1) Linear Accelerator: ---

Principle:
The linear accelerator works on the principle that under an electric field (alternating), the particle is
accelerated during (+ve) half cycle and retarded during (_ve) half cycle. Moreover, no electric fi eld exists
inside hollow conductor moves with uniform velocity.

Construction:
A linear accelerator consists of cylindrical metallic tubes 1 … n (Figure 9.10). Their axes are along the straight
line. The length of cylinders is increasing, that is, the first cylinder is shortest, second is of larger in length
than the first third cylinder is larger in length than the second, and so on. The odd cylinders are connected to
one terminal and even cylinders are connected to other terminal. Both terminals are connected to high-
frequency oscillator of almost 107 Hz frequency. These cylinders are inside evacuated glass chamber. When
one set of cylinders get negative, then the second set of cylinders is positive. In next half-cycle, the polarity
is reversed and the beam of ions enter the tube along the axis.
Working: ---
When the ions enter the tube, then the ions are accelerated only after crossing the gap between the
cylinders. Each tube has constant potential; hence, electrons cannot be accelerated within these tubes. If
positive charge q enters the accelerator, such that first cylinder is positive, then the second will be negative,
The positive ion will get accelerated in between the gap of first and second cylinder. The accelerated ion will
now travel through second cylinder with seed faster than it had during travelling through first cylinder. As
the length of second cylinder is longer; hence, the ion will reach in the same time to reach in between the gap
between second and third cylinder. In the meantime, the polarity gets reversed, that is, the second cylinder
will become positive and third will become negative. The ion will again get accelerated in between the gap
between second and third cylinder. To keep the ions in phase, the cylinders are made longer in order to
compensate for the increasing speed of electrons, that is,

cylinder length
t= = constant
speed of ion
2) Cyclotron: ---
Principle=
It is based on the principle of cross-fields, that is, electric and magnetic field should be perpendicular to
each other. When a positively charged particle is moved again and again in high-frequency electric field and
perpendicular magnetic field, then the particles are accelerated to the desired energy level.
Construction =

It consists of two hollow metallic chambers D1 and D2 which are D-shaped and known as dees. These two dees
are separated by small gap between which a positive charge is placed.
These dees are connected to high-frequency oscillator that is of magnitude 107 Hz. This HF oscillator provides
high electric field along the gap of dees. The dees D1 and D2 are enclosed inside a box chamber, which is
almost at 10−3 mm of mercury pressure.
These dees are inside the poles of strong electromagnet, which provide perpendicular magnetic field of almost
1.5 T.
Working =
1) Protons leaving the centre are attracted to the negative electrode.
2) The magnetic field bends the proton into a semi-circle.
3) While the proton is travelling this semi-circular path the polarity of the electrodes reverses. When the
proton reaches the gap, the electric field accelerates the proton forwards (because it is oppositely charged).
4) As protons complete each semi-circle, and are accelerated across the gap, they gain more and more kinetic
energy.
5) The radius of the proton’s path increases in proportion to r = mv/BQ, since it travels faster, the radius of
its path increases, and so despite travelling faster, it takes the same time to travel each semi-circle, so the
alternating voltage can stay at the same frequency.
3) Betatron: ----
Principle: --
Betatron works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According to it, an alternating current in the
primary coil of a transformer induces a similar current in secondary coil. The primary current produces a
magnetic field which induces “potential” in the secondary windings. We can consider the secondary coil of
transformer to be moving cloud of electrons in circular orbit due to magnetic fi eld in doughnut-shaped chamber.
Construction: --
A betatron consists of electromagnet pole pieces. This electromagnet works of high voltage A.C. input. The
doughnut chambers are arranged in the pole pieces as shown in Figure 9.5(a). The electromagnet produces strong
magnetic fi eld at the center of doughnut vacuum chamberThe electron revolves in circular orbit in the
doughnut-shaped vacuum chamber. The magnetic flux associated with orbit changes continuously changes with
time. Hence, electrons gain energy by the process of magnetic induction. In cyclotron, the magnetic field always
increases the radius of orbiting particle. But in betatron, the transverse magnetic field makes the electrons
move in constant orbit. The magnetic field provides the necessary centripetal force, so that electrons move in
circular orbit. The magnetic lines of force should be convex outwardly for proper magnetic focusing.The
doughnut chamber is also coated with a silver layer from inside. There should be no accumulation of electrons.
Moreover, the generation of eddy currents should be minimized by keeping the conductivity of layer to be very
small. The eddy currents hinder the operating condition of betatron as they tend to distort the magnetic
condition.

▪ Electrons from the electron gun are injected into the doughnut chamber when the magnetic field is
just rising from its zero value in the 1st quarter cycle (see fig. C).
▪ As the magnetic field builds up during this part of the cycle, it induces an emf inside the doughnut
and accelerates the electrons which are already moving in a circular path by the action of the
transverse magnetic field.
▪ When current increases from zero to its peak value, an increasing flux is suddenly stopped and high-
energy electrons leave their path to strike a target.
▪ Betatron oscillation are the oscillations of particles about their stable or equilibrium orbits in all circular accelerators. These
are the stable oscillations about the equilibrium orbit in the horizontal and vertical planes. Hill’s Equation describes this type
of traverse motion by : d2x/ds2+K(s)x=0
 LIQUID DROP MODEL
• Statistical model
• Unconcerned about the movement of the nuclei that is considered static.
• Nucleus is considered as homogenous(containing certain amount of neutrons and protons).
• Interaction force or interacting energy does not depend upon charge and spin.
• Interaction force or interacting energy depends upon mass only and it is considered as continuous
function of mass(nucleons).
Analogy to the Nucleus with liquid Drop :---
1) Liquid drop and atomic nuclei; both have charge number of particle.
Liquid Drop = molecules.
Nucleus = Nucleons.
# 0.05cm volume water droplet contains approx 1021 molecules.
3

# Same volume of nucleus will have approx 1051 nucleons.

2) Both liquid drop and nucleus are considered as homogenous(Density of each water molecules or
nucleons is considered as same ) and incompressive.
3) Considered as ideal solutions, the force b/w Nucleons are same.
Fn-n = Fn-p = Fp-p
4) Replacement of p-p or n-n does not affect the Binding Energy.
5) Forces are short range - Force being the short range so one Nuclei becomes saturates by other
nearest Nuclei.
6) If the liquid drop or nucleus is invaded by high energy particle form the outside, The particle is
captured with the compound Nucleus.
7) Excess energy is shared by all particle in drop or nucleons in nucleotides.
8) De-excitation of drop or nucleotides may be possible through three ways ------

Drop
By cooling/radiating heat.
By evaporating of some simple particle,
In case of high of excitation, rupture of
droplet takes place into two small drop.
Nucleus
By emission radiation
By the emission of one or more nuclei
Nuclear fission that levels of
formation of two nuclei.

The common observation of tendency of fission of a small drop into larger one and nuclear fusion of
small nuclei that co-relate with each other.
Fission and fusion of the drop is that demonstrated by mercury.

Merits and Energy Term :----

1) Satisfactory explanation about the behaviour of nuclei in excited state.
2) Provides effective mechanism for the most low energy Nuclear reaction, fission and fusion.
3) Liquid drop model provides the base of calculating the binding energy of nucleus and its relation with
atomic mass.
The corresponding mass formula is defined purely in terms of the number of protons and neutrons in it.
The original weizsacker formula defines five terms :---
E = Evolume energy + Esurface energy + Eassymetric energy + ECoulombic energy + Epairing energy.
 SHELL MODEL
 Initially proposed by Dmitry ivanenko and further developed by wiegner, maria and Jensen
who shared nobel price in 1963.
 Only applicable in ground state (not applicable on excited state).

Three important points :----

1) Neutrons and protons are filled separately.
2) Follow the paulis exclusion principle.
3) Don not follow hund’s rule.

Shell models assumes that nucleons are distributed in a series of discrete energy levels satisfying the
criteria of quantum mechanical condition.
As the capacity of each level is related, a closed shell will be formed.
As in this model, the motion of individual nuclei are considered, it is referred as single particle model.
It is mainly applicable to nucleus in ground state.
Nuclear shell model is analogous to the atomic shell model which describe the arrangement of electron
in atom and in that a full shell results is stability.
In the shell model n and p are filled separately meaning separate shell for each nuclei in the same way as
:-----
o Proton have different nuclear orbital and neutron have different.
o Sequencing of these orbital are observed with and without spin orbital coupling.
o In the presence of coupling, each level except S splits into 2 levels,