leaves, while light grown
plants don’t show such conditions. When etiolated plants are kept in light, they
gradually develop green colour and become normal. The effect of light in reversing
etiolation involves two kinds of action: one at the biochemical level for synthesis
of the chlorophyll and secondly at the level of morphogenesis light acts to promote
expansion of the leaves and inhibits elongation of the internodes. This
phenomenon is called photomorphogenesis and is independent of the direction of
light. The action spectrum of Photomorphogenesis reveals that plants are most
sensitive to red light but blue light is inefficient.
SENESCENCE AND DEATH
Plant and their parts developed continuously from germination until death. The
production of flowers, fruits and seeds in annuals and biennial leads to senescence.
The latter part of the Developmental process which leads from maturity to the
ultimate complete loss of organisation and function is termed as senescence.
Several workers equate aging and senescence as same process. Aging is the sum
total of changes on the total plants or its constituents while senescence represents
degenerative and irreversible changes in the plant. The study of orange senescence
is called phytogerontology.
Types of senescence: Plants senescence is of senescence while plant senescence,
shoot senescence, sequential senescence, and simultaneously senescence. The last
three are also called organ senescence.
 Whole plant senescence: It is found in monocarpic plants which flower and
fruit once in their life cycle. The plants may be annual (e.g., rice, wheat, gram,
mustard, etc.), biennial (e.g., cabbage, henbane) or perennials (e.g., certain
bamboos). The plants die soon after ripening of seeds.
 Shoot senescence: This type of senescence is found in certain perennial plants
which possess underground perennating structures like rhizomes, bulbs, corn,
etc. The above ground part of the shoot dies each year after flowering and
fruiting, but the underground part (stem and roots) survives and outs put new
shoots again next year, e.g., banana, ginger, gladiolus, etc.
 Sequential senescence: This is found just many perennials’ plants in which the
tips of main shoot and branches remain in a meristematic state and continue to
 produce new buds and leaves. The older leaves and lateral organs like branches
show senescence and die. Sequential senescence is apparent in evergreen plants,
e.g., pinus, eucalyptus, Mango.
 Simultaneously or synchronous senescence: It is found in temperate
deciduous trees such as elm and maple. These plants shed all their leaves in
autumn and develop new leaves in spring. Because of this shedding of leaves,
autumn season is also called fall. E.g., dalbergia, elm, mulberry, poplar.
Theories of senescence
 Wear and tear: According to this theory, senescence occurs due to loss of
activity and cells undergo wear and tear due to disintegration of organelles.
 Toxicity: It is viewed that senescence takes place due to accumulation of toxic
and deleterious substances in all.
 Loss of metabolites: It is assumed that senescence leads to gradual depletion of
essential metabolites in a cell.
 Genetic damage
Characteristic of aging and senescence:
 There is a decline in the metabolic activities, decline in ATP synthesis and also
decreased potency of chloroplast.
 Decrease in RNA and DNA.
 Decrease in semi permeability of cytoplasmic membrane.
 Decrease in capacity to repair and replace workout cells.
 There may be accumulation of chromosomal aberrations and gene mutations
with advancing age.
 Increased production of hydrolytic enzymes such as protease and nucleases.
 Deteriorative change in cell organelles and membranes.
 Decrease in internal content of auxin and cytokinins and increase in production
of abscisic acid or ethylene.
Importance of senescence: Biologically death and senescence have following
advantages
 It maintains deficiency since the old and inefficient organs are replaced by
young efficient part like leaves, buds, flowers and fruits, etc.
 During senescence, the cellular breakdown results in release of many nutrients
including amino acids, amides, nucleotides, simple sugars, and minerals. The
 same are withdrawn from the senescence organ into the main trunk and later
utilised in the growth and developed of new parts.
 Shoot senescence is a mechanism to help the plants perennate during
unfavorable periods.
 Simultaneous or synchronous leaf fall occurs in autumn prior to winter. It
reduces transpiration which is essential for survival in winter, when the soil is
frozen and roots can’t absorb water.
 Litter of fallen leaves and twigs is an important source of humus and mineral
replenishment for the soil.
ABSCISSION
The process of shedding leaves, fruits and flowers by a plant called abscission. The
shedding of plant parts takes place by the formation of a special layer of cells
called abscission later within the region of attachment. The middle lamella
between certain cells in this layer is often detested by polysaccharides hydrolysing
enzymes such as cellulase and pectinases.
INTENSITY OF LIGHT
In general, Light retards growth in plants. High light intensities induce dwarfing of
the plants. Plants at hill tops are short whereas those of a valley are quite tall. Very
weak light induces the rate of growth overall and also photosynthesis.
Development of chlorophyll is dependent on light and in its absence etiolin
compounds are formed which gives yellow colour to the plants. The phenomenon
is called etiolation. Similarly, jig light intensity affects indirectly and increases the
rate of water loss and reduces the rate of water growth.
QUALITY OF LIGHT
The different colours affect the growth of plants. In blue-violet colour light reduces
the expansion of leaves as compared to complete spectrum of visible light. The red
colour light favours elongation but they resemble etiolated plants. Infra-red and
ultraviolet rays are necessary for the development of anthocyanin pigments in the
flowers. Blue and violet colour increases size of lamina of leaf.
BIOASSAY OF ETHYLENE
It is done on the principle of triple response which includes three characteristic
effects on ethylene on etiolated seedling of pea,
 Swelling of nodes
 Inhibition of elongation of internodes of stem
 Induction of horizontal growth of stem against gravity.
BIOASSAY OF ABSCISIC ACID
 Rice seedling growth inhibition test: Mohanty, Anjaneyulu and Sridhar used
rice growth inhibition method to measure ABA like activity. The length of
second leaf sheath after 6 days of growth is measured.
 Inhibition of a-amylase synthesis in barley endosperm test: ABA inhibits
the synthesis of a-amylase in the aleurone layer which is triggered by
gibberellins. Goldschmidt and Monselise developed the bioassay method to
estimate ABA activity by determining the extent of inhibition of a-amylase
synthesis induced by treating barley seed endosperm with GA.
TRAUMATIC ACID / WOUND HORMONE / NECROHORMONE
It is a type of auxin. Haberlandt reported that injured plant cells release a chemical
substance (wound hormone), which stimulate the adjacent cells to divide rapidly in
order to heal up the wound. English et al finally isolated and crystallized this
wound hormone and named it as Traumatic hormone. Although Traumatic acid has
been found to be very active in inducing meristematic activity in uninjured green
bean pods, but it isn’t effective in most of the plant tissues including tobacco pith
tissues.
MORPHACTINS
Morphactins are synthetic growth regulators which act in variety of ways on the
natural regulation mechanism of plants. The important ones are
phenoxyalkancarboxylic acid (synthetic auxin), substituted benzoic acids, malic
acid hydrazide, flourene-9 carboxylic acids, and their derivatives. Morphactins
have fundamental action on morphogenesis of plants and their characteristic
designation (morphactins) is derived from morphologically active substances.
The actions of these substances are systematic and after their uptake they are
transported and distributed not polarly (as seen in IAA) but basi- and acropetally.
Generally, these are growth inhibitors. These contain fluorene ring in their
structure.

Functions:
 Seed germination: In general, morphactins inhibit seeds germination
particularly the emergence of the radicle from seed shell. This property can be
countered with GA3 and almost completely by cytokinins. The germination of
fed spores is also delayed by morphactins.
 Growth seedling: Morphactins inhibits the growth of seedling affecting the
shot and often also root. With this property they show a similarly with
cytokinins. The inhibitory effect of seedling shoot growth can be partly
counteracted with GA3 but not the inhibition of root growth.
 Stem elongation: They have inhibitory effect in the stem elongation. Increased
concentration produces dwarfing in plants.
 Polarity of cell division: Denffer and others observed in the dividing cells of
the root tips of Allium that treatment of morphactin (CFI) results in random
orientation of the mitotic spindle and plane of cell division, I.e., they exercise
depolarisation during cell division.
JASMONIC ACID
According to Parthier, jasmonic acid and its methyl esters are ubiquitous in plants.
They have hormone properties, help regulating plant growth, development and
They seem to participate in leaf senescence and in the defence mechanism against
fungi. Just like ABA jasmonates inhabit a premature germination of the oil
containing seeds of Brassica and Linum. After germination they induce the
synthesis of the seed storage proteins Napin and Cruciferin as well as that of
several more elaiosome associated proteins.
SALICYCLIC ACID
Salicylic acid initiates switching on of thermogenic pathway of terminal oxidation.
Biochemically, it is a phenolic compound used as an analgesic. It is responsible for
starting SAR (systemic acquired resistance) to pathogens. It induces PR genes for
formation of pathogenesis related protein.
BRASSINOSTERIODS
These are plant hormones. They enhance the formation of ethylene and shoot
elongation. Chemically, they are brassinolides in structure. They also carry on
elongation of pollen tube vasculae differentiation and morphogenesis of leaves.
Brassinosteriods were isolated from pollens of Brassica napus.
CALINES (FORMATIVE HORMONE)
Certain other natural hormones in plants called as calines or formative hormone
which are thought to be essential for the effect of auxin an root, stem and leaf
growth they are:
 Rhizocaline or root forming hormone: It us produced by the leaves and
translocated in a polar manner down the stem.
 Caulicaline or stem forming hormone: It is produced by the roots and is
transported upward in the stem.
 Phyllocaline or self-forming hormone: It is produced by probably cotyledons.
It stimulates mesophyll development in the leaves and is synthesised only in the
presence of light.

IMPORTANT POINTS
 Bose's crescograph invented by Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose is a more delicate
instrument and gives magnification up to 10,000 times. The rate of growth of
root can be measured by the use of a root auxanometer.
 Biosynthesis of auxin occurs by tryptophan in presence of Zn+2.
 MH (maleic hydrazine) and a-NAA keep lateral buds of potato tubers dormant.
Thus, potato tubers can be stored for longer durations.
 GA3 was one of the first gibberellins to be discovered and remains the most
intensively studies form. All GA3 are acidic.
 A combination of cytokinin (6-benzladenine) and Gibberellin (GA4, GA7)
called pomalin is particularly effective in increasing apple size.
 Ethylene can be included in both groups growth promoter and growth inhibitor
but mainly it is a growth inhibitor hormone.

 Geotropic stimulus is perceived by root cap in case of root, by stem cap in case
of stem.
 Reduced availability of auxin stimulates leaf fall while presence of auxin slows
down leaf fall. Cytokinin prevent senescence trough stimulating anabolic
activity. They are called anti-aging hormones. Florian hormone is synthesised
in the leaves.
 Leaves show maximum expansion in violet light.
 Knott found that the locus of photoperiodic induction is the leaves
 Wellensick found that the locus of perception of cold treatment is the
meristematic cells especially at the shoot apex.
 The double sigmoid growth curve occurs in some fruits, e.g., grapes, plum.
 Measurement of growth in young roots by making it 1 mm intervals with Indian
Ink was first done by Strasburger.
 When each meristem influences other meristems then thus phenomenon is
called growth correction.
 ABA is used in dry farming.
 Auxin and cytokinin in combined form shows synergistic effect (affects
development of physical structure).
 SDPs contain anthesins and synthesize GA for flowering. Whereas LDP’s
contain GA and synthesise anthesins for flowering.
 It has been reported that oxygen plays an important role during G1 stage of cell
division.
 In Poorly aerated soil, there is low concentration of oxygen and a high
concentration of CO2. Under such conditions, plants usually show stunted
growth.
 C/N (Carbohydrate/ Nitrogen) ratio determines the type of growth. High C/N
ratio stimulates wall thickenings. Low C/N ratio favours more protoplasm
producing than walled soft cells.
 Poor growth in tobacco is observed in regions where ozone concentration is
high.
 White pine can’t survive under high ozone concentration.
 Cotton plants are similarly sensitive to ethylene.
 Citrus and Gladiolus are very sensitive to flourides.
 In legumes, IAA is known to stimulate nodule formation.
 Cytokinins stimulate the activity of enzymes especially those concerned with
photosynthesis.
 Biennial plants: In first season, they germinate then resume growth and
ultimately attain maturity. In second season, they flower then form fruits, set
seeds, and undergo senescence and die.
 EXTRA QUESTIONS
Which instrument can be used to record plant growth by seconds, I.e., in
fraction of minute? Crescograph
Phytotron is a device in which plants are grown on controlled environment.
In glass houses, when plants are kept on artificial light and temperature, then this
method is called phytotron and is applicable in agriculture, horticulture.
The S-shaped growth curve and ‘grand period of growth’ may change with
i. Sudden fluctuations in light intensity
ii. Change in temperature
iii. Fluctuations in humidity
iv. It remains unaffected
Deeply sown seeds don’t germinate and don’t come up over due to the
deficiency of oxygen.
Exponential growth occurs in
i. Yeast
ii. Bacteria
iii. Asexual reproduction
iv. All of these
Dendrochronology is determination of age of tree.
Which of the following is the primary motive force responsible for growth?
i. Root pressure
ii. Turgor pressure
iii. Osmotic pressure
iv. DPD
Traumatic is present in injured portion.
Several horticulture techniques are followed for the production of bonsai
plants. One of them is drastic printing of root system. Which physiological
factor is involved in that method? Impairment of water absorption
Distribution of growth in a root by marketing it at equal intervals with Indian
ink was originally studied by Strasburger.
Measurement of growth in young root by marking it at 1mm intervals with Indian
ink was first done by Strasburger.
The type of growth bands in conifers is lateral.
Classical experiments on growth were performed by Boysen-Jennesen and
Darwin.
The existence of first plant growth hormone came from the work of Darwin and
Darwin. They found that bending movement of coleoptile of canary grass was due
to exposure of tip of unilateral light. Boysen-Jenson found that the tip produces a
chemical which is later named auxin.
Among plants, pheromones are secreted by the cells of following plants for
given function
i. All plants for growth and development
ii. Yeast for facilitating mating
iii. All fungi for sexual reproduction
iv. Rhizopus for the formation of zygospores
The natural plant hormones were first isolated from corn germ oil and human
urine.
Thimann used the term phytohormones for plant hormone.
Legume seeds exhibit dormancy because of hard seed coat.
In which of the following respect the plant hormones differ from enzymes?
i. Required in less quantity
ii. They are expended in the process
iii. They release some energy
iv. None of the above
Plant hormones are usually aromatic compounds.
Rhizocalin is an additional hormonal substance which is secreted by leaves.
Rhizocaline is also called as root forming hormone and it is produced by the leaves
and translocated in a polar manner down the stem.
Garner technique is employed for the extraction and elimination of hormones.
Dr. F. Went noted that if coleoptile tips were removed and placed on agar for
one hour, the agar would produce a bending when placed on one side of
freshly cut coleoptile stumps. Of what significance is this experiment?
i. It supports the hypothesis that IAA is auxin
ii. It demonstrated polar movements of auxin
iii. It made possible the isolation and exact identification of auxin
iv. It is the basis for quantitative determination of small amounts of
growth promoting substance
Apical dominance in higher plants is due to
i. Balance between auxin and cytokinin
ii. Enzyme activity and metabolism
iii. Carbohydrates
iv. Photoperiodism
Which of the following isn’t a naturally occurring plant hormone?
i. 2,4-D
ii. GA2
iii. Gibberellin
iv. IAA
Highest concentration of auxins exists in growing tips of plants.
Which chemical is used for causing defoliation of forest tress? 2, 4-D
How does pruning helps in making the hedge dense? It frees axillary buds from
apical dominance
Levitt performed experiments. He inserted that auxin treated cells were able
to absorb water even when kept in hypersonic solution. Which explains thus
observation best?
i. Auxin treated cells lose selective permeability
ii. ATP production increases and therefore energy is available for active
absorption
iii. Auxin lowers the water potential of cells
iv. Auxins increases the solute potential of cells
Which ion is pulled out in apoplast by the auxin during growth? K+
One if the commonly used plant growth hormone in tea plantations is indole-
3-acetic acid.
Pruning of plants promotes branching because the axillary bud gets sensitized
to indole-acetic acid.
Auxin-B was first isolated by Kogl, Erxlaben and Haagen-Smith.
Apical dominance in plants is caused by Hugh concentration of auxin in
terminal bud.
Which of the following effects of auxin on plants is the basis for commercial
application?
i. Callus formation
ii. Curvature of stem
iii. Induction of root formation in stem cutting
iv. All of the above
The presence of auxins in a solution could be tested by Avena sativa stem tip
test.
The hormone involved in metabolism of food materials in cereal grain during
germination is GA.
GA induces glowering in long day plants under short day conditions.
Parthenocarpic tomato fruits can be produced by
i. Raising the plants from vernalized seeds
ii. Treating the seeds with phenylmercuric acetate
iii. Removing androcium of flowers before pollen grains are released
iv. Treating the plants with low concentration of GA and auxins
Gibberellin was first isolated by Japanese workers from a parasitic fungus.
The activity of a-amylase in the endosperm of barley germinating seed is
induced by Gibberellins.
Gibberellin induces flowering in short day plants.
All cytokinins are aminopurines.
Farmers in a particular region were concerned that premature yellowing of
leaves of a pulse crop might cause decrease in the yield. Which treatment
could be most beneficial to obtain maximum seed yield?
i. Removal of all yellow leaves and spraying the remaining green leaves
with 2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid
ii. Application of Fe and Mg to promote synthesis of chlorophyll
iii. Frequent irrigation of the crop
iv. Treatment of the plant with cytokinins along with a small doss of
nitrogenous fertilisers
Cytokinins are formed in roots.
Which of the following is indispensable in all culture?
i. Gibberellin
ii. Kinetin
iii. Ethylene
iv. Auxin
Cambial tissue of Pinus radiata contains cytokinins.
Guttman (1957) found a quick increase in the amount of RNA in the nuclei on
onion root after kinetin treatment.
RNA formation is induced by kinetins.
The phytochrome which induces triple response is C2H4.
A higher proportion of Ethylene is found in
i. Ripening banana
ii. Green banana
iii. Green apple
iv. Fresh potato tuber
The mist efficient precursor of ethylene is
i. Adenine
ii. Thiocarbamate
iii. Zeation
iv. Methionine
Ethylene is called as phytogerontological hormone.
Artificial Ripening of which of the following fruits is useless?
i. Mango
ii. Banana
iii. Grapes
iv. Pomegranate/ Coconut
80% C2H4 and 20% CO2 combination of gases is suitable for fruit ripening.
Ethylene causes stunted growth in pea.
Wound hormone is called necrohormone.
Maleic hydride is used to
i. Prolong dormancy
ii. Break dormancy
iii. Both
iv. None
Morphactins are synthetic growth regulators.
Elongation of internodes is inhibited by morphactins.
With which of the following process Cholodny-Went theory is concerned?
i. Phototropism
ii. Photomorphogenesis
iii. Photorespiration
iv. Photoperiodism
Importance of day length (photoperiodism) in flowering of plants was first
shown in tobacco.
Saccharum officinarum grows well in
i. Low temperature
ii. Dry and arid conditions
iii. Swamy conditions
iv. Moist conditions
What helps in flowering?
i. Cytochrome
ii. ABA
 iii. C-phytochrome
iv. Ethylene
Biological clock in plants is controlled by
i. Phytochrome
ii. Cryptochrome
iii. Both (i) and (ii)
iv. Gibberellin
If plants are given only visible light its growth will decrease.
Name ‘phytochrome’ was given by Borthwick and Hendrick.
Phytochrome is closely related to
i. Chlorophyll e
ii. Bacteriochlorophyll
iii. Phycocyanin c
iv. Carotenoid
In SDP flowering doesn’t occur
i. When immediate light is given red  far red  red
ii. Interrupted by a flash of far light
iii. Interrupted by a flash red  far light
iv. All of these
In short day plants flowering is induced by
i. Long night
ii. Photoperiod less than 12 hours
iii. Photoperiod shorter than initial value and uninterrupted long night
iv. Short photoperiod and interrupted Ling night
If a tree flowers thrice in a year (October, January and July) in Northern
India, it is said to be thermosensitive but photo insensitive.
A few normal seedlings of tomato were kept in a dark room. After a few days
they were found to have become white coloured like albino. Which of the
following terms will you use to describe them?
i. Etiolated
ii. Defoliated
 iii. Mutated
iv. Embolised
During cell enlargement phase of growth, molecules of new cell wall materials
are inserted between the original molecules of stretched wall. This process is
called intussusception.
Seed dormancy cam be broken by which combination of chemicals? KNO3,
GA3 and Ethylene chlorohydrin
Seedless fruits can be induced by IAA and GA3.
2-chloroethyphosphoric acid a synthetic growth regulator is used to promote
synchronized flowering in pineapple.
The ripening of fruits can be accelerated by
i. Reducing the supply of water to plant when fruits are maturing
ii. Increasing the supply of nitrogen to the atmosphere surrounding them
iii. Warming up the surrounding artificially
iv. Artificially adding ethylene gas to the atmosphere surrounding them
Apical dominance means stimulation of growth of apical bud by removal of
axillary buds.
Clinostat is the apparatus need to eliminate the effect of gravity of plant.
What will be the effect of phytochrome in a plant subjected to continuous red
light?
i. Level of phytochrome will decrease
ii. Phytochrome will be destroyed
iii. Phytochrome synthesis will increase
iv. None of these
Moving on a grass lawn facilitates better maintenance primarily owing to
removal of apical dominance.
Which of the following is more essential for breaking of seed dormancy?
i. Light
ii. Heat
iii. Cold
iv. Moisture
Storage sprouting of potato can be prevented by maleic hydrazide.
Maleic hydrazide is a growth retardant which checks cell division. So, during seed
storage thus applied for checking sprouting of potato tubers so that the importance
of potato may not be lowered down.
A substance which is used to stimulate the increase in size of the apple fruit is
promalin.
Promalin is a mixture of cytokinin-6-benzaldenine, GA4 and GA7. It is very active
in stimulating increase in apple size particularly in red delicious apples.
Antiauxin used in picking cotton balls is
i. NPA
ii. 2-4D
iii. TIBA
iv. Both (i) and (iii)
Which of the following plant material is widely used in the preparation of
culture medium?
i. Pinus longifolia
ii. Cocos nucifera
iii. Borassus flabellifer
iv. Cycas revoluta
Assertion: Agent orange is a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T used in Vietnam
War.
Reason: 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are used as herbicides.
Both assertion and reason are true but the reason is not a correct explanation of the
assertion.
The first selective herbicides to be discovered and used widely were 2,4-D and
oyster derivatives. These compounds are very potent auxins. 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T
destroy dicots weeds. They block their sieve elements and disturb mitosis. The
plant is ultimately destroyed. Agent orange, which was used in the war in Vietnam
as a defoliant is an effective mixture of free 2,4-D and the N-butyl Ester of 2,4,5-T.
Assertion: Auxins promote apical dominance by suppressing the activity of
lateral buds.
Reason: In moriculture, periodic pruning of shoot tips is done to make
mulberry plants bushy.
Both assertion and reason are true, and reason is the correct explanation of
assertion.
Assertion: Touch receptors in Mimosa is an example of movement.
Reason: Nastic movements occurs in the direction of stimulus.
Assertion is true and reason is false.
Nastic movements are non-directional movements in which the response is
determined by the structure of the responsive organ and not the direction of the
stimulus. Touch responses in Mimosa are an example of movements that don’t
necessarily occur towards or away from stimulus. The movement is produced due
to turgor changes in the cells of pulvinus or swollen area lying at the base of
petiole, pinnae and pinnules.
Assertion: Secondary roots and shoots are plagiogeotropic.
Reason: Plagiogeotropic roots are those which develop at an angle of 45° from
the vertical axis.
Both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation of
assertion.
Characteristic of plant growth includes which of the following-
i. It is localized and generally determinate
ii. It is localized and generally indeterminate
iii. It is non-measurable
iv. It is diffused, determinate and non-measurable
The form of growth wherein cells are always being added to the plant body by
the activity of meristem is called
i. Open form of growth
ii. Close form of growth
iii. Diffused form of growth
iv. Discontinuous form of growth
Growth at cellular level, is principally a consequence in the amount of
protoplasm.
Real growth is
i. Protoplasmic growth
ii. Cell wall growth
iii. Growth in size
iv. Growth in volume
Which of the following options are correct?
i. One maize root Cell can give rise to more than 17,500 cells.
ii. A cell in watermelon cam increase in size upto 350,000 times.
iii. The growth in pollen tube is measured in length.
iv. The growth of the leaf is measured in terms of volume.
Which one is more or less similar to increase in protoplasm?
i. Increase in fresh/ dry weight
ii. Increase in length, area, volume
iii. Increase in cell number
iv. All
Select the incorrect option-
i. Primary growth is the increase in girth of axis due to the activity of apical
meristem
ii. Secondary growth is the increase in girth due to the activity of lateral
meristems (vascular cambium and cork cambium)
iii. Elongation of plant is primary growth
iv. Both (ii) and (iii)
The period of growth is generally divided into 3 phases.
Increase in growth per unit time is called growth rate.
Exponential phase pf growth rate is characterised by
i. Enlargement of cells
ii. Constant increase in growth rate
iii. Maturation of cells
iv. Both (i) and (ii)
A sigmoid growth curve is a characteristic of
i. Bacteria growing in culture medium
 ii. Organisms growing in natural habitat
iii. All cells, tissues and organs
iv. All of the above
In exponential growth the final size depends upon
i. Initial size
ii. Growth rate
iii. Time od growth
iv. All
The example of plasticity in plant Ranunculus (buttercup) is heterophyll.
Intrinsic heterophyll is seen in all except
i. Cotton
ii. Coriander
iii. Buttercup
iv. Larkspur
ABA was discovered during mid-1960s.
Which of the following points is shown by cell at the root or shoot apex -
i. Rich in protoplasm, possesses large conspicuous triploid nucleus
ii. Cell wall is cellulosic, primary in nature and with abundant
plasmodesmata
iii. Rich in protoplasm with large conspicuous nucleus
iv. Both (ii) and (iii)
Maximal size in terms of wall thickening and protoplasmic modification are
achieved by
i. Cells of divisional phase
ii. Cells of maturation phase
iii. Cells of elongation phase
iv. Cells of meristematic tissue
Increased vacuolation, cell enlargement and new cell wall deposition are the
characteristics of cell in -
i. divisional phase
ii. enlongation phase
iii. maturation phase
iv. differentiation phase
Why a linear curve is obtained in arithmetic growth?
i. Because it has lag, log and stationary phase
ii. Because one daughter cell remains meristematic while the other daughter
cell differentiates and matures
iii. Because of the effect of environment on mitosis
iv. None
Exponential growth cannot sustain for long. The possible cause is -
i. Limited nutrient available
ii. Limited space
iii. Accumulation of toxic materials
iv. All
The exponential growth can be expressed as w1 = w0 ert. "r" is-
i. Relative growth rate and depends on final size
ii. It is initial size
iii. Relative growth and also referred to as efficiency index

A. Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy essential for growth activities.

B. Nutrients (Micro and Macromolecules) are required by plants for the
synthesis of protoplasm as well as act as source of energy
C. Optimum temperature for plant growth is needed
D. Environmental signal like light and gravity affects certain phases of growth

i. All are correct

ii. All are incorrect
iii. I, II and IV are correct
iv. I and IV are correct
During differentiation cell undergoes structural changes in their-
i. Cell wall only
ii. Protoplasm only
iii. Apoplast only
iv. Cell wall and protoplast
Differentiation in plant is open because cells I tissues arising out of the same
meristem -
i. have same structure at maturity
ii. Have capacity to disappear their cell walls
iii. Have different structures at maturity
iv. Have same fate
The ability of plant to follow different pathways and produce different
structures in response to environment and phases of life is termed as
i. Elasticity
ii. Growth efficiency
iii. Plasticity
iv. Heterophylly
Intrinsic factors affecting development include
i. Intracellular (genetic) factors
ii. lntercellular factors like PG Rs
iii. lntercellular factors like light
iv. Both (i) and (iii)

Statement 1-Confirmation of the release of volatile substances from ripened

oranges that hastened the ripening of stored unripe bananas.
Statement II - Callus formation from the internodal segments of tobacco stem
with the Auxin and extracts of vascular tissues in yeast in coconut milk in
DNA. Later, Cytokinesis promoting substance was identified, crystallized and
named as KINETIN.
Statement Ill - Reporting of appearance of symptoms of bakane in foolish
seedling disease caused by fungus. Gibberella fujikuroi, in uninfected seedling
when they were treated with sterile filtrates of the fungus. The active
substances were later identified as GA.
Choose the correct option -
1. Cousins
2. Miller + Skoog
3. Kurosawa
3 terms - lnhibitor-B, Abscission II and Dormin are used for the same
hormone. That hormone is – ABA
Auxin was first isolated from -
i. Coleoptile of oat
ii. Human urine
iii. Maize
iv. tea
Plant growth substances generally –
i. Have a single role
ii. Are species-specific
iii. Are produced in many parts of plant
iv. Affect mainly the cells that produce them

The discovery of auxin is traced back to the work of Charles and Francis
Darwin. In their experiments, they studied
i. Photonastic movement
ii. Photoperiodism
iii. Phototropism
iv. Photosynthesis

How many gibberellins have been reported from fungi and higher plants-
More than 100
In coleoptile tissue, auxin -
i. Is not transported, because auxin is used where it is made
ii. Is transported by diffusion, with no preferred direction
iii. Is transported from base to tip
iv. Is produced by the growing apices of the stem and roots, from where they
migrate to the regions of their action
Which GA was the first Gibberellin to be discovered? GA3
Spraying sugarcane with gibberellins increases the yield by as much as 20 tons
per acre. GA performs
i. By improving the quality of fruit
ii. By making plants with rosette habit
iii. By internodal elongation
iv. By delaying senescence
Two cytokinins are kinetin and Zeatin. What is the difference between the
two?
 i. Kinetin is the active form of zeatin
ii. Zeatin is the active form of kinetin
iii. Zeatin is a synthetic cytokinin and kinetin is naturally occurring
iv. Zeatin is a naturally occurring plant cytokinin, kinetin is not
Natural cytokinins are synthesized in -
i. Root apices
ii. Young fruits
iii. Developing shoot buds
iv. All
The most widely used compound as a source of C2H4 is –
i. Kinetin
ii. Zeatin
iii. IBA
iv. Ethephon
Ethephon hastens the fruit ripening in tomatoes and apple and accelerates
abscission in flowers and fruits. Above statement indicates that ethephon must
release - C2H4
Which of the following effects is brought about by gibberellins but not by
auxins?
i. stimulation of cambial activity
ii. stimulation of fruit development
iii. inhibition of leaf abscission
iv. breaking of dormancy in leaf buds
Meristem which is consumed in the formation of organ is
i. lateral meristem
ii. secondary meristem
iii. indeterminate meristem
iv. determinate meristem
Cell enlargement may occur in
i. all direction
ii. linear direction
iii. both
iv. none
If a plant produces flowers when exposed only to alternating periods of 5
hours light and 3 hours dark, in a 24-hour cycle, then the plant should be a _
i. short-long day plant
ii. short day plant
iii. day neutral plant
iv. long day plant
Which of the following statements regarding photoperiodism is false?
i. The response of plants to periods of light day is termed photoperiodism
ii. The shoot apices cannot perceive photoperiods
iii. In day neutral plants there is no correlation between exposure to light
duration and induction of flowering response
iv. The site of perception of the light I dark duration is the flower.
Which one of the following is a growth regulator produced by plants?
i. Naphthalene acetic acid
ii. Zeatin
iii. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
iv. Benzyl aminopurine
What causes a green plant exposed to the light, on only one side, to bend
towards the source of light as it grows?
i. Light stimulates plant cells on the lighted side -to grow faster
ii. Auxin accumulates on the shaded side, stimulating greater cell elongation
there
iii. Green plants need light to perform photosynthesis
iv. Green plants seek light because they are phototropic
If you were to prune the shoot tips of a plant. what would be the effect on the
plant and the leaf area index?
i. bushier plants; lower leaf area index
ii. tall plants; higher leaf area index
iii. short plants; lower leaf area index
iv. bushier plants; higher leaf area indexes
Which of the following is most likely to occur when a small piece containing
the primary meristem at the tip of a dicot shoot is cut off?
i. The plant will send out lateral branches
ii. The growth of buds at nodes is inhibited
iii. The plant will lose its leaves
iv. The plant grows tall and spindly
A plant has critical photoperiod of 10 hours and it is being considered as long
day plant because it flowers when:
i. Photoperiod of less than 10 hours is given
ii. Seed is exposed to 10 hours of light before sowing
iii. Photoperiod of more than 10 hours is given to shoot apex
iv. Photoperiod of more than 10 hours is given to leaves.
A long day plant with critical day length of 14 hrs will flower under which of
the following treatments?
i. 7 hrs light - 2 hrs darkness - 3 hrs light - 5 hrs darkness - 7 hrs light
ii. 5 hrs light - 2 hrs darkness - 3 hrs light - 5 hrs darkness - 7 hrs light
iii. 11 hrs darkness - 2 hrs darkness - 3 hrs light - 5 hrs darkness - 7 hrs
light
iv. 6 hrs light - 2 hrs darkness - 3 hrs light - 5 hrs darkness - 7 hrs light
A flash of red light followed by a flash of far-red light given during the middle
of the light to a short-day plant wi ll I · =
i. Cause increased flower production
ii. Inhibit flowering
iii. Have no effect upon flowering
iv. Stimulate flowering
It takes very long time for pineapple plants to produce flowers. Which
combination of hormones can be applied to artificially induce flowering in
pineapple plants throughout the year to increase yield?
i. Auxin and Ethylene
ii. Gibberellin and Cytokinin
iii. Gibberellin and Abscisic acid
iv. Cytokinin and Abscisic acid
d
d
a