Biological Contamination

Code and Title of the Paper: F02FQ Food Safety and Quality Control
Code and Title of the Module: F02FQ09 Microbial contamination

Name of the Content Writer: Dr. V. Sudhershan Rao
Component – I
Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Dr. Sheela Ramachandran Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science
and Higher Education for Women,
Coimbatore.
Co-Principal Investigators Dr. S. Kowsalya Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science
Dr.M.Sylvia Subapriya and Higher Education for Women,
Dr.G. Bagyalakshmi Coimbatore.
Mrs.E.Indira
Paper Coordinator Dr. C. A. Kalpana Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science
and Higher Education for Women,
Coimbatore.
Content Writer Dr.V.Sudershan Rao National Institute of Nutrition,
Hyderabad, Telangana
Content Reviewer Dr.V.Sudershan Rao National Institute of Nutrition,
Language Editor Dr.V.Sudershan Rao National Institute of Nutrition,
Component-I (B) Description of Module
Items Description of Module

Subject Name Food and Nutrition
Paper Name Food Safety and Quality Control
Module Name Microbial Contamination
Module ID F02FQ09
Pre-requisites Basic knowledge of microbiology and food science
Objectives i. To know what are different micro organisms that can
contaminate the food
ii. To know about the sources of microbial contamination in food
and factors influencing
their growth
iii. To understand the type of pathogens detected in different
foods in India
Keywords Spoilage organisms, pathogens, intrinsic and extrinsic factors
Food Science and Nutrition

Paper No.2 Food Safety and Quality Control
Module : F02FQ09
1.Introduction
Food hazards can be classified in to three categories based on the type of hazard ie Biological,
chemical and physical hazards. Microbial contamination is part of biological hazards. Major
food safety concern all over world is microbial contamination as it causes WHO’s Foodborne
Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group (FERG) initial data shows that an estimated 582
million cases of 22 different foodborne enteric diseases and 351 000 associated deaths are caused
by viruses, bacteria and protozoa that enter the body by ingestion of contaminated food.
2. Objectives:
i. To know what are different micro organisms that can contaminate the food
ii. To know about the sources of microbial contamination in food and factors influencing
their growth
iii. To understand the type of pathogens detected in different foods in India
3. Microbial contamination
The growth of undesirable microorganisms in food refers to microbial contamination. These

undesirable microorganisms may be bacteria, fungi, virus, yeasts or parasites. The microbes can
enter food at any stage of production to consumption. Microorganisms are omnipresent and the
nature of microbial food contamination may vary from place to place as a result of changing
environmental factors. Microbial contamination of food is the most important cause of
foodborne illness. Foodborne disease can be defined as any disease usually either infectious or
toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through ingestion of food. Foodborne
diseases are a worldwide problem of human suffering and economic costs. The total count of
bacteria per gram of food is a good guide to the hygiene and temperature control process in the
preparation of food. The higher the number of bacteria, the greater is the risk that food poisoning
organisms may be present in the food.
3.1Types of microbial contamination
The four important types of microorganisms that can contaminate food and cause foodborne
illness are bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi.
The microbial contaminants can be categorized into two groups
1. Spoilage microorganisms
2. Pathogens
Decay or decomposition of an undesirable nature is usually implied when the term spoiled is
used to food. Spoilage may be due to one or more of the following aspects
a. Growth and activity of microorganisms
b. Insects
c. Action of the enzymes of the animal or plant foods
d. Physical changes such as freezing, burning, drying, pressure
e. Purely chemical reactions, i.e., those not catalyzed by enzymes of the tissues or of
microorganisms
3.1.1Bacteria
The bacteria are living and single celled organisms. They may be carried by food, water, humans
or insects. Under favorable conditions bacteria multiply very fast and their population is doubled
every 20 minutes. Some bacteria produce spores which are resistant to unfavorable conditions
Ex: Clostridium. The Genus of bacteria which are involved in food spoilage/contamination are
Acetobacter, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Alteromonas, Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Brevobacterium,
Brochotrix, Campylobacter, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Desulfotomaculum, Enterobacter,
Erwinia, Escherichia, Flavobacterium, Gluconobacter, halobacterium, Klebsiella, Lacobacillus,
Leuconostoc, Listeria, Microbacterium, Micrococcus, Mycobacterium, Pediococcus,
Photobacterium, Propionibacterium, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Serratia, Shigella,
Sporolactobacillus, Sporosarcina, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Steptomyces, Vibrio, Yersinia.
3.1.2Viruses
Viruses are the ultramicroscopic living entities. They are the smallest among all the microbial
contaminants. Virus always needs a living cell for its multiplication. Viruses are responsible in
causing several foodborne diseases like Hepatitis A and infections caused by Norwalk and
Rotavirus.
Viruses can be transmitted from person to person, from people to food and also from people to
food contact surfaces. They usually contaminate the food through improper food handlers
personal hygiene. Good personal hygiene is the best method to prevent the contamination of
food by foodborne viruses. Bare hand contact should be avoided with ready to eat food to control
foodborne virus contamination.
3.1.3 Parasites
Parasites are the living organisms that are dependant on a host ( man, plant or animal) for their
survival. Parasite takes nourishment from these living hosts.Parasites may be transmitted from
animals to humans, from humans to humans, or from humans to animals. Several parasites have
emerged that are prone to cause foodborne and waterborne illnesses. These organisms live and
reproduce within the tissues and organs of infected human and animal hosts and are often
excreted in feces.
Parasites may be transmitted from host to host through consumption of contaminated food and
water or by putting anything into your mouth that has touched the stool (feces) of an infected
person or animal. Some common parasites are Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium
parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spiralis, Taenia
saginata (beef tapeworm), and Taenia solium (pork tapeworm).
3.1.4Fungi
Fungi are the microscopic, single celled organisms to large multicellular saprophytic organisms.
They are found naturally in air, soil, plants, animals water and some foods. Molds and yeasts are
the examples of fungi.
Molds are multi-cellular form of fungi, which can grow on almost any substance used for food if
the conditions are favorable for growth. They spoil food and sometimes cause illness. Some
molds produce toxins in the food which are known as mycotoxins.
Although mold cells and spores can be killed by heating them, some toxins are not destroyed by
normal cooking methods. Food with molds that are not a natural part of the product should
always be discarded. The fungi which are involved in spoilage of foods are Mucor,
Zygorrhynchus, Rhizopus, Absidia, Thamnidium, Aspergillus, Penicillum, Trichothecium,
Geotrichum, Neurospora, Sporotrichum, Botrytis, Trichoderma, Scopulariopsis, Pullularia,
Cladosporium, Helminthosporium, Alternaria, Stemphylium, Fusarium, Endomyces, Sclerotinia,
Monascus,
3.1.4.1Fungal toxins
There are many fungi which produce toxins but some of the important mycotoxins are
discussed. Most important one of them is Aflatoxins and they are produced by Aspergillus
species of fungi like A. flavus and A. parasiticus. The four different types of aflatoxins produced
by Aspergillus are B1, B2, G1 and G2. Among all the aflatoxins B1 is the most toxic and a
potent carcinogen. Aflatoxins are largely associated with commodities such as groundnuts,
cottonseed cake, spices and maize etc
Ochratoxin is a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species. Ochratoxin comes
in three secondary metabolite forms such as A, B and C. Aspergillus ochraceus is a contaminant
of wide range of commodities such as coffee, beer and wine. Ochratoxin A is considered as a
potent nephrotoxin.
Patulin is a toxin produced by Penicillim expansum. P.expansum is widely associated with
moldy vegetables and fruits (rotting apples).
A wide number of toxins are produced by Fusarium species and the notable ones among them
are trichothecenes, fumonisins, Zearalenone. Fusarium infects cereals such as maize and wheat.
3.1.5 Yeasts
Yeasts are single-celled organisms and as they grow convert its food gets fermented and converts
to alcohol and carbon dioxide. Yeast spoilage may, therefore produce a smell or taste of alcohol.
Yeast may appear as a pink discoloration or slime and may bubble.
In general, yeast contamination in food creates slime on the food surface, bubbles and an
alcoholic smell or taste. They can be destroyed by heating to 136°F ( about 58ºC for 15
minutes).
4.Factors responsible for microbial contamination
The factor that favors or inhibits the growth of microorganisms is essential to understand the
principle of food spoilage and preservation. The factors of a food that influence microbial
activity are hydrogen ion concentration, moisture, oxidation reduction potential, nutrients and the
presence of inhibitory substances or barriers.
4.1Intrinsic parameters
The inherent part of the plant and animal tissues are referred to as intrinsic factors. These
parameters are as follows
4.1.1Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

Microorganisms have a minimal, a maximal and an optimal pH for growth. Yeasts and molds are
generally more acid tolerant than bacteria. The pH of foods vary, although most foods are neutral
or acidic. Foods with low pH value (>4.5) usually are not spoiled by bacteria and are more
susceptible to spoilage by yeasts and molds. A food with low pH tend to be more stable
microbiologically than a neutral food.
Approximate pH value of some fruits and vegetables

Product pH
Vegetables
Beans 4.6-6.5
Cabbage 5.4-6.0
Carrots 4.9-5.2
Cucumbers 3.8
Onions 5.3-5.8
Tomatoes 4.2-4.3
Fruits
Apples 2.9-3.3
Bananas 4.5-4.7
Grapes 3.4-4.5
Oranges 3.6-4.3
Watermelons 5.2-5.6
Source: James M Jay, Modern Food Microbiology

4.1.2Moisture requirement
Water is one of the important sources required for the growth of microorganisms. The amount of
water required for growth of microorganisms varies. The water required is best expressed in
terms of available water or water activity aw. The aw of pure water would be 1.00, and for a 1.0 m
solution of the ideal solute the aw would be 0.9823. The aw ( X 100) would be in equilibrium with
the relative humidity(RH) of the atmosphere about the food.
Most bacteria grow well in a medium with a aw approaching 1.00. Most molds differ
considerably in optimal aw and a range of aw for germination of asexual spores. The minimal aw
for spore germination has been found to be as low as 0.62 for some molds and as high as 0.93 for
others (eg. Mucor, Rhizopus).
Approximate minimum aw values for growth of microorganisms in foods

Organisms aw
Clostridium botulinum, type E 0.97
Pseudomonas spp. 0.97
Candida scottii 0.92
Staphylococcus aureus 0.86
Rhizopus stolonifer 0.93
Aspergillus glaucus 0.70
Source: James M Jay, Modern Food Microbiology
4.1.3Oxidation reduction potential

The O-R potential of the food is determined by the characteristic O-R potential of the original
food, the poising capacity i.e., the resistance to change in potential of food, the oxygen tension of
the atmosphere about the food and the access which the atmosphere has to the food. Based on the
ability to use free oxygen, microorganisms have been classified as aerobic when they require free
oxygen, anaerobic when they grow best in the absence of free oxygen and facultative when they
grow well either aerobically and anaerobically.
Both molds and yeasts grow best in aerobic condition and bacteria are of aerobic, anaerobic or
facultative. The O-R potential of a system is usually written as Eh and measured and expressed
in terms of millivolts (mV). Aerobic microorganisms including Bacilli, micrococci,
pseudomonas, and acinetobacters require positive Eh or positive mV O-R potentials. Anaerobics
including clostridia and bacteriodes require negative Eh values or negative mV O-R potentials.
4.1.4Nutrient content
The type and amount of nutrients in food are all important in determining what organism is most
likely to grow. Foodborne microorganisms may utilize sugars, alcohols and amino acids as
source of energy. Some of the microorganisms are able to utilize complex carbohydrates such as
starch and cellulose as source of energy. Microorganisms also use fat as a source of energy but
these compounds are attacked by a relatively small number of microbes in foods. The primary
source of nitrogen utilized by heterotrophic microorganisms is amino acids. Most of the
microorganisms require B vitamins in low quantities. Gram negative bacteria and molds are able
to synthesize most of their requirements. Fruits will have lower B vitamins than meats, and fruits
also have low pH and positive Eh which favors the spoilage of these products by molds rather
than bacteria.
4.1.5Inhibitory substances
A microorganism growing in a food may produce one or more substances inhibitory to other
organisms, products such as acids, alcohols, peroxides, and even antibiotics. Propionic acid
produced by the propionic bacteria in Swiss cheese is inhibitory to molds, alocohol formed in
quantity by wine yeasts inhibits competitors. Examples of inhibitors naturally present are
lactoferrin in freshly drawn milk, lysozyme in egg white, and benzoic acid in cranberries.
4.1.6Biological structure
Natural covering of some foods provides excellent protection against the entry of spoilage
organisms. Such structures are testa of seeds, the outer covering of fruits, the shell of nuts, the
hide of animals, shells of eggs. In case of peanuts and walnuts, the shell or covering is sufficient
to prevent entry of all the microorganisms. Damaged fruits and vegetables spoil faster than those
not damaged.
5.Extrinsic factors
The outside factors like temperature, relative humidity and gases present are called extrinsic
factors.
5.1Temperature
Microorganisms grow over a wide range of temperature. Based on the growth and survival at
different temperatures, microorganisms are classified into psychrotrophs, mesophiles and
thermophiles.
The microorganisms that grow well at or below 7ºC and have a optimum temperature between
20ºC and 30ºCare referred to as psychrotrophs. Ex: Alcaligenes, Micrococcus, Lacobacillus,
Pseudomonas, Enterococcus. These organisms grow well at refrigerator temperature and cause
spoilage at 5-7 ºC of meats, fish, poultry, eggs and other foods normally held at this temperature
The microorganisms which can grow well between 20ºC and 45ºC with optima between 30ºC
and 40ºC are referred to as mesophiles. Mesophilic species may be found on foods held at
refrigerator temperature Ex: Enterococcus fecalis. Those organisms that grow well at 45 ºC with
optima between 55ºC and 65ºC are referred to as thermophiles. Thermophilic bacteria of
importance in foods belong to the genera Bacillus, Clostridium, Geobacillus, and
Thermoanaerobacter.
5.2Relative humidity of environment
The relative humidity of the storage environment is important for the food as well growth of
microorganisms. There is relationship between water activity and the relative humidity. Foods
with low water activity are placed in environment of high relative humidity. Similarly there is a
relationship between relative humidity and temperature that should be kept in mind in selecting
proper storage environments for foods. In general higher the temperature, the lower the RH.
The foods which undergo surface spoilage from molds, yeasts and bacteria should be stored
under conditions of low RH.
5.3Presence and concentration of gases in the environment
Carbon dioxide and oxygen are the two important atmospheric gases used to control
microorganisms in foods. They are the important gases used in modified atmosphere packaged
foods. The other atmospheric gas is ozone which is having antimicrobial properties and has been
tried over a long period of time to extend the shelf life of certain foods. Ozone has been shown to
be effective against variety of microorganisms.
6.Sources of microbial contamination

The primary sources of microorganisms found in foods are
6.1Soil and water: Soil and water sources are placed together because many bacteria and fungi
that inhabit both have a lot in common. Soil microorganisms may enter the atmosphere by the
action of wind and later enter the water bodies when it rains. Aquatic organisms deposited on to
the soils through cloud formation and subsequent rainfall. Contaminated water results in
cyclospora and contaminates of fresh raspberries. The bacteria which comes through soil and
water are Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Escherichia, Shigella, Salmonella and Vibrio
6.2Air and dust: Many bacteria and fungi are expected to occur in air and dust along with some
yeasts.
Ex: Aeromonas, Bacillus, Clostridium, Erwinia, Micrococcus and Paenibacillus
6.3Plant and Plant products: Growing plants may carry typical microorganisms (Pseudomonas,
Alcaligens, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, Bacillus, coliforms, Yeast and Molds) on their
surfaces and may become contaminated from outside sources.
6.4Food Utensils: The containers and utensils used for harvesting vegetables will carry surface
organisms and contaminate the food. Ex: Acinetobacter, Campylobacter, Corynebacterium,
Enterobacter
6.5Food handlers: Microbial contamination can be introduced from food handlers. The
microbiota of food handlers may be from soil, water, dust that leads to food contamination. Ex:
Brochothrix, Campylobacter, Corynebacterium
6.6Animal feeds and hides: Source of microorganisms from animals like surface microflora
(Staphylococci, Micrococci and Streptococci) may contaminate foods like meat. The feces and
fecal contaminated products of animals contain many enteric microorganisms including
Salmonella. Salmonellosis in animals can result in contamination of animal products or by
products and thus contaminate foods with Salmonella derived from them. Infectious diseases of
animals can be transmitted to people via foods. The food may be one of the several transmission
routes. Such animal disease causing infections from foods include Brucella, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Coxiella, Listeria, Campylobacter, beta hemolytic streptococci, Salmonella,
Enteropathogenic E. coli, Parasites and Viruses.
7. Pathogenic bacteria in different Indian foods

The type of pathogenic bacteria isolated from different food items was also studied. Some of the
new emerging pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter
jejuni, E.coli 0157:H7 were found to be isolated from different food products. Milk, milk based
sweets, non-vegetarian foods like meat and fish were found to contain more pathogenic bacteria.
The percentage of contamination of different foodborne pathogens in Indian foods varies from 1-
75 percent. The contamination of B.cereus in milk ranged from 16-50 percent and in meat it was
35 percent. The Salmonella spp. in poultry products was about 11 percent and in meat it was 3-5
percent. Salmonella was detected in meat, poultry, sea foods and khoa (desiccated milk product)
while E.coli was detected more in khoa, vegetables, beef, fish and meat. Milk, meat, lassi,
vegetables and rice were found to contain Bacillus cereus in addition to other organisms. The
microbial population of different Indian food products varied from 0-400 106 cfu/g. Fruit juices
like grapes, pineapple, sapota and sweet lime were found to contain fecal coliforms (77.3%) S.
aureus (73.3%), Shigella spp. (48.6%) and E. coli (42.6%). Poultry based street foods like
chicken fried rice and chicken noodles were found to contain S. aureus (3.4 log 10 cfu/g) and B.
cereus (3.4 log 10 cfu/g).
8.Summary: Microbiological contamination can occur any stage from food production to
consumption. It is important to understand sources of microbial contamination and factors
affecting their growth. This information will help in preventing and controlling the
microbiological contamination and proliferation in food.

Biological Contamination

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Code and Title of the Paper: F02FQ Food Safety and Quality Control

Code and Title of the Module: F02FQ09 Microbial contamination

Role Name Affiliation

Component-I (B) Description of Module

Items Description of Module

Food Science and Nutrition

The growth of undesirable microorganisms in food refers to microbial contamination. These

3.1Types of microbial contamination

4.1.1Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

Approximate pH value of some fruits and vegetables

Source: James M Jay, Modern Food Microbiology

Approximate minimum aw values for growth of microorganisms in foods

Aspergillus glaucus 0.70

Source: James M Jay, Modern Food Microbiology

4.1.3Oxidation reduction potential

6.Sources of microbial contamination

7. Pathogenic bacteria in different Indian foods

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