10

EARTHFILL DAM CON STRUCTION AND

FOUNDATI ONT REATMENT
Claupe A. Ferzen Wtl-llatnt F. Swtcen
Consulting GeotechnicalEngineer Consulting Engineer
Cincinnati, Ohio Buhl, Idaho
Vice President and Senior Consulting Engineer (Retired)
Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation

RrcnnRp W. KnnuEn
Civil Engineer
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
Denver, Colorado

INTRODUCTION
Cleuoe A. Ferzen

Variations in foundation conditions and borrow-area ma-
terials from the assumptions of geologists and designen
during design-stage investigations should be expected.
Even though foundation and borrow area drawings may be
covered with numerous exploration symbols, the geolo-
gists and the design engineers have only seen a microfrac-
tion of the foundation and borrow materials. These condi-
tions are much more fully revealed during construction
when foundation and abutments are exposed, and cuts are
made in borrow areas. The construction stage offers the
geologists and the engineer an opportunity to determine the
presence of weak seams in the foundation; open seams in
the foundation and abutments that are critical due to
seepage and/or uplift; and detrimental materials in borrow
areas that were missed or not recovered during design-stage
explorations. If weak or open seams are geologically pos-
sible in the foundation, construction-stage investigations
should be comprehensive enough to prove beyond a rea-
sonable doubt that weak or open seams do not exist. The
same criteria should apply to detrimental materials in thc
borrow areas. Investigaton often must use every technique
available, including large-diameter core borings, calyx
holes, test pits, test trenches, drifts, pumping testings,
grouting tests, and so on, to prove that detrimental condi-
tions do not exist. To do otherwise may lead to later fail-
ures. As Terzaghil has written, "When nature created the
foundations for our structures she failed to comply with the
specifications of the American Society of Testing and Ma-
terials, and we have to bear the consequences of the re-
sulting uncertainties. "
Where a critical seam or condition is geologically pos-
sible and its absence cannot be proved beyond a reasonable
doubt, the instrumentation system and monitoring program
should be designed to provide early detection of any effect
of the detrimental condition: this is called the observational
method. In many cases, the field shear strength of a weak
critical seam cannot be accurately determined from labo-
ratory tests on recovered samples, and the observational
method must be used to proceed safely with construction.
The utilization of instrumentation and observations to en-
sure the safety of dam constntction is further discussed un-
der "Earthfill Construction" later in this chapter'
Uncertainties in the foundation and abutment conditions
and in borrow materials have led to the conclusion that the
design must continue through construction. Many engi-
neering organizations schedule field trips for their design

321
 322 ADVANCED DAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, ANO REHABILTTATION
geologists and engineers at critical stages of construction
to determine if field conditions are the same as those as-
sumed during design. and additional trips are made when
the resident engineer finds suspicious or unexpected con-
ditions or materials. Experienced dam desi-eners realize that
their original designs for both the foundation treatment and
embankment are not infallible, but often must be amended
to pmvide a long-term safe structure. The completed struc-
ture provides the ultimate in test-proofing from both shear
strength and seepage standpoints, and ifthere are any weak
spots the consequences may be disastrous. For this reason,
experienced dam designers strive to eliminate weak spots
in the foundation and to exclude questionable materials
from the embankment or place them in a noncritical zone.
Changes resulting from these conditions can cause delays
and increased costs, but the impact of the changes can be
materially reduced by timely action.
Adequate staffing of the resident engineer's office with
competent personnel is as important as the staffing of the
design office. Ideally. the design team, and especially the
geotechnical engineer and the geologist, should be trans-
ferred to the field office during construction, but this is not
always possible. The resident engineer not only must be
FOUNDATION TREATMENT
Wrllretr F. Swlcsn
The essential elements of an embankment dam are:
l. A zone of low-permeability material (the core) of ad-
equate width to limit seepage to desired amounts.
2. A system of filter-drains to collect and discharge
safely such seepage as may occur, through both the
"core" and the foundation of the dam.
3. Supporting shells for these elements.
In zoned dams having supporting shells of rock, gravel,
or other pervious materials, the core is usually relatively
thin and clearly defined. In earthfill dams, usual practice is
to define a zone in the central portion of the dam just up-
stream of the filter drain as the core contact zone. This
should be clearly shown on the drawings. Except where the
dam is founded on deep alluvials, this core zone will bc
excavated to groutable rock or other suitable material.
When &e dam is founded on deep alluvials, special nreth-
ods to control and discharge seepage are provided. Design
of these dams is discussed in Chapter 9.
In this section, construction of the contact between im-
knowledgeable in rules and laws conceming contract
administration, but must also be knowledgeable in the
technical requirements of the construction, which includes
a thorough understanding of the plans and specifications.
To clarify critical points of the design and intent of the
specifications, many organizations provide additional in-
structions to the resident engineer. The Bureau of
Reclamationl prepares a document called "Design Consid-
erations," and the Corps of Engineersr prepares a docu-
ment called "Engineering Considerations and Instructions
to Field Personnel." In addition to technical and contract
administrative skills, the resident engineer and the staff
must understand the importance of their work in relation to
the overall safety of the dam, to the protection of the own-
er's investment, and to the safety of the downstream public
both during and after construction. Moreover. the resident
engineer and the field staff must understand the importance
of providing a documented record of the as-constructed
work, and personnel critical to the completion of the con-
struction history should be retained at the site until this
document is completed. A cardinal rule should be: "Any
dam worthy of construction is worthy of a complete and
accurate construction history. "
pervious zones (cores) of embankment dams and the foun-
dation, in both the river bottom and the abutments, is con-
sidered. The discussion is limited to dams in which the
core is placed in direct contact with an "impervious" foun-
dation, usually rock but including such materials as dense
till, stiffclays, and clay shales. Consideration is not given
to problems associated with dams that may be founded on
deep pervious material, and where seepage is controlled by
impervious upstream blankets or structural cutoffs.
The core contact area is particularly important to safety,
so the following objectives must be met:
l. The rock under the core nrust be nonerodible or pro-
tected from erosion under the high seepage gradients
that will develop under the core. This includes pro-
tecting material occurring in faults or joints in the
rock mass.
2. Materials of the core must be prevented from mi-
grating down into the foundation (e.g., into cracks or
joints) and then through the foundation under the
transition zone into the downstream shell or beyond.
 EARTHFILLDAMcoNsTRUcTIoNANDFoUNDATIoNTREATII'IENT323
3. The contact between the core and the surface upon
which it is founded must remain tight despite the dis-
tortions that will occur in the dam due to its own
weight and the thrust of the reservoir, both during
filling and in service.
4. Seepage that passes through the foundation must be
controlled and discharged so that excessive seePage
pressures do not develop in the downstream shell or
io*nrtr.u* of the dam. Further, migration of foun-
dation materials that might lead to piping within the
foundation must be Prevented'
General Excavation
Removal of overburden materials under the upstream and
downstream shells may or may not be necessary' Removal
of overburden should be required if excessive settlement of
the shell sections would develop under their weight: if
overburden materials are so weak as to rdsult in slides; or
if seepage passing through the core or through the foun-
dation materials cannot be controlled and discharged safely
with the overburden in place. If there is a hazard of earth-
quakes, then such granular soils as are present must be
evaluated for resistance to liquefaction' Unless such soils
are so dense that liquefaction cannot occur or are of such
limited extent or location that, if they did liquefy during a
probable earthquake, catastrophic failure would not result'
ihey should be removed and replaced by suitable material'
A final decision regarding removal of overburden may not
be feasible until after diversion.
In glaciated regions, sound rock is frequently found di-
rectly under soil or colluvial overburdens' In other regions'
however, weathering may have affected the rock to appre-
ciable depth. This can be especially a problem in limestone
sites where the upper portion of the rock mass may consist
of pinnacles of limestone blocks surrounded by clay or de-
trirus. Excavations should extend through deeply weath-
ered rock and solution-affected limestone to expose reason-
ably sound rock with sufficiently few zones of weathering'
open joints, faults, or other discontinuities that surface
tr"utrn"nt as described below is practicable and economi-
cal.
The hazard of slides in either overburden materials or
rock during excavation for the core, spillway, or shells of
the dam must be given careful consideration in planning
and in the layout of the dam. Slides have occurred on a
number of projects, particularly during abutment excava-
tion, and inevitably result in loss of time and increased
costs. Specific excavation procedures' drainage, or stabi-
lization may be required. If necessary, instrumentation
should be installed so that the behavior of the slopcs can
be monitored.
In evaluating and planning for excavation, special care
must be given to discontinuities such as faults and relief
(sheet) joints, which may extend for long distances as
nearly planar structures. The relief joints may exist natu-
rally or may open during excavation. Special care should
be iaken to check for relief joints where conditions favor
their development, as in deep, steep-walled valleys. espe-
cially in brittle rocks, or where high-modulus rock is un-
derlain by low-modulus rock. Because they are roughly
parallel to the valley wall, relief joints may cause slides
during construction, and unless sealed and drained they
would be a hazard to the completed structure. Openings of
several inches to a foot or more have been obsen'ed' Drain-
age from such joints during excavation may be necessary'
and stabilization by bolting may be required'
Investigations and studies for the design of excavation,
especially of abutments for core contacts, should be so
thorougtL that stability problems can be avoided and all
necessary general excavation done in one operation' Re-
quiring a contractor to reexcavate a slope, for example' to
rl*ou" rock where weathering is deeper than anticipated'
or to provide additional rounding at a change in slope, is
expensive and a fruitful source of claims'
Core Contact Preparation on Hard Rock
Procedures for treatment of the core rock contact surface
should be established in the specifications and bidding doc-
uments. Basically, the surface under the entire core and
under the upstream filter and downstream transition zone
must be excavated completely to groutable rock and cleaned
thoroughly. Usually this is done using air and water' Loose
blocks or semidetached blocks of rock should be removed'
All knobs and overhangs should be removed by barring and
wedging or by light blasting. Blasting should be kept to the
minimum practical in order not to open joints or otherwise
disturb the rock surflace. and no blasting should be done on
surfaces that have been grouted or slush-grouted' Core
should never be placed directly on or against openjoints in
rock.
Material filling cracks and joints should be excavated
(usually to a depth of not less than three times their width
at the surface), using air and water, picks. or other tools
as necessary to remove completely soil or weathered rock
that would be subject to erosion, and to ensure bond of
concrete or grout to the rock. Suchjoints and cracks should
then be filled with concrete or grout. Wherever possible a
pipe should be set to the bottom of the joint or crack and
grout pumped in until the joint or crack is completely filled'
Grout should then be broomed and brushed across the top
of the joint to ensure that thc contact with thc core material
will be tight ancl nonerodible. Brushing slush grout into the
crack from the surface is not satisfactory except for small
crucks because complete filling cannot be assured' Grout
used for this purpose should be highly plastic and buttery'
The maximum aggregate size used for filling cracks should
 324 ADVA'iICED DAM ENGINEERING FOR OESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. AND
not exceed one-rhid the width of the crack to be fifled. If
transverse joints containing soil or rock fragments com-
pletely cross the core contact area, consideration should be
given also to excavating and filling them with concrete as
above under the upstream shell, and excavating and pro-
viding a filter over them under the downstream shell.
Depressed areas, holes, potholes, and similar irregular_
ities should be filled with a plasric mix of concrete vibrated
into place. Smatl ribs and similar irregularities should be
filleted with concrete to produce slopes not steeper than
about I : I where the difference in elevation is a few inches
to a foot or two, as shown in Fig. l0- l. Larger ribs should
be removed or trimmed to suitable height. Surface treat-
ment in this fashion should extend upstream to approxi-
mately the upstream edge of the upstream filter and down-
stream to at Ieast the downstream edge of the fine filter. In
particularly adverse situations, as where there are joints
wider than the coarser particles of the fine filter, surface
treatment as described should be provided underthe entire
transition zone.
The final rock surface should have gentle contours
against which soil can be compacted by heavy equipment.
Hand compaction with light, air-powered tampers is not
satisfactory. Gasoline-powered tampen may have to be
used in restricted areas, but densities must meet specifica-
tions.
There is a tendency in practice to use rather extensive
concrete fills over irregular rock surfaces. The objective is
to reduce necessary hand labor, especially for compaction.
Po,urs Rer.tove2
.^ /-^L
Sur.rsrr GRo
aHs CLEANEo
Frur.cg *,rs CouCRETg
Figure l0-1. Treatment of rock foundations
REHABTTITATION
This expedites the work, but carc must be taken that joints
under the concrcte are properly cleaned and treated.
Surface treatment as described above may be difficult to
accomplish on steeply sloping abutmenrs. In this case.
gunite may be used for filling depressions after the cracks
and joints have been cleaned and sealed. If there is exten_
sive jointing, adequate sealing of joints may rcquire con-
struction of a concrete slab, which is doweled to the rock,
and then grouting through the slab. Figure l0-2 shows con-
crete fill under the core in the river bottom and up the abut-
ments of Guavio Dam in Colombia. If shotcrete or gunite
is used, care must be taken to remove all rebound material
before placing of the core material. Shotcrete tends to give
a rough surface along which seepage could develop. Ac-
cordingly the finish coat should be gunite with sand aggre-
gate. Shotcrete and gunite must be placed as several thin
coats, usually 2 in. (50 mm) maximum; otherwise the gun_
ite could sag away from the rock, leaving joints through
which seepage could develop. Doweling of shotcrete or
gunite to the rock surface may be required for very steep
abutments.
The depth of excavation necessary in weathered rock is
difficult to establish during design. The depth of weather-
ing is usually very irregular, being controlled by minor
variations in joint spacing and rock type. Abrupt changes
in elevation of the surface of ..groutable rock" probably
will be found. Overhangs, some of them large, should be
anticipated. There may be deeply weathered zones extend-
ing well below the line of general excavation. procedures
2oo tv,a*
AFTsR Pn.Aff, E' AL
ov€RHArJq> ReUovco
(Ae,.r'rnexr TRrmmro
ureo
 EARTHFILL DAM CONSTRUCTION AND FOUNOATION TREATMENT 325
Figure l0-2. Foundation treatment, Guavio Dam (245 meters), showing cleanup for last block of
on left abutment. Courtesy of INGETEC' Bogota-designers.
for dealing with these irregularities should be established
in the specifications and bidding documents. Deeper ex-
cavation, including some excavation of sound rock, may
be economically desirable to reduce dental concrete work'
The depth of excavation may be difficult to establish even
during construction. Specifications usually require exca-
vation to be carried to "groutable rock, " an imprecise term'
During early stages ofexcavation, the designers should ex-
amine the exposed rock and reach agreement with field su-
pervisory personnel as to just what is meant, to determine
which rock materials may be left in place, and which must
be removed. Requirements may differ modestly in different
parts of the structure. Material may be left under upper
po(ions of the structure that would have to be removed at
lower foundation levels with their larger seepage forces'
Usually excavation for the core should be made wide
enough that the filters, both upstream and downstream' can
be carried to the same grade. If there are open joints or
weathered seams present in the upstream and downstream
faces of such excavations that are wider than about half the
size of the coarse filter, such joints should be cleaned and
filled with concrete or grout. The joints under the core and
fine filters should be cleaned and filled with grout or con-
crete as previously described' Should the excavation be
made only wide enough for the core, all open joints and
weathered seams in the upstream and downstream faces
s
Gil
\,]
i*:S,li ,'
\
.., {\s
('t#'-. !E
-r
leveling concrete in river bottom and dental concrEte
should be cleaned and filled with grout or concrete, or the
entire walls of the trench should be covered with concrete'
On some sites, loose, blocky material or small open
joints may be found extending below the general level of
excavation. If removal appears impractical, these zones
should be consolidation-grouted. This is especially neces-
sary if possible block movement could disturb surface
treatment of the rock. The depth of consolidation grouting
is determined by the conditions found. Commonly it is car-
ried to depths of l0 to 20 ft (3 to 6 meters)' Ensuring
grouting to orclose to the rock surface requires an effective
cap over the rock. Accordingly, the best practice is to cover
the area with concrete anchored by rebar dowels into the
rock. Bars should be of a length, size, and spacing to per-
mit using some pressure in grouting. The grouting is then
done through the concrete using a splitting procedure'
The care required in treating the rock surface is con-
trolled to some extent by the character of the core material'
I[ the core material is rcsistant to piping, especially if it
contains considerable coarse material as, for example, a
claycy gravel or till, the surface treatment is less dcmand-
ing than it is if the core material is susceptible to piping'
as, for example, a silty sand would be. In the lattcr case'
extreme care should be taken, and the core material should
be placed only after very careful inspection of the treated
surface.
 326 ADVANCED OAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AIUD REHAEILTTATION
The usual practice is to require select material. prcfera-
bly a plastic soil, for the first lift over the mck surface. If
plastic soils (clayey) are limited. the mosr plastic soil avail-
able should be used. Gravel or stone exceeding about 2 in.
(50 mm) in size should be removed or excluded from the
material placed in this fint layer over the rock, to improve
compaction at the contact. The surface on which it is placed
should be moist but free of standing water, and the material
when placed should be wet of optimum. In dry climates or
during dry weather, difficulty may be experienced with this
first lift becorning excessively dry where it feathers out on
gentle to moderate slopes. In that case, the edge of the fill
should be sloped downward slightly toward the contact with
the rock. Against steep rock faces or adjacent to concrete
structures, sloping the fill slightly upward near the contact
is desirable to provide better clearance for compaction
equipment and better compaction at the contact.
Faults may have clean contact suriaces, in which case
they behave much like through_soing joints, or they may be
filled with gouge. Fault gouge may be either more or less
pervious than the adjacent country rock. Faults in crystal_
line rocks such as granites frequently are zones of reta-
tively high permeability because the gouge is essentially
broken rock. This is particularly true if the gouge has not
been subjected to weathering. Conversely, the gouge in
faults may be tight, claylike material formed by either me-
chanical breakdown of the rock, as where shales or shales
and sandstones are faulted, or by chemical breakdown from
either weathering or hydrothermal alteration.
Small faults having gouge zones from a few inches to a
foot or so across are customarily handled by excavating the
gouge material and replacin_e it with concrete. The depth
of excavation should not be less than three tinres the width
of the fault at the surface at its widest point. If the fault
extends across the core, it should be sealed with concrete
as indicated, upstream of as well as under the core. Down-
Figure l0-3. Typical crushed zone, srare of New york.
strcam of the core. weathered or impervious material that
may have collected in the zone should be excavated to ex_
pose sound, firm gouge. Over this should be placed a
graded filter to collect and discharge such seepage as passcs
through the gouge along the fault. The upstream concrcte
seal and downstream drainage should extend sufficient dis_
tances that there is no hazard of piping gouge from the fault
downstream of the filter zone. Major faults should be con_
sidered separately, and specific treatment. including deep
cutolTs, developed as appropriate.
In some areas sedimentary rocks may be under strong,
residual, lateral compressive stresses. Excavation nrry *-
sult in pop-ups of one or more near-surface layers. This is
essentially a buckling failure due to removal of vertical load
on the failed layers. The buckled material should be re-
moved: and it might be advisable to pin the underlying
rock, by reinforcing bars grouted into vertical holes, before
removal of this material. Also, in these high-stress areas,
crushed zones may be found, especially in valley bottoms
because of stress concentration there. (Figure l0-3 shows
a typical crush zone in New york State.) These zones tend
to be highly pervious. Frequently the openings have been
partly or completely filled with clay or sand that has washed
in. Crushed zones require careful and detailed study to de_
termine their depth and extent and the character of material
filling the openings, so that proper treatment may be de-
termined. Complete or partial removal and replacement un_
der the core and filters may be necessary. Alternatively, a
partial or complete cutoff with thorough grouting under the
core and filters downstream may be satisfactory.
Reliefjoints, if present. ."quir" special precautions. Be-
cause they usually extend for substantial distances up-
stream and downstream approximately parallel to the can_
yon wall, they must be thoroughly grouted or otherwise
sealed to prevent excessive loss of water. Also, complete
filling with grout or concrete is necessary under the core
Sat o st.og E
(Oeorvr c ra l)
 EARTHFILL OAM COilSTBUCTION ANO FOUNOATION TREATMENT 327
and for significant distances uPstream and downstrcam of
thc corc to cosure that possible cracking of the rock under
crosstanyon arching loads will not affect the corc. Trcat'
ment may rcquirc adits and filling with concrcte instead of
grouting alone. Drainage should be provided downstrcam.
There should be provision for monitoring seepage from
such rclief joints.
Limestone foundations Present special problems. Deep
pinnacly weathering may be Present: joints opened by so-
lution may extend tens and even hundrcds of feet decp:
there may be vertical or near-vertical "chimney" holes;
and solution channels may extend for hundreds and thou-
sands of feet near the surface, or at depths to hundreds of
feet. Usually some units of the limestone are more readily
soluble than others; thus joints may vary erratically in
width. The various openings may be completely or Par-
tially filled with cave or collapse breccia' insoluble mate-
rial left by solutioning. or materials washed in. Frequently
the extent and character of solution defects in limestone are
not known until the foundation is excavated, and some-
times not then.
Two basic problems require consideration:
l. Leakage, which must be limited to acceptable
amounts.
2. Hazard of sinkhole development in the dam or its
abutments where they are composed of soil. whether
of residual, colluvial, or alluvial origin.
Leakage is usually controlled by some type of cutoff'
This may be done by grouting if openings are not filled' or
by structural cutoffs, such as mining out and filling with
.on.r.t". Normally the need for and design of the cutoff
are determined during the investigation and design stages'
However, modification may be found necessary during
construction.
Sinkholes will develop where seepage moving through
the dam can migrate into the foundation rock carrying soil
materials of the dam into the rock. Seepage through the
foundation can carry such soil away. Over time. a gradu-
ally enlarging opening will develop in the soil- This con-
tinues until the roof collapses. Such sinkholes could cause
breaching of the dam.
Treatment of the foundation should be such as to pre'
clude material of the dam being carried into the foundation.
Such treatment should extend under thc core, transitions,
or filters, and under the shell sections as necessary to en-
sure that a sinkhote cannot develop within the dam or under
it on the abutments. The extent and character of such treat-
ment depends on the malerial in contact with the rock. Thus
a rockfill zone might require treating a fcw very large open-
ings. Conversely, very thorough treatment' possibly to the
extent of covering with concrete, could be rcquircd under
fine-grained soils. Openings under filters or drains wider
than about half thc grain sizc of thc matcrial placcd should
be cleaned out and filled with Srout or concrctc.
Rccent developmcns in thc cxcavation of rocks by largc'
diamcter drills or special cxcavating units pcrmit using
slurry-wall techniques for cxcavating cutoff walls through
solution-affected limestonc. faults, or cnrsh or buckle zoncs
in sedimentary rocks. If such cutoffs arc considercd as a
means of limiting excavation for the corc. the surface of
the solution-affected rock or disturbcd zoncs under the corc.
transitions (filters). drains. and downstrcam shcll. if soil.
should be covercd with concrcte. If necessary this concrcte
shoutd be reinforced to control cracking.
See references 4 through I I for details on thc foundation
treatment on manY dams'
Core Contacts on Soft Rocks and Similar Materials
This category includes many shales. espccially comPaction
shales (clay shales). stiff clays. some weak sandstones.
dense tills, and some residual soils. Usually only low to
moderate-height dams are constructed at such sites. These
materials usually can be excavated without blasting and to
relatively -eentle or smooth surfaces, and thus may not re-
quire dental concrete and slush groutin-e such as is neces-
sary for hard rock sites. All loose material should be re-
moved. and smoothly graded surfaces in firm, undisturbed
material should be developed. These surfaces frequently
can be bladed sufficiently clean for embankment placement
to begin or may be blown clean with air. The most plastic
core materials available should be used at the contact' Ini-
tial layers should be compacted with rubber-tired equip-
ment or compactors to minimize disturbance of the surface
of the foundation material. Initial lifts should use the most
plastic material available, and rock over 2 in. (50 mm)
should not be included in the fill material.
Sometimes shales and weak sandstones are found to be
very closely jointed. Such surfaces may be covered with
gunite or concrete. Alternatively. where flat-lying or gently
sloping. a layer of cenrent-sand nrortar has been used.
placed to a thickness of I to 2in. (2.5 to 5 cm) with the
fill placed dircctly on it before the mortar has set.
Clay shalcs (compaction shatcs) posc special and diffi'
cult problcms. Thcse materials are essentially very com'
pact ctays and include fire clays of thc coal fields and many
of the shatcs of thc wcst central United States. Many are
cxpansive. and ntany contain slickcnsidcs. Cuts or slopes
in clay shalcs arc likely to be unstable and arc ditlicult to
analyzc.
Special carc should be taken to ntininlize slaking. Gen'
eral excavation should be carricd to only within about l2
to 18 in. (30 to 45 cnr) offinal gradc. Final excavation
should thcn bc donc immediatcly prior to the placing of
fill. If fill cannot bc placed within a very fcw hours. the
cxposcd cut surfaccs should be treated to prcvent slaking'
32A ADVANCED OAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND REHABILITATION
If only temporary protection is needed, or if the material
shows only moderate slaking problems (as do many fire
clays), asphalt or plastic emulsions may give adequate pro-
tection. For longer exposurc, or where concrete is to be
placed, gunite should be used. The gunite should be
checked at intervals and replaced if it becomes drummy.
Any slaked or weathered shale found beneath the gunite
should be removed at the same time.
Some of these materials will develop significant heave
orexpansion from relief of loading during excavation. This
should be evaluated during site investigations. The se-
quence and scheduling of work should be so arranged as to
minimize difficulties from such rebound or heave.
Saturated clay shales may develop very high pore-water
pressures when loaded by an embankment, resulting in loss
of shear strength and slide failures. Failure of Waco Dam,
Texas, and failures of other dams during construction have
resulted from this. Progressive failures may also develop,
resulting in slides into excavations in such materials. For
a more complete discussion of this topic see references l2
through 17.
Drainage of Foundations
Seepage through the foundation may be discharged through
the natural overburden materials if they are pervious and
so graded (e.g., sands and gravels) that they will prevent
piping of any erodible materials in the foundation rock;
otherwise specific provisions must be made to collect and
discharge such seepage. Designs for drainage must con-
sider the types of rock present in the foundation, bedding,
character and location of discontinuities, thickness and
character ofoverburden, reservoir head, and topography of
the site. Special attention must be given to transverse joints
and to zones or strata of pipeable materials, such as weath-
ered sandstone members, weathering along joints, or
weathered crystalline rock. Sealing upstream with concrete
and providing graded filters or drains or relief wells down-
stream may be necessary.
Surface Preparation - Shells
Depending on the thickness and physical properties of the
materials in the valley bottom and along the abutments,
some or all of these materials may be left in place under
the shell sections of the dam. After removal of trees and
brush, soft material, organic soils, debris, and other un-
suitable materials should be excavated and wasted. Top soil
should be stripped and stockpiled for later use. Stumps
should be grubbed, and roots larger than I in. (25 mm)
removed. In the valley bottom and as feasible along the
abutments, surfaces should be graded to slopes gentle
enough to permit machine compaction. Fine-grained ma-
terials should be scarified to depths of about 6 in. ( l5 cm),
moisture-conditioned, and then compacted to specified
densities. Heavy rubber-tired compactors frequently are
best for this. Sands and gravels should be compacted by
heavy vibratory rollers.
Talus slopes may present special problems because larye
rock blocks may be present. Portions of such blocks that
extend above the general slope should be removed by drill-
ing and light blasting. Rockfill shells are commonly used
in canyons where such large talus is present. Care should
be taken to ensure complete filling against the talus sur-
faces. Compaction by the large, heavy vibrating rollers now
used in placing rockfill will adequately knit the fill to the
talus.
Dewatering
The foundation area, especially in the core contact, must
be kept dry to permit proper moisture of fine-grained fill
materials to be maintained during placement. If the coffer-
dams are placed on pervious soils or soils containing
permeable layers, wells or well points should be installed
and pumped to control leakage. Seepage past the coffer-
dams should be collected by channels or pipes and dikes
or walls as necessary, and conveyed to sumps where it can
be pumped out. These sumps, if located under the shell or
transition zones, may be filled with granular material or
with concrete under earth shells.
In some sites, seepage will be found discharging from
the rock within the core contact area. This especially may
be a problem upstream of the grout curtain. If this seepa,ee
issues from discrete sources such as a singlejoint orjoints,
it may be collected through one or more pipes set into each
joint, with the rest of the joint sealed by caulking u'ith
oakum or lead wool. These collector pipes should then be
led to a sump, from which the water may be removed by
pumping. The sump walls must be raised as fill is placed
until the weight of filI exceeds the water pressure in the
joints. The collector pipes should then be completely filled
with grout and the sumps filled with concrete. A 36- to'18-
in. (l- to 1.25-meter)-diameter concrete pipe provides a
satisfactory sump.
If the seepage is diffuse and issuing in small quantities
under no pressure, the fill may be placed directly against
the seepage and raised rapidly enough that it cannot be lifted
away from the rock surface. If the seepage is diffuse, as
from a network of closely spaced cracks, but seems to be
under some pressure, additional grouting should be done,
and drain holes then drilled from which seepage can be
collected and carried to sumps. Capping with a concrete
slab anchored in the rock and cor"olidation grouting to a
depth of 10 to 30 ft (3 to l0 meters) may be necessary.
Where such seepage from the foundation rock occurs un-
der the upstream shell section of an earth dam, seepage
from discrete sources should be collected in pipes and con-
 EARTHFILL DAM CONSTRUCTION AND FOUNDATION TREATMENT 329
veyed to sumps as above. Diffuse seepage may be collected
by perforated pipes in gravel layers over the seepage. The
gravel should be covered by filter fabric, and the pipes
should lead to sumps as above. Where sufficient fill has
been placed to exceed seepage pressures, the pipes and
gravel fill should be filled with cement grout and the sumps
filled with concrete.
Foundation Grouting
Grout is commonly injected into the rock under a dam. The
purpose may be to stabilize the jointed rock mass, impnrve
the modulus of the rock mass, fill joints so fine-grained
materials will not be removed or moved by seepage, or
reduce seepage losses. Grouting may be done over rela-
tively broad areas, in which case the treated area is usually
shallow, or to construct a relatively deep cutoff structure.
The first step must be a careful evaluation of the need for
grouting and its purpose.
Grouting should not be depended upon to eliminate
seepage through the foundation and thus obviate the need
for drainage. Rather, grouting should be used to reduce
seepage, conserve water, and reduce the load on the drain-
age system. The extent and method of grouting must be
related to the value of water loss and to the cost and effec-
tiveness of drainage provisions. In many cases a grouted
cutof may safely be omitted under embankment dams. This
will usually result in significant savings.
There is significant disagreement within the engineering
profession about the design of, need for, and effectiveness
of grouted cutoffs. CasagrandelE strongly questioned the
effectiveness ofthe traditional single-row grout curtain, in-
dicating that a multirow arrangement is necessary if an ef-
fective cutoff is to be constructed. Some observational and
experimental data indicate that this may be so because grout
cannot be forced into the smaller cracks and joints until the
larger openings are filled. Further, if the cutoff is thin, even
small openings may pass considerable amounts of water
with a concentration of head loss at and close to the "win-
dow." The multirow pattem creates a relatively wide zone
of low permeabiliry that effectively reduces seepage and
also reduces the hazard of erosion of friable material,
gouge, or other erodible material that may be present.
Planning. Planning a grouting program requires:
l. Establishment of the purpose of the work, which thus
defines the location, width of grouted zone, and
depths of injection.
2. Selection of suitable grouting material.
3. Specification of injection procedures, including lo-
cation, spacing, orientation, and dcpth of injections;
sequence of injections; pressures; quantities of grout
to be injected; and time between operations.
4. Specification of equipment to be used, such as method
of drilling, types and arrangements of packers. pres-
sure gages, grout mixing equipment, pumps. and pip-
ing systems.
5. Establishment of how and by whom rccords will be
kept, the format of the records, and who will be re-
sponsible for determining when acceptable results
have been achieved, or what further work will be
done.
The necessary decisions are based on an evaluation of
the character and physical properties of the material into
which grout is injected, the conditions under which the
work is done, the purpose of the work, and the results to
be achieved.
Materials. Many different materials are injected as grout,
the most common being portland cement with or without
additives. Other materials used include acrylamide mono-
mers which polymerize in place, solutions of sodium sili-
cate to which are added any of several salts to cause gell-
ing, phenolic resins, chromesalt-lignin mixtures, epoxy,
water-activated urethanes, and asphalt.
Cement. Portland cement grout is essentially a mixture of
cement and water; so cement grouts are suspensions of par-
ticulate material. Commercial portland cement in the
United States generally contains from 0.5 to ZVo of pani-
cles coarser than No. 200 mesh, U.S. Standard. Because
of mechanical bridging of the coarser particles, cement
grout will not fill joints smaller than several times the di-
ameter of the coarsest particles. Experiment and experi-
ence indicate that joints in the rock less than about 0.01 to
0.02 in. (0.25 to 0.5 mm) wide cannot be grouted with
usual portland cement, nor can it be forced into joints filled
with clay or other materials or into faults filled with gouge.
In alluvials, material having a grain size finer than medium
coarse sand cannot be grouted with cement. If the material
in the fine range (about the finest lO% by weight) of the
alluvium includes fine sand. silt, or clay fractions. it usu-
ally cannot be grouted with cement. The usual specification
for portland cement fineness for grouting is at least 3500
cmz/gm in the Blaine test in order to avoid the more
coarsely ground materials. Type III cement is more finely
ground, and material having a Blaine value of 6000
cm2/gm or even higher is usually available. Micnrfine ce-
ment, Blaine in excess of 8000 cm2/gm, is available , and
this cement or cement which has been processed by air sep-
aration sometimes is specified in order to obtain more finely
divided material and thus permit grouting of somewhat finer
joints. These materials are relatively expensive, however,
and their need and economic return should be carefully
evaluated before they are specified. In addition to specifi-
cation of the minimum Blaine surface area, the fraction
330 ADVANCED DAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, AND REHABILITATION
coarser than 200 mesh. or a finer size sieve, should be de-
termined and cement selected that has a minimum of coarser
material.
Neat cement grouts (cement and water) usually are used
wherever joints or openings to be grouted are of fine to
moderate size; that is, up to a significant fraction of I in.
in width. For larger openings, such a solution-widened
joints in limestone or stress relief joints in steep terrain,
materials such as fly ash and sand may be mixed with the
cement for economy. In using such materials, one should
recognize that the finest cracks or openings that can be
grouted will have minimum widths of about three to five
times the diameter of the coarsest particles of the grout
mixture. Usually, splitting techniques are desirable. First,
the large openings are grouted with sanded grout and then
holes located between the first holes are grouted with neat
cement grout to fill the smaller openings.
The cement in a pure neat cement grout will settle out
of suspension before the grout hardens. The effect of this
settling-out can easily be shown by preparing, for example,
a 2: I grout mixture (2 water to 1 cement by volume), a
relatively thick grout, and placing it in a 100-ml graduate
until initial set, noting the amount of clear liquid above the
cement after it has set. Because of such sedimentation, an
opening in the rock mass may still be open for half its height
or more after the grout has hardened, if pure neat cement
grout is used. This problem can be avoided by the use of
one ofseveral suspension agents to hold the cement in sus-
pension until it sets. Finely ground, high-activity bentonite
is an inexpensive and effective suspension agent although
it delays the time of set and the rate of gain in strength.
Usually, about 2 to 3 % bentonite by weight will limit sedi-
mentation to about 2 to 37o , which is generally acceptable.
The resulting grout is hard and durable. Intraplast (Sika),
in the amount of about I % by weight of cement, is also an
effective suspension agent. Grout made using Intraplast is
less viscous than bentonite-stabilized grout, and the lower
viscosity aids penetration during grouting.2r Stabilization
by use of a stabilizing agent such as bentonite or Intraplast
is recommended for all cement grout mixes.
Cements and bentonites vary in fineness and behavior,
so the necessary quantity and possible source of bentonite
should be determined by laboratory experiment, to assure
sedimentation of about ZVo by time of initial set. The ben-
tonite should be mixed with water and allowed to stabilize
for 24 hours before use. Thorough mixing of cement, ad-
ditive, and water is essential.
Water-cement ratios for grouting have been and still are
controversial. Many organizations start, and sometimes
continuc, with very thin grouts. Water-cement ratios of 5 : I
by volume have been commonly used, and sometimes even
l0: I by volume has been injected. These thin grouts have
been used in the belief that such mixtures would improve
penetration into narrow openings and would "plate" or be
filtered out to fill larger openings. However. neither con-
cept has been proved by observation, and both are thought
untenable. The concept of filtering assumes that particles
penetrate a short distance into a crack. and then excess
water is forced out of this grout by the pressure differential.
However, cement particles are about equivalent in size to
silt particles, and even a thin layer would be of such low
permeability that only a negligible amount of water could
be squeezed out of it or through it. Plating does occur, but
studies by Houlsbyre showed that such thin grouts do not
fill joints but are deposited in lacelike patterns with innu-
merable water-escape channels. Frequently the grout failed
to fill the full height of the crack. Further, the grout was
usually weak and powdery, so that it would be susceptible
to erosion.
There is today a developing consensus among expens in
the field that grouts thinner than 3: I water-cement by vol-
ume should not be used. Further, the amount of 3 : I grout
generally should be limited, and the mix quickly thickened
if a hole readily accepts grout.
Acrylamides. Acrylamides include AM-9 and AC-100.
Developed and marketed by the American Cyanamid Co.,
AM-9 was removed from the U.S. market in 1978 because
of toxicity concems. An acrylamide monomer was mixed
with a suitable inhibited catalyst during the injection. When
injected, it is a true solution with a viscosity near that of
water. The material polymerizes in place to develop a rub-
berlike gel. This gel is stable while submerged and very
effectively controls seepage, but it is weak. Therefore it
does not improve modulus. Further, it even may be forced
out of thin openings under high seepage forces.
AC400 is an acrylic polymer grout produced'by Geo-
chemical Corp. of Ridgewood, New Jersey, as a replace-
ment for AM-9. Physical properties of the two are gener-
ally similar, but the AC-400 gel is weaker than that of
AM-9. Gel times are controlled by varying concentrations
of the catalyst and the inhibitor.
Silicate. These grouts consist of a solution of sodium si[-
icate mixed with a gelling agent. Mixing may be done be-
fore injection, or by combining ingredients in the injection
pipe, or by sequential injection of. first. the sodium-silicate
and, then, the gelling agent. The first silicate grout, the
Joosten process, used calcium chloride as the gelling agent
with sequentiat injection because the reaction is very fast.
This was not successful because mixing could not be as-
sured. Most procedures today use a buffered gelling agent
with prcmixing or mixing in the injection nozzle. There are
various gelling agents available, many of which are pro-
prietary, for example , Hardener 600X, Temrset, Sirloc, and
Geloc-4.
Gelling of sodium silicate is sensitive to the fomrulation
of the gelling agents and buffers, and to groundwater chem-
 EARTHFILL DAM CONSTRUCTION AND FOUNDATION TREATMENT 331
istry. Consequently, it usually is advisable to use proprie-
tary formulations to take advantage of the experience and
expertise of the developen whenever sodium silicate grouts
are considered. Problems may be encountered if chemical
grouting with silicates follows cement grouting, because of
the high pH of the groundwater following cement grouting.
Some gels of sodium silicate are reversible. Thus, du-
rability and resistance to leaching should be carefully in-
vestigated beflore sodium silicate is used for permanent
control of seepage. The gels usually are mechanically
strong. However, the viscosity of sodium silicate solutions
of the stren-9th necessary for effective grouting is relatively
high. Thus penetration of the finer openings may be lint-
ited.
Other Chemical Grouts Chrome-lignin grout is produced
from a by-product of paper manufacture combined with a
hexavalent chromesalt to cause gelling. It.is injected in a
single solution with controllable gel time. Its viscosity is
more than that of water but appreciably less than that of
sodium silicate grouts. Its structural strength is slight.
Available data on its long-time durability are not conclu-
sive, and a careful study should be made before this ma-
terial is used for permanent control of seepage in a critical
application.
Terranier grout is a phenolic resin base grout that uses
ferrous sulfate as a catalyst. The resulting solution is sig-
nificantly more viscous than water but less viscous than
most silicate grouts.
Water-activated urethane grouts include TACCS, Pene-
grout CR-250, and CR-202. These materials react with
water to form a rubberlike gel. They were originally de-
veloped for sealing joints or cracks in sewers and tunnels
from the inside. They are viscous, 50 to 100 cP. They have
been considered for use in grouting and to some extent used
where flowing water must be encountered, for example. in
solution-affected limestone. Most require premixing with
water to ensure reaction. The time lapse between mixing
and set is short, fractions of a minute being usual. Even
with mixing in the injection nozzle, problems have been
encountered with dilution where the grout would not set.
TACCS has a somewhat longer set time, about 1.5 min-
utes, and a longer time after mixing in which it can be
injected into flowing water without damaging dilution. Ac-
cordingly, a field test was made at Baker River using this
material in solution-affected limestone. Laboratory studies
had indicated that direct injection of thc TACCS into the
flowing water might be satisfactory, thus avoiding thc
problems of premixing. This did not prove corrcct. Only
partial reaction was obtained, with the TACCS lorming
hard crusts surrounding unreacted material. The procedure
was then modified to introduce water into the grout ap-
proximately at the point of injection. Other problems were
experienced, including seizing of drilling tools. There was
a considerable loss of matcrial, somc of which appearcd
downstream of the dam. Because oI the pmblems encoun-
tered and the substantial cost. thc grouting ofthc dam abut-
ments was completed by using asphalt.
Asphalt. At this time hot asphalt is the most efi'ective and
probably the most economical means of grouting for con-
trol of flow through open joints, cavernous limestone. and
similar openings through which water is flowing at veloc-
ities precluding the use of cement grouts. For example, it
can be used to reduce leakage through open-jointed lime-
stone against a reservoir head. The grout is injected by
means of a perforated injector pipe equipped with an inter-
nal resistance wire heater, as illustrated in Fig. l0'1. As-
phalt grouts may flow plastically under continuous loading,
so they cannot be used to improve structural strength' Also,
asphalts will flow slowly under water pressure. and, even
where significant reduction in flow is achieved. perrnanent
reduction cannot be assured. It is believed that service life
can be materially improved by injecting cement grout
downstream of the asphalt once florv has been reduced suf-
ficiently to permit placing of cement grout.
Frequently, many of the openings in open-jointed lime-
stone are partially or completely blocked by clay or solu-
tion products debris. Even though the open passageways
through which flow is passing are blocked by asphalt grout'
new flow paths probably will develop throu-eh other chan-
nels or openings that are partly or completely filled with
solution products, when clay, silt, and other joint filling
materials are removed by erosion. Under such conditions,
repeated grouting operations may be required to keep
seepage within acceptable limits.
Lower Baker Dam is a thick arch 285 ft (87 meters)
high. Shortly after its completion in 1924. seepage flow
through the abutment was noticed. This increased in time'
and the abutments were grouted using asphalt in 1934. By
1960 seepage flow had again increased to undesirable
amounts of about 60 cfs ( 1.7 ml/sec). Asphalt grouting
followed by portland cement groutin-q in 1960 reduced
leakage to 4 cfs (0. ll m3/sec). Studies were made before
grouting of possible means of reducing flow. such as blan-
keting or blocking entries with gravel. These studies were
inconclusive. Leakage again increased with time, and by
1982 was about 120 cfs (3.4 ml/sec1. The abutrnents were
again grouted in late 1982 and early 1983. Initially this
grouting was done using TACCS in an experintental pro-
gram, as noted above. This resulted in some changes in
piezometric pressure but no apparent change in the flow.
The work was complctcd using asphalt, reducing total
lcakage to about l0 to 12 cfs (0.28 to 0.34 m3/sec;, a
90% reduction.
During the 1982-83 drilling. a number of zones of shat-
terecl rock and clay, and clay gouge, were encountered.
Removal of these materials by washing was attempted' but
 332 ADVANCED DAM ENGINEERING FOB DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, AND REHABILITATION
SPRING 5OO*/INCH
INSULATOR
PACKING GLAND
CABLE
GROUTING PIPE
IIl2" BLACK IRON
INSULATOR,
3/4' PERFORATIONS
6'O.C.
MIN.
Figure lG4. Asphalt grouring equipment.
probably many remain. These materials will be subject to
erosion, and in time regrouting probably will be needed.
Grouting Program. Development of a grouting program
requires planning the layout of the grouting work, se-
quence of injections, pressures to be allowed, properties of
grout to be injected, and time between operations. The lay-
out of the grouting work itself involves determining the
orientation, depth, location, and sequence of making the
borings or injection points. These factors are determined
from the purpose or objective of the grouting program and
the geological conditions under which the work must be
done.
The objective of grouting basically is to fill the open-
ings, usually joints of the rock, with cement or other ma-
terial. The best probability of filling the openings with grout
occurs when the grouting hole or injection line crosses the
maximum number of such openings. Thus, the optimum
orientation of grout holes is that which is approximately
normal to the most critical planes of seepage, yet gives an
adequate intersection with other planes to ensure their being
filled. Most rock masses have three or more joint systems.
These may intersect in reasonably cubic pattems or at
oblique angles. Frequently, in dam sites, particularly those
in narrow gorges, there will be stress relief joints approx-
imately parallel to the canyon walls. Thus, the orientation
of the critical joints on one side of the canyon may be de-
cidedly different from that on the other. Such stress relief
joints-being approximately parallel to the flow of water
ID cruPtlu6
PISTON PUMP
KETTLE OETAIL OF
INSULATOR
PORCELAIN GLANO INSULATOR
TRANSFORMERS
COUPLING
HEATING WIRE No. 3 GAGE
SOFT IRON
PORCELAIN PIPE INSULATOR
and normal to the direction of loading-are particularly
critical, both forconsolidation grouting to increase strength
or reduce deformation and for cutoff of seepage.
The first step, then, in planning the program on
-erouting
a rock site is a detailed joint survey to determine the ori-
entation of all joint sets and to identify those particular
joints that tend to be continuous or to be open. There usu-
ally is a master joint set that is the most conrinuous and
most open of the several sets. The survey should consider
enough joints to give statistically meaningful results, and
particular attention must be paid to obtaining information
on joint sets that may be roughly parallel to exposures.
These frequently are the most critical sets and yet the most
difficult to map adequately. Investigations should consider
both surface exposures and results from core boring or ex-
ploratory adis. Care must be taken to observe evidence of
staining or weathering, which will give crude estimates of
the depths to which joints are open and to which percola-
tion may occur. Further, an attempt should be made to de-
termine whether the joints of certain joint sets arc open.
Percolation inflow permeability tests are necessary to assist
in this judgment. Special care should be taken to nore joints
that are filled with clay or similar materials and to locate
all faults. Materials filling faults should be carefully de-
scribed to indicate whether the gouge wilt be permeable or
could readily be washed from the joints by seepage flow.
Grain-size curves and measurement of the plasticity of the
gouge should be made if sufficient material is recoverable.
Plotting of joint survey measurements on a polar dia-
 EARTHFILL DAM CONSTRUCTION AND FOUNDATTON TREATMENT 333
gram will permit the determination of primary joint sys-
tems and the mean direction of such joint systems. The
master joints and joints that are typically continuous or open
should be carefully identified.
These data then may be used to determine the orienta-
tions of the grout holes that wilI give maximum probability
of intersecting the joints, particular attention being paid to
the more critical joint systems. Such polar diagrams should
be made separately for each abutment of a dam site and the
valley bottom because, as indicated, there may be substan-
tial differences between the walls of the canyon and be-
tween the canyon walls and the bottom. A convenient
method of laying out and studying the joint systems is to
make a simple model in which the mean plane of each joint
set is represented by a piece ofcardboard oriented at proper
dip and strike. Critical joint sets should be identified by a
color or a symbol. These pieces can be arranged on a con-
tour map of the dam abutment, and the orientation of drill
holes that will give the best probability of intersecting the
largest number of joints, particularly the critical joints, can
be determined by using a simple pointer or dowel to rep-
resent the drill holes. In complex problems, as, for exam-
ple, where the grouted cutoff under a dam connects to the
cutoff under a spillway, or in difficult abutment problems,
Plexiglas models may serve a very useful purpose in per-
mitting three-dimensional evaluations.
As pointed out by Casagrande,ls grouting rarely, if ever,
results in a complete cutoff of seepage under a dam. Ade-
quate drainage downstream is essential in order to control
seepage discharge and uplift pressure. Drain holes drilled
into an abutment and into the foundation of a dam also
should be oriented relative to the primary jointing systems
to intersect the maximum possible number of joints, spe-
cial attention being paid to those joints that are parallel to
the direction of the sebpage. The purpose of grouting is to
reduce seepage to such an extent that the seepage that does
pass the grouted cutoff can be discharged by the drainage
system without producing significant adverse pressures.
Grouting serves the secondary purpose of reducing the
quantity of seepage such that the economic penalties due
to loss of water are acceptable, for example, in storage res-
ervoirs for hydroelectric power or for a water supply. The
depth to which grouting is to be carried and the degree of
reduction in flow that is to be achieved must be determined
by the existing geological conditions, the value of the water
in the system, the drainage system, and the pressure gra-
dients that must be achieved downstream of the cutoff'
In the past, rough rules of thumb frequcntly have been
used to establish the depth of grouted cutoffs; for example,
the depth of the grouting cutoff is sometimes specified to
be equal to one-half, or possibly one+hird, the depth of
water at the point considered. The dependability of such
rules is questionable, and, in general, it is now considered
preferable to carry grouting to material of relatively low
permeability, that is, to such depth that the permeability of
the rock materials beneath the grouted curtain is substan-
tially less than that of the rock through which most of the
curtain is constructed. This may be achieved in massive
rock such as granite or granite gneisses by carrf ing the cut-
off to such depths that joints in general show linle, if any'
staining or weathering, or to depths determined by water
test in primary grout holes along the cunain. The length of
intermediate holes is determined by observation as the work
progresses. In many massive rocks, the joint spacing in-
creases with depth, and the remaining joints become tight.
Thus, it may well be found in such materials that joints
near the surface are open and stained. rvhereas those at
some depth, possibly only 40 to 50 ft (12.2 to 15.2 meters)
on one site but many times that on another, are tight, and
it is necessary only to carry the curtain down to where the
tighterjoints occur because the open joints downstream of
the curtain will provide drainage. Conversely, in stratified
material, it may be found that there is an impervious mem-
ber present, for example, dense shale underlying open-
jointed material such as sandstone, in which case grouting
carried only into the upper Portion of the shale would be
required.
Consideration must be given to the way in which drain-
age downstream can be assured. For example, consider Fig.
l0-5a, in which the open-jointed material increases in
openness and thickness downstream of the cutoff. In this
case, there would be excellent relief of pressures by the
drainage system, and sealing only of the more open, more
critical joints at the curtain probably would be necessary
unless there were a significant economic penalty for loss of
water. Conversely, consider Fig. l0-5b, where drainage
downstream is reduced. Here. a much more thorough
grouted cutoff would be desirable to limit seepage, working
with an extensive and carefully designed drainage system
to controt seepage pressures under the dam.
Soluble rocks, such as limestone or gypsum' pose es-
pecially difficult problems, as solution activity by perco-
lating groundwaters frequently will be found to have caused
open joints or caverns in these rocks. Some of these open-
ings may be large, and many will be found blocked or par-
tially blocked with collapse material consisting of blocks
of rock embedded in a matrix of clay, silt, and sand' Foun-
dation treatment in such difficult situations rcquires expert
guidance by competent specialists. In general. grouting
cannot be relied upon under such conditions; it cannot dis-
place clay fillings in joints or in caverns, yet this clay later
may be removed by erosion when the reservoir is filled,
with excessive water losses. Such sites should be regarded
with great caution. Complete mining-out of suspect zones
and replacement with concrete cutoffs may be necessary.
Such operations are time-consuming and costly.
It is general practice to grout on a splining pattern; that
is, the initial holes are fairly wide-spaced. Intermediate
 334 ADVANCED DAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. AND REHAEILITATION

.---,

Frurcrl'- O*n,r.t
, .'.. (.. ,^ilFcurci_.
---:.
Sq u osrorv E- PEtrTnEAEL€ til. i-r',-i 1,

Fr u-reR- O*r,n

5ra.e
)
il

Figure l0-5. Geological control of drainage.

holes are then drilled and grouted in sequence until water
pressure tests and grout takes indicate that further grouting
will not materially increase tightening.
Grout moves more rapidly into the larger joints, fre-
quently leaving the smaller ones almost unfilled. Conse-
quently, grouting along a single row often cannot be de-
pended on to ensure an effective cutoff of seepage. If a
highly efficient cutoff in rock is necessary, a multiple-row
approach should be used. The holes in the outer rows
should be grouted on a staggered basis and splitting se-
quence, and then, finally, the center row grouted again on
a splitting sequence. A three-row pattern seems to give
generally good results. A flexible arrangenrent that has
proved satisfactory, especially for fill dams where a tight
cutoff frequently is not required, is illustrated in Fig. l0-
6. Row C is the principal row of grout holes and is the first
one grouted. Along this row, the primary holes initially
would be spaced, for example, at 48 ft (14.6 meters) on
centers. This spacing is rhen split to 24 tt (7.3 merers) by
drilling the intemrediate holes.
A decision is then made about whether additional grout-
ing in that portion of the work is needed. such as additional
grouting along a single line, or whether a multirow cutoff
will be required, as would be the case. for example, if per-
vious conditions or if extensive jointing were found. For a
single-row cutoff, intermediate holes of Row C would be
drilled and grouted. For a multirow cutoff, the holes along
Row A would be drilled, by again drilling alternare holes
and then splitting, and finally the holes along Row B would
be drilled and grouted.
Grout can travel substantial distances. Grout discharge
at distances of several hundred feet has been noted on var-
ious projects. This is undesirable. It wastes grout, which
is an expensive material, and it interferes with drainage
downstream of the grouted cutoff. Care may be required in
grouting the outer rows of holes to limit the quantity of
grout injected in any given hole. Indications ofgrout travel
should be carefully monitored. If excessive grout travel is
noted, grouting of the affected hole should be terminated.
Intermediate holes should then be drilled and grouted.
Generally, these rows will show much smaller takes, and
it is desirable to grout to refusal on the cenrral row of holes.
Grout seeps to the surface usually are sealed with wooden
wedges or oakum caulking. Specifications should clearly
establish the minimum separation distance to be used be-
tween a hole being grouted and an open hole or one being
drilled because this distance controls the scheduling of the
work. Despite such prccautions, travel to open holes may
occur, and appropriate procedures should be established.
Excessive injection pressures will lifr and damage the

c34P C34S C35P
Row c
-t- -b-- --b---6-----b---o-
LEGENO
. PRIMARY HOLE.ROWS AA
O PRIMARY HOLE-ROW B GROUTED.
r SECONOARY HOLE-ROWS
O SECONDARY HOLE-ROW B
.\
A TERTIARY HOLES LI USUALLY REQ.D.
>( euATERNARv xo.ssI Row B oNLy
)
Figure lG6. Plan-three-line grouted cutoff.
rock and so must be avoided. The pressure that can be used
safely depends largely on the orientation of joints and how
quickly pressures are dissipated as the grout moves away
from the hole. Continuous planar joints, especially if par-
allel to the free surface, or nearly so, are the most critical.
A rule of thumb, which is safe under most conditions for
level areas or modest slopes, is that the pressure at the
packer, including the weight of the columns of grout in
pounds per square inch, should not exceed the distance from
the surface to the packer in feet, or a minimum of about 10
psi (0.7 kg/cm21.
However, even this pressure may cause block displace-
ment under adverse conditions, as on abutments where
continuous joints, bedding planes, or foliation dips toward
the slope. Limitation of pressures to 5 psi (0.35 kg/cm2)
should be considered for near-surface grouting in such sit-
uations unless experience and observation indicate that
higher pressures may be used safely, or the blocks are sta-
bilized by bolting. If such very low pressures are neces-
sary, standpipes rather than gages should be used for pres-
sure control.
Injection pressure of 1 psi/ft of depth (0.23
kgf cmz f meter) may cause hydrosplitting in rock under low
lateral stresses and in some weak rocks. In such event. there
will be backflow of grout from the hole. Usually hydro-
splitting is not desirable. If backflow occurs, procedures
and pressures should be adjusted as nccessary to minimize
hydrosplitting.
Careful checks should be made for heave, using preci-
sion surveying techniques referenced to marks well-re-
moved from the grouting operation. If heave is not apt to
be troublesome, this should be done at the start of work
EARTHFILL DAM CONSTRUCTION AND FOUNDATION TREATMENT 335
UPSTREAM
C35S c36P C36S C37P
- ---b-
C @@---seouENcE tN wHtcH
HOLES ARE DRILLED AND
AA C
when procedures are being developed. and intermittently
thereafter to ensure that no heave is developin_e. If condi-
tions are not favorable, or if higher than normal pressures
are used, checking for heave should be done on a conrin-
uous basis.
Most studies to date have assumed grout to behave as a
Newtonian fluid of moderate viscosity. Recent studies by
Lombardi2o indicate that this is incorrect, and grout be-
haves as a Bingham fluid, that is, as a viscoplastic with a
definable cohesion (yield point) that limits penetration and
viscosity, thus controlling the rate of flow relative to the
gradient. Lombardi presents equations permitting compu-
tation of the maximum radiation of penetration (R-".), the
maximum volume of grout that can be injected in a sin_sle
crack ( Z*o^), and the maximum uplift force (F*".), as per
equations (10-1) through (10-3):
R-rr: P*rrt/C ( 10-1 )
/*u":2tpi,,t1 f C1 ( lo-2 )
F*u* = oP3^^^t2f3C1 ( lo-3)
where p,,,., is the final applied pressure, r is the half thick-
nessof thc joint. and C is the cohesion (yicld point) of the
grout.
A coaxial visconleter can be used to detennine the vis-
cosity ancl cohesion ol the grout. Lombardi, however. has
developed a simpler plate cohesion test ancl has cleveloped
procedures and graphs relating cohesion frorn the plate test
and apparent viscosity using a Manh funnel to true viscos-
ity. He also has cleveloped computer programs from which
336 ADVANCED DAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN, CONSTBUCT]ON, AND REHABILITATION

transient values of R, V, and F can be computed at any Table 1O-3. Volume of grout slurry injected.
point in time during the gnruting process. Grout Slurry Consistcac-t
Some parametric studies have been made using these
programs (refer to Deere and Lombandizl). Two crack
Timc of Cmuting Water Medium Thick

widths were investigated, 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) and 0.04 in. For0.5 mm (0.02 in.) crack:
(l mm). Three grout slurries were considered; a thin slurry 15 min 4.8 ml 1.2 ml 0.5 mr 0.3 m)
(30 sec Marsh flow time), a medium slurry (40 sec Marsh
lhr 15.9 3.7 l.l 0.6
4hr r0.3 t.8 0.9
flow time), and a thick slurry (50 sec Marsh flow time). 8hr 15.6 2.t 1.0
For comparison, grouting at ltaipu, using a I : I w/c ratio For I mm (0.04 in.) crack:
by weight (1.5: I by volume) and I to 2% bentonite as a 15 min I 1.4 5.8 3.1 2.0
stabilizing agent, showed a Marsh flow time of 38 to 40 lhr 20.2 '1.7 4.5
4hr 14.4 7.t
sec. At Alicura a I : I grout by weight with 2% bentonite 8hr 16.4 7.9
gave Marsh flow times of 35 to 38 sec. A second mix of
0.67: I by weight (l: I by volume) using l% Intraplast
gave a Marsh flow time of 32 sec. For purposes of this Table 10-4. Total uplift force.'
parametric study a large grout pump with elliptical char- Grout Slu rr1 Cons i st e nc1
acteristics was assumed, max-discharge 1580 gpm (100 li-
Time of Grouting Water Thin Medium Thick
ters/sec) and max-pressure 284 psi (20 kg/cm21.
For 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) crack:
Results of these parametric studies for penetiation, rate
of flow, volume injected after specific times, and uplift l5 min 48.000 T 61.000 T 39,000 T 26.000 T
lhr 158.000 255.000 106.000 68.000
forces are presented in Tables l0-l through l0-4, after 4hr 942.000 225,000 I 15.000
Deere and Lombardi.2r 8hr r,670.000 267,000 129.000
Grout flows and pressures in these tables reflect the pump For I mm (0.04 in.) crack:
characteristics used, of maximum flow at minimum pres- 15 min 18,000 109.000 123,000 88,000
I hr 48,000 5s l,000 401,000 252.000
sures and minimum flow at maximum pressure. Thus the 4hr 633,000 359.000
8hr 1.055.000 514.000

Table 1O-1 . Radius of grout penetration. .Aro detemined by mdius of penetration.

T = metric ton (2205 lb).
Grout Slurm Consistencv
Time of Gmuting Water Thin Medium
apparently anomalous uplift pressures for water, Table l0-
For 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) crack:
15 min 55m 28m 17m 13m 4, result from the fact that pressures needed to cause flow
lhr 100+ 49 26 20 to the 328-ft (100-meter) radius limit are small.
4hr 8t 34 21 Although these parametric studies are idealized repre-
8hr 100 36 25 sentations, they clearly indicate that thorough grouting can
For I mm (0.04 in.) crack:
be achieved with relatively thick grouts at reasonable pres-
15 min 60 43 32 25
lhr 100+ 80 50 38 sures and within reasonable times. Forexample. gmut holes
4hr 100+ 67 48 usually are not spaced more than about 20 to 2-1 ft (6 to 7.3
8hr 72 50 meters) apart, giving penetrdtion radii of about 12 to 16 ft
(4 to 5 meters) to allow for overlap. Using a 1.5:l wf c
ratio by volume grout, Marsh funnel flow time of 35 to 40
Table 1O-2. Rate of grout flow. sec, even thin cracks 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) wide could be filled
using nominal grouting pressures in times of fractions of
Grout Slurry Consistency
an hour. The data also suggest that little is gained for the
Time of Gmuting Water Medium Thick medium to thick mix after 4 hours for either thin or wide
For 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) crack: cracks. These parametric studies and Houlsby's studies of
l5 min 312 l/min 69 l/min 22 l/nin 12 l/min crack filling thus strongly support using medium to thick
lhr 307 509 4 grouts that are stabilized to limit sedirnentation.
4hr 282 0.6
The calculations indicate that the pressure is highest ad-
8hr l8 0.6 0
jacent to the hole and decrcascs linearly to near zero at the
For I mm (0.04 in.) crack:
15 min 760 359 t56 93 limit of penetration. Total uplift forces were calculated by
lhr 756 297 16 36 integrating the pressure at any point over the area within
4hr l7 6 the limit of penetration. Therefore, with thin mixes and
8hr 6 2
long injection times, which increase the area of injection,
 EARTHFILL DAM CONSTRUCTTON AND FOUNOATIOI{ TREATMENT 337
total uplift increases rapidly. If blockage occurs, the pres-
sure distribution may become rectangular rather than tri-
angular, which would markedly increase the hazard of uplift
or hydro-splitting along joints. There thus is greater hazard
of damaging uplift with thin than with thick grout, and care
to control pressures and prevent uplifts is very important
where low-viscosity grout is used.
From equation (10-l), it is seen that the maximum radius
of penetration is directly proportional to the crack width
and inversely proportional to the cohesion of the grout.
Even at l-hour pumping times, penetration of medium to
thick grouts ranges from 85 to 64 ft (26 to 2O meters) in
0.02-in. (0.5-mm) cracks and from 160 to 125 ft (50 to 38
meters) in 0.04-in. (l-mm) cracks. These radii substan-
tially exceed normally used primary grout hole spacings.
Therefore, to limit losses of grout to large cracks, the
grouting of primary holes should use medium to thick grout
with limitations on the quantity injected.
The sequence of grouting in each hole should be estab-
lished in the bidding procedure because costs may vary ap-
preciably. The most effective and most expensive sequence
is stage grouting from the top down. In this procedure, the
hole is drilled to a specified depth or until an open joint is
crossed as indicated by loss of drill water, a packer is set
at the top, and the hole is grouted. The hole is then drilled
deeper, the packer is lowered to just above the bottom of
the previously grouted portion, and grout again is injected.
The length of each stage to be used is estimated initially
from the exploratory borings. Usually this value is adjusted
as the work progresses, based on observation. Customar-
ily, if significant loss of drill water occurs, drilling
stopped and the hole grouted. This is done to ensure that
open joints are not plugged by drill cuttings. The packer
must be set at the top ofeach stage so that higher pressures
may be used in the deeper stages.
Work is continued, with alternate drilling and grouting,
until the desired depth is reached. Because of the time re-
quired for grout to set before the hole can be redrilled and
the necessary spacing between open holes, this procedure
is slow and requires frequent moving of equipment and op-
erations over an extensive area. It is usually considered jus-
tified when maximum effectiveness in poor-quality rock is
required.
Zone grouting from the bottom up is cheaper and, where
multirow cutoffs are used, considered satisfactory for most
conditions. In this procedure the hole is drilled full depth,
thoroughly washed with air and water, and grouted in stages
from the bottom by setting the packer at successively higher
elevations. Because pressures allowed in higher (later)
stages are less than for deeper stages, each stage may be
grouted without waiting for the grout of the previous stage
to set. Usually with this procedure the hole is fint water-
tested in stages to locate zones of high permeability before
grouting. Zones are then selected to allow. concentration
on areas of high take, with rcduced time and effort on por-
tions of the hole that will not accept grout.
Sometimes it is difficult to seal near-surface zones be-
cause of excessive communication to the surface. A grout
cap is then necessary to obtain satisfactory results. Past
practice was to excavate a trench in the rock about 4 ft (1.2
meters) wide by 4 ft ( 1.2 meters) deep and 6ll it with con-
crete. Grouting was then restricted to a sin-ele row along
the cap. Similar cutoffs were at one time used under the
heels of gravity dams and toe slabs of concrete face slab
dams, but they were abandoned many years ago because
of their expense and because blasting for construction dam-
aged the rock. Such narrow caps also are not adapted to
multirow cutoffs. Accordingly, there is a trend toward using
as a grout cap a layer of concrete l8 to 24 in. (0.5 to 0.6
meter) thick placed on the prepared rock surface and an-
chored to the rock by grouted dowels made of reinforcing
bars. Dowels are usually N 1l spaced 5 ft (1.5 meters) on
centers each way and 8 to l0 ft (2.4 to 3 meters) long. After
the concrete has developed adequate strength, holes may
be drilled through it and into the rock beneath, and the
grout injected. The grout cap should be somewhat wider
than the desired minimum width of grouted cutoff. A cross
section of a typical cap is shown in Fig. 10-7.
The decision to construct a grout curtain, and the estab-
lishment of basic parameters for its construction, are part
of the design stage; but satisfactory construction requires
immediate supervision and direction of the work by expe-
rienced personnel. The supervisors should have the au-
thority to direct changes in grout mix, terminate or con-
is tinue injecting
-qrout
on any hole, increase the depth of any
hole, and add or delete holes within the established frame-
work of the specifications and drawings. Decisions to
change the general depth of grouting or to chan,se grouting
procedures should be made only with the concurrence of
the design engineers.
Grouting Equipment. The piping system used for in-
jecting the grout should be so arranged that the flow and
injection pressures can be closely monitored and closely
controlled at the hole being grouted, with excess grout re-
turned immediately to the grouting plant. In the past, re-
f?n ,, *.o^*.'r,or.
Loxq (D 5Fr .5Ft
Grto ur: o Ix
- Flousg
Figure l0-7. Detail-grout cap.
 338 ADVANCED DAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, AND REHABILITATION
ciprocating pumps, sometimes located in a remote mixing
plant, were commonly used for grout injection. This prac-
tice required long grout lines and long return grout lines.
Friction losses in these lines were high, and it was difficult
with such equipment to maintain close control of pressures
or flow rates at the injection point, especially since the
pressures fluctuated during each stroke of the equipment.
A better arrangement is to use one or more small, contin-
uous-flow pumps, such as Moyno pumps, located near the
point of grout injection. These pumps are light and can be
moved easily. Preferably they should be equipped with air
motors, which have infinitely variable speed control. Using
such pumps, close control ofpressures and flow rates at the
injection point can be maintained readily. Magnetic flow
meters (Fischer-Porter) are available, providing precise
control of flow rates and total quantities of grout injected.
Grout can be mixed in a central plant and piped to the in-
jection pumps as required if this procedure proves conve-
nient or economically desirable, or a portable mixing plant
can be used and moved along with the work as it pro-
gresses. To facilitate changing mixes as injection proceeds,
thick grout can be mixed at the central plant and then
thinned by remixing with additional water at the point of
injection. Recirculation through a Moyno pump will pro-
vide satisfactory remixing.
Pressure gages for monitoring injection pressures must
be placed on the injection pipe below the throttle valve that
controls flow to the hole. They should be protected by suit-
able oil seals. The range and precision of the gage should
be selected carefully, with due consideration of the range
of pressures to be used in the process. Rather close control
of pressures may be necessary in the upper portions of the
hole. Gages that may be well adapted to grouting with the
packer set at depth and where high pressures are used, may
be so insensitive as not to give adequate control for shallow
packer settings; and this deficiency can lead to undesirable
heave. Consequently, it is desirable to have gages for two
or more pressure ranges available, or to use standpipes for
very low pressures.
Drilling for grout injection usually has been done with
diamond. or similar rotary drilling equipment, but there is
a trend toward using percussion equipment of the type
commonly used for blast hole drilling because it is much
less expensive than the traditional means of drilling. Usu-
ally percussion drilling is done by using air and water, as
this mixture seems to wash or clean the hole better than air
alone. Such equipment has proved satisfactory in some op-
erations and unsatisfactory in others. Some test data indi-
cate that percussion drilling equipment will give satisfac-
tory rcsults in hard, clean rock that is free of soft or
weathered materials. Typically this would include sound
granite and possibly crystalline limestones where the joints
are not filled with clay or earth. Grouting of the fomrer
material under fill dams sometimes is not requirecl. In lam-
inated rock such as schists, or rock that contains shale or
clay seams, use of the percussion drills may result in a
significant reduction in permeability adjacent to the holes,
which deleteriously affects the grouting operations. Setting
the packeni in percussion-drilled holes sometimes is not
possible. Thus, where percussion drilling is used, it may
be necessary to do stage grouting from the top down, with
packers set in collas at the top of the hole. This obviously
requires a great deal of redrilling and the use of low pres-
sures, thus reducing the apparent economy of percussion
drilling.
Because percussion drilling usually is less expensive than
rotary drilling, its suitability on any project should be re-
viewed and checked by comparative tests in the field if con-
ditions appear favorable to its use. On some projects it may
prove economical to drill many more percussion-drilled
holes rather than the more expensive diamond-drilled holes.
In most rock the holes should be thoroughly washed with
air and water.
Drilling in clay shales and some friable sandstones may
best be done by using percussion bits and air only. How-
ever, interestingly, experience on a recent project in such
rock showed the fastest progress and minimum hole plug-
ging with plugged diamond bits (rotary) and water.
Rotary equipment may use either plugged bits or core-
type bits, the former generally being the less expensive for
production hole drilling because pulling of the core at in-
tervals is not required. It is suggested, however, that at
least primary holes, which may be located about 50 ft (15
meters) apart, should be drilled with core equipment on any
project, in order to recover core for review by the project
geologist as a guide to conditions that may become impor-
tant as the grouting operation proceeds. There is little ad-
vantage in drilling large-diameter holes. B-size holes are
quite frequently used and are usually satisfactory unless
some unusual conditions require stepping down the size of
the hole more than once in order to reach greater depth. A-
size holes may be used in good rock where setting packers
is not difficult. It is difficult to set satisfactorily in E-size
holes, and this smaller-diameter hole usually is not satis-
factory.
Thorough mixing of grout is essential for good results.
The best results are obtained with high-speed rotary shear
mixers, sometimes termed colloidal mixers. Bentonite
should be mixed with water and allowed to stabilize for 24
hours before being put into the mixer. With simple paddle
wheel mixers, it may be very difficult to sbtain uniform
mixes, tree frorn lumps, especially when bentonite is used.
Moyno pumps can do effective mixing by recireulating with
a jet into the bowl. Such equipmcnt is especially useful for
smalljobs.
Chemical grouts require special equipment because they
usually require precise proportioning of grout and catalytic
agents. Mixing of grout and catalyst is usually done at the
 EARTHFILL DAM CONSTRUCTION AND FOUNOATIOTI TREATMENT 339
injection point so that the gel time may be properly con-
trolled. This requires special mixing chambers or nozzles
just ahead of the grout injection pipe. Some chemical grouts
are sensitive to materials used in pumps and piping systems
or are corrosive to certain materials, and this possibility
should be checked. Chemical grouting is best done by firms
specializing in such work, as they have the necessary
equipment and experience in its use.
Records. Because the final product is buried deep within
the rock or soil, the effectiveness or adequacy of grouting
cannot be determined by inspection of the completed work.
Effectiveness is truly known only when the structure is
placed in service. Accordingly, evaluation of work accom-
plished and decisions on whether to proceed further in any
portion of the work must be based on a review of the con-
ditions found and observations of the work as it progresses.
As a basis for such evaluation, careful and detailed records
must be kept of the quantity and mix of groirt injected into
each stage of each grout hole, together with observations
of such factors as leakage to the surface, times, rates of
take, pressures, and other conditions. Further, field data
must be collected and displayed daily on summary plots so
arranged that pressures used, grout takes, and type ofgrout
are shown by hole and depth for each portion of the work.
This is necessary so that additional holes and their depths
may be decided upon as the work progresses. Such deci-
sions must be made promptly while the work is in progress,
TOP OF
ROCK
EL. 1t90.
Figure l0-8. Profile-grouting records tbr three-line cutoff.
and the field forces must be kept advised of any additional
holes that may be required so they may schedule equipment
and moves efliciently.
In successful grouting opcrations the quantities of grout
injected in the successive hole systems of a splitting-type
program show successive and marked declines. Thus, the
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary holes, if needed. should
each successively show smaller -qrout takes than the pre-
ceding system; that is, takes should be less in tertiary than
in secondary holes. If a zone shows large takes, the usual
practice is to drill additional holes on either side and con-
tinue until the takes reach acceptable final values. Com-
monly, takes in the final check holes on the orderof 0. I to
0.2 bag of cement/ft (14 to 28 k-e/m) of hole are consid-
ered desirable.
Keeping the records on even a modest project is a major
undertaking that can succeed only if standard forms are set
up for recording all field data. records are transferred daily
from field notes to pelrnanent data sheets, and graphic dis-
plays are kept up to date. For the Esmeralda Dam of the
Chivor Project (237 meters high), more than 100.000 ft
(30,000 meters) of grout holes were drilled. Further, grout-
ing was done by stages, with from three to as many as eight
stages per hole. The magnitude and complexity of the rec-
ord-keeping prognm is apparent. Computer printouts and
graphic displays are very helpful in monitoring -erouting
and are commonly used. Figure l0-8 shows a typical
graphic presentation of data. This is plotted daily and is
SCALES,
OEPTH ALONG HOLE-FT
GROUr rAKE-sAcKs/Fr 'oJ_j__ rPjs
lP OF HOLES 5- A LINE 95o
Y^ B LINE z5'
/
\ -cr g, L|NE 60"
ZONES GROUTED ARE
USUALLY COLORED TO
INDICATE GROUT MIX USED,ag
RED=1,1, YELLOW 2,1 olc.
 34O ADVANCED OAM ENGINEERING FOR DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, AND REHABILITATION
used for determining whether adequate results have been
achieved in any portion of the program and for scheduling
additional grouting as considered necessary. The quantity
of grout injected into each zone of each hole is shown
graphically by width of line or other device. Color or some
other symbol may be used to show the grout mix.
Grouting work is usually paid for on a unit-price basis
using such items as length of drilling and redrilling, quan-
tity ofgrout injected, usually expressed as sacks ofcement
TREATMENT OF COLLAPSIBLE FOUNDATION SOILS
RrcHnnn W. Knnrraen
Silt and sand deposits can occur in a very loose state. Such
loose materials are found as superficial deposits occurring
as loess, sand dunes, sand bars in stream channels, alluvial
fans, mud flows, deltas, and generally the surface layers of
soil subject to frost action. Dry, low-density silty, sandy
soils can sustain considerable load, but will collapse when
loaded and wetted. Such soils, if left in the foundation of
an embankment dam, will collapse when saturated by water
from impoundment of the reservoir, leading to excessive
and differential settlement of the embankment and potential
distress.To preclude excessive seltlement, removal or
treatment is required. Treatment involves the addition of
water to the soil to allow consolidation as the embankment
is being constructed.
Soil Treatment
In the early 1940s through the early 1960s, the U.S. Bu-
reau of Reclamation constructed a number of embankment
dams on the plains of the western United States in the states
of Kansas and Nebraska. Portions or all of the embank-
ments' foundation consisted of loessial deposits. Various
schemes of ponding and sprinkling were employed to in-
crease soil moisture. The loess was underlain by more per-
vious materials that permitted drainage as the loess was
consolidated. Only minor settlement was observed during
wetting of the foundations. Consolidation during embank-
ment construction ranged from minor to several feet for the
various dams. The percent consolidation of the foundation
soil depth was as much as 15 to 20Vo in some instances. In
one instance, the foundation was rolled with a 50-ton
(45,400-kg) pneumatic-tired roller prior to embankment
construction. Compaction was effective to approximately
13 ft (4 meters).
The amount of consolidation is a function of the thick-
used or chemicals used, and number of hookups. Summary
records developed fmm the daily records are necessary for
establishing pay quantities. A large part of the rccord keep-
ing, printouts, and plots can be done by compurer, but final
decisions on when any area is complete must be made by
an experienced supervisor at the work.
Reference 22 provides additional information on proce-
dures, materials, and equipment for use in planning and
executing a grouting project.
ness of the deposit and in-place density of a wetted soil. A
soil's susceptibitity to collapse is a function of the in-place
density, natural moisture content, and liquid limit (Fig.
l0-9). Very severe collapse potential was a major design
consideration for the very large canals constructed by the
Bureau in the San Joaquin Valley and Central Valley of
California. The expression "subsidence" has been used to
describe the over l0 ft (3 meters) of collapse induced by
ponding water on the surface of these very loose structured
soils.
Pueblo Dam was constructed across the Arkansas River
in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains during the
late 1960s and early 1970s. The embankment foundation
contains alluvial, low-density silty soils. Laboratory tests
showed that the loaded silt would experience significant
settlement upon wetting (Fig. l0-10) and that moisture
content increased to about Proctor optimum is sufficient to
allow consolidation during embankment loading. Not
needing to saturate the soil provides economy, makes good
drainage unnecessary, and precludes development of high
pore pressurcs, which delay consolidation. Field tests were
performed to estimate and compare water penetration by
ponding and sprinkling with and without stripping, and to
estimate the time required for distribution of water through
the deposits. Prewetting done by sprinklers on an un-
stripped surface was selected. Estimates were made of the
volume of water to be applied per unit area for various
portions of the foundation, based on depth and in-place
moisture content of material needing prewetting, and the
minimum curing time prior to embankment placement for
each area. Measurements of settlement were made under a
33-ft ( I0-meter)-high test fill. No consolidation during
prewetting was observed. After construction of the test fill,
about l0% consolidation was measured.
A more recent application of foundation prewetting is