NEXT TERMS NOTES AND TOPICS: STILL LOADING……

 Solution stoichiometry
 Air and air pollution
 Water, Solutions and solubility
 Carbon and its compounds
 Hydrocarbons
 Industrial Chemistry

Week 2: stoichiometry: solutions

Lesson no. 1

Content: solutions, moles

Stoichiometry- solutions

Sometimes reactions take place in solutions, therefore the need to understand solutions and their
stoichiometry.

Many times the reagents needed to perform a chemical reaction or analysis are dissolved in an aqueous
solution with a given molarity. Molarity is defined as moles of solute per liter of solution. Solutions are
homogeneous mixtures, the major component being the solvent and minor components being solute.

Solute + solvent = solution

In terms of stoichiometry, we mainly deal with gases and liquid solutions, but properties of solid
solutions are emphasized in material sciences.

Mole

The mole is the unit of amount in chemistry. It provides a bridge between the atom and the
macroscopic amounts of material that we work with in the laboratory. It allows the chemist to weigh
out amounts of two substances, say iron and sulfur, such that equal numbers of atoms of iron and sulfur
are obtained. A mole of a substance is defined as:

The mass of substance containing the same number of fundamental units as there are atoms in exactly
12.000g of C-12.
Questions on mole

1) How many moles are in 25.0 grams of water?

2) How many grams are in 4.500 moles of Li2O?

3) How many molecules are in 23.0 moles of oxygen?

4) How many moles are in 3.4 x 1023 molecules of H2SO4?

5) How many molecules are in 25.0 grams of NH3?

6) How many grams are in 8.200 x 1022 molecules of N2I6?

Concentration

Use medical bottles and food drinks to show the overwhelming importance of calculating concentration
of solutions.
Of the various methods of expressing solution concentration the most convenient for general laboratory
use is molarity, which is defined: moles of solute (mols) ÷ volume of solution (dm 3), the unit is mols/dm3

Week 2: stoichiometry: solutions

Lesson no. 2

Content: solutions, moles, concentration

Mass concentration

One way of stating the concentration of a solution is to state the mass of solute present in 1 cubic
decimeter of solution. The mass of solute is usually expressed in grams. E.g is a solution made by
dissolving 5g of NaCl in 1 dm3 of solution. The mass concentration is 5g/dm3.

Mole concentration (molarity, M)

A more common way of stating concentration in chemistry is to state the molar concentration of a
solution. This is the amount in moles of a substance present in 1 cubic decimeter(1 liter) of solution.

e.g the molar concentration of 80g of NaCl in 1 dm3 of solution is

80g = x moles of NaCl

58.5g = 1 mole of NaCl

X = 80g ÷ 58.5= 1.37mols

Therefore there are 1.37mols of NaCl in 1 dm3 of solution; the molar concentration is 1.37mols/dm3

Ppm (g/g)

While molarity is used for solutions with relatively large concentrations of solute, we use ppm and mg/L
to denote much lower concentrations. This will often be the case when you are measuring solutes in
water at a treatment plant, such as the concentration of iron in the water. Parts per million, or ppm, is
just what the name suggests - the number of parts of solute in one million parts of solution.
Concentration in ppm is calculated using the following formula:

Consider a simple example:

You add 11 mg of sulfuric acid to 2,000 grams of water. What is the resulting concentration of sulfuric
acid, in ppm?

Molality

Sometimes, it is convenient to express concentration in terms of moles of solute per kilogram of

solvent. Molarity is a function of temperature. This is because the quantity of solution is based on
volume, and volume is a function of temperature. For a variety of applications it is necessary to have a
solution unit that is independent of temperature. The obvious unit is one in which quantities, solute and
solvent, are stated by mass.

Questions

1. Calculate the molarity of the following solutions:

a) 15.5 g of potassium chloride in 250.0 mL of solution.

b) 1.25 x 10–2 g of silver nitrate in 100.0 mL of solution.

c) 0.0555 g of barium chloride in 500.0 mL of solution.

d) 15.0 mg of calcium hydroxide in 50.0 mL of solution.

e) 25.55 g of aluminum chloride in 1500.0 mL of solution.

f) 1.00 g of potassium hydroxide in 0.250 L of solution.

g) 0.655 g of sodium carbonate in 100.0 mL of solution.

h) 2.50 x 10–6 kg of potassium phosphate in 500.0 mL of solution.

2) What mass of solute is contained in 25.00 mL of a 0.500 M sodium hydroxide solution?

3) What mass of solute is needed to prepare 250.0 mL of a 1.50 M potassium nitrate solution?

4) What mass of solute is contained in 100.0 mL of a 1.00 M barium nitrate solution?

5) What volume of 0.157 M silver nitrate contains 0.555 gram of silver nitrate?

6) What volume of 0.225 M aluminum chloride solution contains 5.00 g of solute?

7) 100.0 mL of a 0.500 M sodium chloride solution was evaporated to dryness. What mass of solid
remained?

8) In what total volume must 5.00 g of sodium nitrate be dissolved to make a 0.250 M solution?

 You dissolved 10.0 g of sugar to make 250 mL of solution. Calculate the concentration in M.
(Molar mass of sugar C12H22O11 = 342).

 You dissolved 13.0 g of NaCl to make 2.00 L of solution. Calculate the molarity. Atomic wt: Na,
23.0; Cl, 35.5.

 You dissolved 10.0 g of sugar in 250 mL of water (the volume of a cup of coffee). Calculate the
weight percentage of sugar in the solution. Assume the density of solution to be 1.0 g/mL.

 How much calcium hydrogen carbonate Ca(HCO3)2 is present in 24.0 L of tap water if analysis
indicates that the tap water contains 42.0 ppm Ca(HCO3)2? Assume tap water density to be 1.00
g/mL.

Week 2: stoichiometry: solutions

Lesson no. 3

Content: solutions, preparations

Preparation of solutions (salt solutions)

Use the Pdf file: preparing solutions in SS 1 chemistry

Dilution principle:

Many solutions are too concentrated to use for an experiment and must be diluted before the
experiment can proceed. The following equation may be used to make a solution of the proper strength.
Note that the concentration units for the stock and diluted solutions must be the same; the volume
units for the stock and diluted solutions must also be the same.
CCVC = CDVD

CC = concentration of stock solution

VC = volume of stock solution used

CD = concentration of diluted solution

VD = volume of diluted solution prepared

Class activity: the class is divided into three groups

The teacher describes the procedure for preparing solutions using an example

1. Prepare a 250cm3 solution of Ca(NO3)2 with molarity of 0.5mol/dm3

2. Dilute the solution to a concentration of 0.08mols/dm3 and make up to 500cm3 of the diluted
solution.

3. Test the pH of the solution

Task 1

Items needed

Top load balance

Volumetric flasks: three each of 250cm3, 500cm3 and 1000cm3

Beakers: 6

Spatula : 4

Distilled water

Funnel

Watch glass

pH meter

indicator

Group1 prepare a 500cm3 solution of NaCl with a concentration of 0.24mols in 250cm3

Group2 Prepare a 1dm3 solution of potassium chloride with a concentration of 1.3moles in 6dm3

Group 3 prepare a 500cm3 solution of copper sulphate with a molarity of 0.1mol/dm3

Task 2

Using the dilution principle, prepare a 250cm3 sample solution (concentration of 0.03mol/dm3) of the
diluted solution prepared.

Task 3

Predict the pH range of the solution prepared and state the factors responsible for the pH of the
solution.

Measure the pH of your solution using a pH meter and universal indicator.

Week 2: stoichiometry: solutions

Lesson no. 4

Content: solutions, with liquid solute

Preparing solutions with liquid solute

How to prepare 0.1 M hydrochloric acid?

Hydrochloric acid is the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride gas (HCl). Concentrated hydrochloric acid
(36-38%) is a colorless to yellowish pungent liquid. It is a strong irritant to eye and skin and fumes are
harmfull if inhaled.

HCl solutions are usually prepared by dilution of the concentrated solution. The molarity of the
concentrated solution can be calculated from the knowledge of density of the solution and percentage
of HCl. 36.5 % hydrochloric acid means that 100 grams of this acid contains 36.5 grams of HCl.

Problem: Calculate the volume of concentrated HCl, having a density of 1181 g/L and containing 36.5 %
HCl by weight, needed to prepare 500 mL of a 0.1 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution?

Questions

1. A stock sulfuric acid solution contains 98.0 % of H2SO4, and its density is 1.840 g/mL. How many
mL of this acid is required to prepare 5.0 L of 2.0 M solution? Molar mass: H 2SO4, 98.1.

2. If you want to make 250.0 mL 0.100 M calcium chloride solution, how many moles of CaCl 2 will
you need?
 3. A bottle of nitric acid has a density of 1.423 g/mL, and contains 70.9 % HNO3 by weight. What is
the molarity? Molar mass: HNO3 = 63.01

4. If you want to make 250.0 mL of 0.100 M calcium chloride solution, how many grams of
CaCl2 are needed? Molar mass: CaCl2, 111.1 g/mol.

5. What is the molarity of Na+ in a 0.123 M solution of Na 2SO4?

6. How many mL of 0.200 M aluminum chloride (AlCl 3) solution will contain 6.00 millimole of Cl -
ions?

Week 3: stoichiometry: solutions

Lesson no:1 and 2

Content: solutions, stoichiometry

This involves the application of the various concentration concepts applicable to solutions in solving
stoichiometric problems.

Stoichiometric questions (2 classes)

1) Excess barium chloride solution is added to 25.00 mL of 0.100 M silver nitrate solution. What mass of
silver chloride is formed?

2) What mass of aluminum hydroxide is required to completely react with 50.0 mL of 0.255M sulfuric
acid solution?

3) Excess sodium hydroxide solution is added to 15.00 mL of 0.135 M aluminum chloride solution. What
mass of aluminum hydroxide is formed?T-31

4) What volume of 1.25 M sulfuric acid is needed to dissolve 0.750 g of aluminum hydroxide? What is
the molarity of the resulting solution of aluminum sulfate? (Assume final solution volume = volume of
sulfuric acid used.)

5) Silver chloride is formed by mixing silver nitrate and barium chloride solutions. What volume of 1.50
M barium chloride solution is needed to form 0.525 g of silver chloride?

6) What volume of 0.250 M potassium hydroxide solution is needed to react completely with a solution
containing 1.00 g of phosphoric acid?

7) What volume of 1.25 M hydrochloric acid is needed to react completely with a solution containing
2.50 g of calcium hydroxide?

8) 25.00 mL of 0.500 M barium chloride solution is mixed with 25.00 mL of 0.500 silver nitrate solution.
What mass of silver chloride will be formed?
9) 15.0 mL of 0.200 M barium chloride solution is mixed with 25.0 mL of 0.250 M silver nitrate solution.
What mass of silver chloride will be formed?

10) 25.00 mL of 0.125 M aluminum chloride solution is mixed with 25.00 mL of 0.100 M sodium
hydroxide solution. What mass of aluminum hydroxide will be formed?

11) 100.0 mL of a solution containing 2.55 g of potassium hydroxide is mixed with 100.0 mL of a 1.50 M
phosphoric acid solution. Will the resulting mixture be acidic or basic? What will be the molarity of the
potassium phosphate formed? (Assume the volumes are additive.)

12) 25.00 mL of 1.50 M phosphoric acid solution is titrated with 0.455 M potassium hydroxide solution.
What volume of base solution is needed for complete neutralization?

13) 25.00 mL of a barium chloride solution is titrated with 0.150 M silver nitrate solution. 18.55 mL of
the silver nitrate solution is required to completely precipitate the chloride ion as silver chloride. What is
the molarity of the barium chloride solution?

14) 25.00 mL of a phosphoric acid solution required 27.55 mL of a 0.155 M potassium hydroxide solution
for neutralization. What is the molarity of the acid?

15) 25.00 mL of a 0.0525 M calcium hydroxide solution is titrated with 0.111 M hydrochloric acid
solution. What volume of acid is needed for complete neutralization?

16) 25.00 mL of 0.0962 M hydrochloric acid is titrated with a calcium hydroxide solution, and 32.53 mL
of the base is required for complete neutralization. What is the molarity of the calcium hydroxide
solution?

Week 3: air and air pollution

Lesson no. 3

Content: composition of air and air as a mixture

AIR AND AIR POLLUTION

Composition of air
Air is a mixture of gases in the atmosphere and it consist of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon (IV) oxide, noble
gases, water vapor and gaseous impurities. The most active constituent of air is oxygen.
Evidence that air is a mixture

 The constituents of air can be separated easily by physical methods

 The constituents of air still retain their individual properties
 The composition of air cannot be represented by a single chemical formula
 If the appropriate proportions of each of the different constituents of air are mixed together
under ordinary conditions, there will be no evidence of any chemical combination such as heat
production or volume change.

Atmospheric oxygen

Percent Oxygen in Air.mp4

Assignment

write on the importance of air.

Week 3: air and air pollution

Lesson no. 4

Content: atmospheric oxygen

Oxygen is found free in the atmosphere forming about 21% by volume. It is the most active of all
constituents of air.

It is necessary for cellular respiration in all living organisms and is needed for burning and rusting. The
presence of oxygen in the air is demonstrated when an element (e.g. Mg) burns in air to produce a white
solid magnesium oxide.

Combustion of substances in air

Air Combustion.mp4

Many substances burn in air. Burning or combustion is a chemical reaction which is accompanied by the
production of light and heat. During the reaction the combustible material combines with atmospheric
oxygen to form oxides and other products. Example when candle wax is ignited it melts, vaporizes and
decomposes into its constituent elements –hydrogen and carbon. These then combine with atmospheric
oxygen during the process of burning to produce water and carbon (IV) oxide respectively.

Corrosion of metals

Rusting of Iron - Elementary Science.mp4

Corrosion of metals results from the combined action of atmospheric oxygen and water. It is accelerated
by the presence of CO2 and gaseous pollutants in the air. The corrosion of iron is known as rusting of
iron. Iron rust by combining with oxygen in the presence of water to form brown hydrated iron III oxide
Fe2O3.xH2O; which is soft, breaks easily. Therefore if iron is exposed to moist air long enough it will
rust completely

Atmospheric CO2: the atmosphere contains @ 0.03% by volume of carbon(IV) oxide. This proportion is
kept fairly constant by a balance in nature between the processes which remove carbon(IV) oxide from
the atmosphere and those which return it to atmosphere under carbon cycle.

Week 4: air and air pollution

Lesson no. 1

Content: other gases in air

 Respiration: respiration is the process whereby living things use oxygen from the air to oxidize
food substances (mainly glucose) in their body cells to release energy. Carbon(IV) oxide is
produced as a waste product and liberated into the surrounding air.
 C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → H2O(l) + 6CO2(g) + energy
In most higher animals, this gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs. The oxygen in the air
that is breathed in (inspired air) diffuses into the blood in the lungs. At the same time, the CO2 in
the blood diffuses out into the lungs and is expelled in the air that is breathed out (expired air).
This means that expired air contains a higher percentage of CO2 than inspired air.
 Photosynthesis in plants: photosynthesis is a process whereby green plants manufacture
carbohydrates (glucose) from the atmospheric CO2 and water from the soil, in the presence of
sunlight which provides the necessary energy for the reaction. The process occurs in the
chlorophyllous cells of the leaves and stems only. Oxygen is produced as a waste product and
released into the atmosphere.
6H2O(l) + 6CO2(g) → C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
Photosynthesis is an anabolic(building up) process as opposed to respiration which is a
catabolic(breaking down) process.

Atmospheric Nitrogen: nitrogen is the major constituent making up 78% by volume of air. Gaseous
nitrogen is relatively inactive but it acts as an important diluent of air to slow down combustion and
corrosion.

Water vapour in Air: water vapour is present in the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from water
bodies like rivers, lakes and the oceans. The quantity of water varies from time to time and from place
to place, depending on the amount of evaporation.

The Noble Gases: the noble gases constitute @ 1% by volume of air and are characterized by their
chemical inertness. They consist of helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. Of these argon is the
most abundant in the atmosphere.

USES:

1. Argon is used in gas-filled electric lamps because it helps to prevent the oxidation of the lamp
filaments.
2. A i tu e of k pto a d e o is used i the photog aphe ’s flash tu e fo taki g highspeed
pictures.
3. Helium, neon and argon will give out coloured lights when high-voltage current is passed
through them under low pressure.
4. Helium, being non-combustible and yet almost as light as hydrogen, is often used in observation
balloons. Mixtures of helium and oxygen are also used by divers.
5. Radon is radioactive. Its radiation is used in medicine for treating some forms of cancer.

Week 4: air and air pollution

Lesson no. 2

Content: air dissolved in water and air pollution

 AIR DISSOLVED IN WATER

Air is sparingly soluble in water, dissolving more readily in cold water than in warm water. All
the natural waters contain dissolved air because their surfaces are exposed to the atmosphere.
O2 and CO2 in air are necessary for the existence of all living organisms. Oxygen is essential for
respiration in plants and animals while CO2 is needed by plants for photosynthesis. Most aquatic
organisms cannot make use of atmospheric oxygen and CO2. Hence, the presence of dissolved
air is vital for the existence of aquatic life.
The composition of dissolved air is markedly different from that of atmospheric air. This is due
to the diffe e t solu ilities of the o stitue t gases i ate . At ⁰C, dissol ed ai o tai s as
much as 33% by volume of oxygen and 0.5% by volume of CO2, as compared to 21% and 0.03%
respectively in atmospheric air. In ponds, lakes and rivers where there are aquatic plants, the
percentage of oxygen may rise to at 40% due to the evolution of oxygen during photosynthesis.

Constituent Gases % by volume in the % by volume dissolved in

atmosphere water
Oxygen 21 33
Nitrogen 78 66
Carbon(IV) oxide 0.03 0.50

AIR POLLUTION

The main cause of air pollution is the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, petrol, gasoline and
gases. Most factories, power plants and vehicles such as motor-cars, trains and aircraft use fossil
fuels to obtain energy. In the process, many pollutants are released into the air. Other causes of
pollution include the release of freons from aerosol cans and poisonous gases from chemical
warfare.
The main air pollutants are as follows: particulate matter (tiny solids),
Oxides of carbon,
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen,
Gaseous hydrocarbons and chlorofluoro-carbons.

Week 4: air and air pollution

Lesson no. 3

Content: particulate matter and oxides of carbon

 Particulate Matter: smoke, soot and dust are emitted mainly by industrial processes and the
burning of coal and woodfires. They damage the respiratory system, especially the lungs.
Another very poisonous solid pollutant is lead (and lead(II) bromide) which is emitted in the
exhaust of motor-cars using lead petrol.
 Smog Choking the People of China.mp4

 Oxides of carbon:
o Carbon(II) oxide is generated by incomplete combustion of automobile fuels. CO, if
inhaled competes with O2 for the haemoglobin in the blood, forming carboxy-
haemoglobin, therby preventing the circulation of oxygen. Thus, it is a poisonous gas.
The symptons range from headache and vomiting to death.

carbon monoxide poisoning.mp4

o Carbon(IV) oxide is produced by many processes which fossil fuel as a source of energy.
This excessive production of the production of the gas, together with deforestation, has
caused an increase in the level of atmospheric CO2. CO2 helps to maintain the level of
infrared rays (heat ray) that is radiated by earth. An increase in the level of CO2 would
result in a greater retention of infrared ray, giving rise to the greenhouse effect-a
gradual warming of our planet (global warming).

Global Warming Documentary by National Geographic.mp4

Climate Change 2014_ The State of the Science, IGBP.mp4

2 Degrees Warmer_ Ocean Life in Danger.mp4

Assignment

 Illustrate global warming on a collage, using cardboard paper.

 With over 5 greenhouse gases and some more potent than carbon iv oxide, carbon iv oxide is
still considered the greatest cause of global warming.

Week 4: air and air pollution

Lesson no. 4

Content: gaseous hydrocarbon, oxides of sulphur/nitrogen and CFCs

 Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen: oxides of sulphur are acidic, corrosive and poisonous.
Sulphur(IV) oxide, (SO2) is produced through the combustion of sulphurcontaing coal and
cracking of petroleum from industrial plants.
 Oxides of nitrogen are generated by automobiles and electricity-generating plants.
Oxides of sulphurnd nitrogen dissolve in rain water to produce acid. This result in the fall
of acid rain which is harmful to plant and animal life.
SO2(g) + H2O l → H2SO3(aq)
NO2(g) + H2O l → HNO3(aq) +HNO2(aq)
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, when breathed as air cause irritation of the nose, throat
and respiratory tissues.

Coal Combustion and Acid Rain.mp4

 Gaseous hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons are released into the air through decomposition of
organic matter, deforestation, evaporation of organic solvent and incomplete combustion of
coal, oil and wood. Hydrocarbons cause various health hazards including cancer. Hydrocarbons
also react with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of light to produce smog.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): these are group of manmade chemicals such as freons which are
used as propellants for spray cans, coolants in refrigerators and air-conditioners and for making
plastic foams. In the upper atmosphere, the ultraviolet light breaks off a free chlorine atom from
a chlorofluorocarbon molecule. The free chlorine atom is very reactive and attracts a molecule
of ozone to produce ordinary oxygen molecule and an unstable oxide of chlorine (ClO). THIS
OXIDE REACTS WITH ATOMIC OXYGEN TO FORM AN oxygen molecule and release the chlorine
atom which then attacks another ozone molecule. Thus the process is repeated numerous times
causing depletion in the ozone layer. The ozone layer is important because it acts as a shield to
prevent too much ultraviolet light fro ea hi g the ea th’s su fa e. A i ease i the le el of
the ultra- iolet adiatio ea hi g the ea th’s su fa e poses da ge to hu a ’s health a d a
cause an increase in cataracts, skin cancer and sun burns.

CFCs → Cl.
Cl. + O → ClO + O
ClO + O → Cl + O

Ozone Layer Depletion HD.mp4

 Particulate matter: these are solid particles emitted by industrial processes , they include
smoke, soot and dust. They damage the respiratory system if breathed in as air. Pb is another
poisonous solid pollutant emitted in the exhaust of motor-cars using leaded petrol. Lead dust
can cause lead poisoning and injury to the nervous system.

Control of air pollution

  By passing strict laws that will make factories and users of motor vehicles to comply with anti-
pollution regulations.
 By educating people on the causes and damage of pollution.
 By improving machines so that more efficient fuel consumption occurs.

Week 5: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 1

Content: water

Water, solutions and solubility

WATER

Life depends on water; water is by far the most abundant substance in plant and animal tissue. Water
amounts for about 70% of the human body, o e 8 % of the ea th’s ust is o e ed ate . Pu e
water does not exist in natural state but supplies of water are obtainable all over the world, varying in
degrees of purity from rain water to sea water.

Types of water

There are two main types of water

 Natural water
 Treated water

Natural water

Natural water includes rain water, spring water, well water, river water and sea water. Rain water is the
purest form of natural water because it is formed as a result of the condensation of water vapor in the
atmosphere. Spring water contains a considerable amount of mineral salts, but very little suspended
impurities such as dust and bacteria, it is a good source of drinking water. River water, lake water and
sea water contains a lot of dissolved air, mineral salts, bacteria and organic remains. These waters have
to be specially purified before they can be used for drinking.

Treated water

Treated water is mostly prepared for special purposes: examples of treated water are distilled water,
pipe-borne water, deionized water, chlorinated water. Distilled water is chemically pure water. It is used
in the laboratory for preparing reagents and doing analytical work.

Water
Water is an example of a molecule(covalent) substance. In terms of composition, water is regarded as
an oxide of hydrogen. When hydrogen gas is ignited in air, it burns with a pale blue flame to give steam
which will condense on contact with any cold surface to form water.

H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O (g)

Assignment

 Explain reverse osmosis as a method of preparing pure water from sea water.
 How would you obtain pure water from sea water, why is it not economical.

Week 5: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 2

Content: water treatment and hardness of water

Treatment and supply of municipal water

Water for domestic use is prepared in a water treatment plant.

The treated water is usually germ free but contains mineral salts. The various methods involved in the
water treatment include: aeration, coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection.

Water treatment

 The untreated water from the source(rainfall, rivers and lakes) is aerated to remove volatile
chemicals such as hydrogen sulphide, CO2 and various odors.
 This is then passed into large settling tanks, where chemicals like potash alum KAl(SO4)2.24H2O,
sodium aluminate NaAlO2 are added to cause coagulation. The impurities clump together to
form big particles of dirt which settle down rapidly.
 The water is then passed through a filter bed to remove the remaining fine particles of dirt.
 The water is treated with chemicals like chlorine to kill germs. Other useful chemicals such as
iodine and fluorine are also added.
 The treated water which is now clear and free of germs is stored in a reservoir and distributed to
towns and cities via underground pipes for domestic and industrial uses.
Hardness of water

Water which does not form lather readily with soap is described as hard water. Hardness of water is due
to the presence of dissolved CaSO4 (Calcium tetraoxosulphate), magnesium tetraoxosulphate (MgSO4)
and calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(Ca(HCO3)2) in water.

Because more than 60 percent of the earth's water is groundwater, it travels through rock and soil
picking up minerals, including calcium and magnesium along the way. These two contaminants produce
what is commonly referred to as "hardness" in water. Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of an organic
acid, when soap is added to hard water, the dissolved salt in the water will immediately react with the
soap to form insoluble salt of calcium or magnesium(scum).

Ca or Mg salt + soap or sodiu octadeca oate → calcium or magnesium octadecanoate + sodium salt

Soluble soluble insoluble(scum) soluble

The insoluble calcium and magnesium salts form an unpleasant scum which sticks to clothes and is
difficult to rinse away. Water acquires hardness when it dissolves CaSO4.2H2O or CaCO3 from soil over
which it flows. CaCO3 is insoluble in water but dissolves in water in the presence of CO2.

CaSO4(aq) + 2C19H35COONa a → C19H35COO)2Ca(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Assignment

Buy a bar soap and a soapless detergent (powdered), get equal volumes of water and try to form lather
with the same mass of both detergent, in the two buckets seperately. Write down your observation.

Week 5: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 3

Content: types of hardness

Types of hardness

There are two types of hardness, these are:

 Temporary hardness
 Permanent hardness

Temporary hardness:

Is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(Ca(HCO3)2). This is caused or

produced when calcium carbonate CaCO3 dissolves in water in the presence of CO2.

CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca HCO3)2(aq)

Removal of temporary hardness

 Boiling: temporary hardness can be removed by boiling, Ca(HCO3)2 present in temporarily hard
water decomposes on heating forming insoluble CaCO3.
Ca(HCO3)2 a → CaCO3(S) + H2O(L) + CO2(g)
 Addition of slaked lime : temporary hardness can also be removed by adding a calculated
amount of slaked lime.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
If excess slaked lime is added it makes the water permanently hard.

Effects of temporary hardness

The inner surface of kettles or boilers used for boiling temporarily hard water becomes coated with a
thin layer of CaCO3. The occurrence of stalagmites and stalactites on the floor and roof of hot caves is
evidence of the occurrence of temporarily hard water.

Permanent hardness

Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of calcium or magnesium ions in the form of soluble
tetraoxosulphates of chlorides. E.g CaSO4, MgSO4, MgCl2, CaCl2.

Week 5: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 4

Content: types of hardness, permanent

Removal of permanent hardness

 Distillation: both temporary and permanent hardness can be removed by distillation because
when the vapor distills the ions are left behind.
 Addition of washing soda: this removes the calcium and magnesium ions from the water.
Na2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4 a → CaCO3 (S) + Na2SO4
 ADDITION OF caustic soda
2NaOH(aq) + CaSO4 → Ca OH 2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
2NaOH(aq) + MgSO4 → Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
 Permutit: this method is used for softening water on a large scale. It involves the use of an ion
exchange resin. The use of permutit as an ion exchange resin(hydrated sodium aluminum
trioxosilicate iv). When permutit becomes exhausted it can be regenerated by passing a
concentrated solution of common salt.

Advantages of hard water

 It taste better than soft water

 The calcium salt present in hard water, when taken in animals it helps to build strong bones and
teeth.
 Hard water helps animals such as snails to make shells.
 Hard water can be supplied in Pb pipes as it does not dissolve lead.

Disadvantages of hard water

 It causes wastage of soap because it requires a lot of soap before it can form lather.
 It causes furring of kettles and boilers.
 Hard water cannot be used for dyeing and tanning as the salts in it interferes with the mode
of action of these processes.

Properties of water

 Pure water is a clear, colorless, tasteless and odorless liquid.

 It has a boiling point of 100oC and a melting point of OoC.
 It has a maximum density of 1g/cm3 at 4oC.
 It is neutral to litmus.

Week 6: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 1

Content: unique properties of water

Unique properties of water

The physical properties of substances are determined largely by two factors:

 The nature of the structural units of the substance.

 The strength of the forces (interatomic, intermolecular or inter ionic) between these
particles.
The melting and boiling point of water are uniquely high; this is due to the fact that water
molecules tend to form aggregates where the molecules are linked by hydrogen bonds.
Also, ice is less dense than water; this is contrary to the normal behavior of other
substances.

Anomalous expansion of water

Anomalous expansion of water

Chemical properties of water

 Reaction with metals: metals reacts with water to liberate hydrogen 2K(s)+2H2O → KOH
+ H2. Na and K reacts with cold water, magnesium and zinc reacts to steam, Ca reacts
with warm water, Iron reacts with steam at red-heat. Copper, gold, silver and mercury
do not react with water in any form.
Zn + H2O → ) O + H2
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
 Reaction with non-metals :
C + H2O → CO +H2
 Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HOCl
 Reaction with oxides: metallic oxides reacts with water to form hydroxides, while
certain non-metallic ocides reacts with water to from oxides.
CaO + H2O → Ca OH 2
Na2O + H2O → NaOH

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

TEST FOR WATER

Perform the test: using water, kerosene, salt water and hexane.

When a few drops of water are added to:

 White anhydrous Copper ii tetraoxosulphate Vi it turns blue

CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4.5H2O
 Blue colbalt ii chloride, it turns pink
CoCl2 + 6H2O → CoCl2.6H2O

Week 6: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 2

Content: water pollution

Water pollution
Polluted water is simply water that is unfit for the purpose for which it is intended. The
major water pollutants are
 Refuse and sewage
 Industrial and agricultural waste
 Crude oil spills
 Thermal pollution

REFUSE AND SEWAGE

These are mostly organic matter when disposed into a water body they are broken
down into simple substances by the composers, mainly bacteria. In the process, the
bacteria use up the dissolved oxygen in the water. Too much sewage in the water body
causes an increase in the bacteria population and this reduces the level of oxygen in the
water body.
INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL WASTE
 Contamination of water bodies by fertilizers and pesticides leads to a very undesirable
effect. This contamination results from the phosphate and nitrate present in the
fertilizers. Phosphate and nitrate encourage the growth amount of algae, this
uncontrolled growth of algae (algae boom or eutrophication) leads to depletion of
dissolved oxygen in the water body when the algae decomposes after death. Nitrate in
sufficient concentration is toxic to most higher organisms. Many other harmful chemical
waste like detergents and insecticides are non- biodegradable.

CRUDE OIL SPILLS

The oil floats on water and kills most of the marine life in the affected water. Oil spills
can prevent people from using the water and beach for recreational purposes.

THERMAL POLLUTION
Many industries use water for cooling, the resulting warm water is emptied into the
water body. This causes an increase in the temperature of the water, as a result, less
oxygen dissolves in it. This affects the aquatic life adversely.

CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION

 Refuse should be burnt in an incinerator.
 Sewage should be processed, treated and converted to useful fertilizers in sewage
plants,
 Chemical waste should be converted to harmless bio-degradable substance before
being dumped into the sea.
 Safety measures must be implemented to prevent crude oil spills.
 Strict laws must be passed to control water pollution by individuals and companies.

assignment

Write on eutrophication, a one page account

Week 6: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 3

Content: solutions, suspensions and colloids

SOLUTIONS

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances; they are usually classified
according to their physical state. Liquid solutions are most common and probably the most
important to the chemist. The dissolved substance in a solution is called the solute and the
dissolving medium is called the solvent.

Solute + solvent = solution

The most common solvent in nature is water; it is referred to as the universal solvent. Water
is an excellent solvent for electrovalent compounds because of its polar nature. All covalent
compounds such as sugar, alkanol and glycerol which contain the hydroxyl group will
dissolve in water. Gases which ionize a solution or react with water often dissolves in water
readily. Organic substances dissolve readily in organic solvent like kerosene, petrol,
benzene, hexane etc. these are known as organic or non-polar solvent.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

Solutions can be aqueous (when water is the solvent), a solution can also be a chemical
solution (when the solution of dissolution of a solute and solvent is accompanied by
chemical reaction). A solution can also be dilute or concentrated depending on the solute:
solvent ratio. Solutions have two major types, true solutions and false solutions.

SUSPENSIONS

This is an heterogeneous mixture of undissolvedparticles in a given medium. A solid is said

to be in suspension in a liquid when small particles of the solid contained in the liquid are
not dissolved in it. In a suspension, a liquid solvent is known as a dispersion medium while
the solid particles constitute the dispersed medium. Example muddy water, harmattan. The
solid in a suspension often settled in the bottom if left undisturbed.

COLLOIDS

A colloidal or false solution is an intermediate between a true solution and a suspension. In

colloids, the solute particles are larger than the particles of true solutions but not large
enough to be seen by the naked eye. Like a true solution, the dispersion medium and
dispersed substance in colloids may be a solid liquid or a gas. Examples of colloid:
preparation of starch with hot water (ogi), jelly or glue. Emulsions such as milk and albumen
are liquid in liquid colloidal solutions; smokes and harmattan are examples of solid in gas
colloids. Fog is a liquid in gas colloid (fine particles of water in air).

Differences between true and false solutions

True solutions False solution

The solution can pass through a filter paper
The solute can be dialyzed i.e the solute can
diffuse through a semi permeable
membrane
The solutes does not scatter light
Assignment
The solute cannot pass through a filter
paper
The solution cannot be dialyzed
The solute can scatter light rays i.e the
solution exhibits tyndall effect.

Give 2 examples each of solutions, suspensions and colloids.

Week 6: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 4

Content: solubility

Solubility

The solubility of a solute in a particular solvent, at a specified temperature is the maximum

amount of the solute in moles or grams that will dissolve in 1dm3 of the solvent at that
temperature. Solubility is a means of comparing the extent to which different solutes can
dissolve in a particular solvent at a definite temperature.

Saturated and unsaturated solutions

A saturated solution of a solute is one which contains as much solute as it can dissolve at
that temperature in the presence of undissolved solute particles. The composition of a
saturated solution is not affected by the presence of excess solute.

An unsaturated solution has a lower concentration of solute than a saturated solution and
can dissolve more solutes , if added until it becomes saturated. An increase in temperature
results in a corresponding increase in the solubility of a substance. While decrease in
temperature results in decreased solubility. But for gases, an increase in temperature
results in a decrease in the solubility of the gas. An exception is hydrogen chloride gas.

Supersaturated solution : this is a solution which can conatin more of the solute than it can
normally dissolve at that temperature. A super saturated solution however is unstable
andthe excess solute will separate out if the solution is disturbed, or if a tiny crystal if the
solute is added to it.

Determination of solubility

Assignment:

write out a procedure for the preparation of a saturated solution of your choice(group
assignment: practical)

It involves the following process:

 Preparing a saturated solution of the given solute at the specified temperature.

 Taking a known mass of the saturated solution.
  Heating to dryness, the known mass of the saturated solution , so that the exact
mass of the solute and the solvent in the saturated solution at that temperature can
be determined.

Calculations on solubility

1. 25.0g of KCl were dissolved in 80g of distilled water at 30oC. Calculate the solubility of the
solute in mol/dm3 (K = 39, Cl = 35.5)
2. Water was added to 50.0g of NaCl to produce 100cm3 of a saturated solution at 25oC. If the
solubility of the salt at this temperature is 7mol/dm3, calculate the number of moles of
undissolved salt.
3. 500cm3 of a saturated solution of aluminiumchloride(AlCl3) contains 26.7g dissolved in it at
45oC. What is the solubility in mol/dm3 at this temperature.
4. The solubility of Pb(NO3)2 is 1500g per 1000g of water at 85oC and 500g per 1000g of water
at 40oC. Canculate the mass of Pb(NO3)2 that will crystallize out of solution if 120g of the
saturated solution at 85oC is cooled to 40oC.

Assignmnent

Essential revision questions 208-209

Week 7: water, solutions and solubility

Lesson no. 1

Content: solubility curves

Solubility curves

The solubilities of a solute in a particular solvent at different temperatures can be determined

and graphically represented by plotting solubility as a function of temperature. The curve
obtained is called the solubility curve of the solute.

Importance of solubility curves

 It enables us to read solubilities at any required temperature.

 It enables us to determine the mass of the solute that would crystallize out when a
saturated solution at a higher temperature is cooled to a lower temperature.
 It enables chemists and researchers to determine the most suitable solvent to be used
at varied temperatures
 It enables pharmacists to know the amount of solid drug that must be dissolved in a
given quantity of solvent to give prescribed drug mixtures.
Carbon and its compounds

Carbon

Carbon occurs naturally as diamond and graphite. Pure carbon is found in the form of diamond(india,
south africa) and impure carbon as graphite(Ceylon). Carbon is a constituent of numerous naturally
occurring substances such as coal, mineral oils, carbonates, organic matter of any kind and occurs in the
air to a small but very important extent (0.03% by volume) as carbon dioxide.

Allotropes of carbon

The existence of an element in two or more structural forms but same physical state is known as
allotropy. Carbon can exist in three different allotropic forms. These are diamond, graphite and
amorphous or non-crystalline carbon.

Diamond

Diamonds Aren't Forever - Chemistry- A Volatile History - BBC Four.mp4

Diamond is the purest form of naturally occurring carbon. It is found as colourless, lusterless solids,
which can be transformed into brilliant gems. Diamond crystal is octahedral in shape. It is a giant
molecule in which the carbon atoms are closely packed and held by strond covalent bonds.
Artifitial diamonds are made by subjecting graphite to very high pressure and temperature for several
hours in the presence of a catalyst such as rhodium or nickel.

Graphite Ni/Rh diamond

Properties of diamond

 It is the hardest known substance

 It has a high melting point
 It is very dense and resistant to high temperatures and chemical attack.
 It is a non conductor of heat and electricity because it has no valence electrons

Uses

 It is used as an abrasive(because of its density and hardness)

 It is used in the manufacture of glass cutters and rock breakers
 Diamond is used as pivot support in precision instruments
 It’s high ef a ti e i de akes it alua le as je el .
 Diamond is used as pivot support in precision instruments

Graphite
Graphite exist as black, slippery, hexagonal crystals. The carbon atoms in graphite form flat layers and
are joined together by dtrong covalent bonds. These layers are arranged in parallel, one above the
other, with weak intermolecular forces operating between the graphite layers. Graphite is produced
industrially by heating coke to a high temperature in an electric furnance. This process is called Acheson
process.
Properties

 Graphite is an opaque, flaky, soft crystalline solid with metallic lustre

 It is chemically inert but is less dense than diamond
 Unlike diamond, graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity because of the presence of
mobile electrons in the crystal lattice. The mobile electrons exist since only three out of the four
valence electrons of each carbon atom in graphite are involved in bond formation.

Uses

 Graphite is used as a lubricant in engines

 A mixture of graphite and clay is used in the manufacture of lead pencils
 As a good conductor of electricity, graphite is used as electrodes in electrolysis
 It is used as a black pigment and as neutron moderator in atomic piles.

Difference between diamond and graphite

diamond graphite
Colourless, transparent solid Black opaque solid with a metallic lustre
Density is 3.5gcm-3 Average density is 2.3gcm-3
Hardest known natural material Very soft, markes paper
Non conductor of electricity Good conductor of electricity
Octahedral in shape Hexagonal in shape
Amorphous carbon

This allotrope of carbon can exist in different forms

 Animal charcoal: is made by heating animal refuse and bones with a limited supply of air.
 Wood charcoal: made by heating wood with a limited supply of air.
 Lampblack: is made by burning oils(kerosene, tupertine) in a limited supply of air.
 Sugar charcoal: it is made by dehydrating sugar
 Coke, soot are other forms of amorphous carbon.

Cha oal…
Sugar charcoal

Coal

Coal is a black organic rock formed from the vegetation of the carboniferous period. It is the result of
complex chemical and physical changes that took place when remains of forest, big trees and
vegetations were buried under the ground millions of years ago, under great pressure and temperature
in the absence of air. There are four types of coal: peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite(which is
about 95% pure carbon). Coal is widely used as fuel to generate power for steam engines, factories and
electrical plants.

Structure of coal
Destructive distillation of coal

Destructive distillation of coal.mp4

Coal provides valuable raw materials for chemical industry. When coal is heated (in the absence of air)
to a very high temperature, it decomposes to give four main products, namely- coke, ammoniacal liquor,
coal tar and coal gas.

coal→ oke + a o ia al li uo + oal ta + oal gas

this process is known as the destructive distillation of coal.

Assignment:
Explain the destructive distillation of wood and its products

Gasification of coal

 Producer gas: is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen (2CO(g) + N2(g)), prepared by passing
air over red-hot coke in a furnance. The oxygen in the air oxidizes the coke to carbon monoxide
with the liberation of a lot of heat while nitrogen is unchanged.

2C(s) + O2(g) + N2(g) → 2CO(g) + N2(g) + HEAT

Producer gas is used as a fuel but has a low heating power as it contains 70% non combustible nitrogen
and 30% carbon II oxide.

 Water gas: is a mixture that contains equal volumes of carbon II oxide and hydrogen. It is
prepared by passing steam over red-hot coke in a furnance at 1000oC
C(s) + H2O(g) →CO(g) + H2(g)
The reaction is endothermic while the production of producer gas is an exothermic reaction. In
view of this both gases are produced industrially in the same plant, known as the producer. By passing
air and steam alternately through heated coke.

Water gas is a more efficient fuel than producer gas because in water gas both hydrogen and carbon II
oxide burn in air, releasing a lot of heat. This makes water gas an important industrial fuel. The presence
of CO2 makes it poisonous.
Properties of carbon

All allotropes of carbon have similar chemical properties, since they are all chemically identical. They are
insoluble in all common solvents like water, alkalis, acids, petrol and carbon IV sulphide.

 Combustion: all forms of carbon burns in excess O2 to produce CO2.

C + O2 → CO2
IN LIMITED supply of air carbon II oxide is produced
2C + O2 → CO
 Reactions in a charcoal pot: a charcoal pot fire receives its air supply through an aperture below
the fire and also from the surface
 And equations
 Combination reactions: carbon combines directly with certain elements such as hydrogen,
sulphur and aluminium.
C + 2H2 → CH4
C + S → CS2
2C + Ca → CaC2
 AS reducing agents: carbon is a strong redusing agent.
Fe2O3 + C → Fe + CO
H2O + C → CO + H2
 Reaction with strong oxidizing agents:
C + H2SO4 → CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O
C + 4HNO3 → CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O

Oxides of carbon

An oxide is a compound that contains only two elements, one of which is oxygen. Carbon forms two
main oxides CO AND CO2 (Carbon II oxide and carbon IV oxide).

Carbon IV oxide
The atmosphere contains 0.03% carbon IV oxide by volume. Carbon IV oxide does not support
combustion however it is very important to green plants which make use of it in the presence of water
and sunlight to produce glucose. This process is known as photosynthesis.

Preparation

 Reaction of dilute acid with trioxocarbonate.

CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
 Action of heat on metallic trioxocarbonates
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
 Alcoholic fermentation of glucose
C6H12O6 → C2H5OH + 2CO2

Physical properties

 It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas

 It is slightly soluble in water
 It is denser than air
 It is a weak acidic gas which turns moist blue litmus paper red
 On cooling it readily liquefies and solidifies to form a white solid known as dry ice.

Chemical properties

 Reaction with burning magnesium

2Mg + CO2 → MgO + C
 Reaction with water
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3
 Reaction with alkalis
CO2 + NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
 Reaction with red-hot carbon
CO2 + C → CO

TEST for carbon IV OXIDE

When carbon IV oxide is bubbled into lime water(calcium hydroxide), the lime water turns milky due to
the precipitation of insoluble CaCO3.

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O

With excess CO2 the milky solution becomes colourless

CO2 + CaCO3 + H2O → Ca HCO3)2

USES of CO2

 It is used in fire extinguishers

 It is used in the manufacture of mineral water such as pepsi-cola, coke and other carbonated
drinks.
 Solid CO2 (dry ice) is used as a cooling agent in refrigerators
 It is used as a leavening agent in baking of bread. Yeast and baking powder produce carbon IV
OXIDE
 Green plants use CO2 for photosynthesis
 It is used in the solvay process
 It is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors

Note: immediate supply of CO2 a e o tai ed usi g kipp’s appa atus.

Carbon II oxide CO

CO is a poisonous, colourless and odourless gas. It is present in coal gas and other gaseous fuels. It is
produced by incomplete combustion of carbon compounds. An atmosphere containing 0.5% of CO may
cause death it it is inhaled for some time.

Lab preparation

CO is prepared by the action of concentrated H2SO4 on methanoic acid or oxalic acid. This is a
dehydrating reaction.

 Methanoic acid conc. H2SO4, -H2O CO(g)

 oxalic acid conc. H2SO4, -H2O CO(g) + CO2(g)

CO2 is removed by passing the mixture of gases through NaOH or KOH solution

 CO2(g) + C(s) → CO(g)

Physical properties

 It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.

 It is neutral to litmus
 It is slightly lighter than air
 It is insoluble in water.

Chemical properties

 As a reducing agent: CO is a good reducing agent.

PbO(s) + CO(g) → P (s) + CO2(g)
 CuO(s) + CO(g) → Cu (s) + CO2(g)
 Combustion reaction
2CO(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
 With haemoglobin: CO is a poisonous gas, it combines with the haemoglobin in red blood cells
to form carboxyhaemoglobin and thus prevents the haemoglobin from distributing oxygen
round the body.

Test for CO

Carbon II oxide burns in air with a blue flame to give carbon IV oxide which turns lime water milky.

Uses

 CO is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals.

 It is an important constituent of gaseous fuels like water gas, producer gas e.t.c.
 It is used in commercial production of methanol
CO(g) + 2H2(g) → CH3OH (ZINC CHROMATE CATALYST, 450oC and 200atm)

Trioxocarbonates IV (CO32-)

Trioxocarbonate IV may be regarded as salts derived from trioxocarbonate IV acid (H2CO3) when it
reacts with metals, metallic oxides or other dissolved salts. Trioxocarbonates of sodium, K and
ammonium are soluble in water. All other trioxocarbonates are insoluble. Ammonium trioxocarbonate is
weakly alkaline in solution and it decomposes easily, even at room temperature to give ammonia and
carbon IV oxide.

Assignment

Explain extensively the solvay process.

List three properties of trioxocarbonates

State the test for trioxocarbonates

Carbon cycle

Diagram

Carbon represents about 18% of the living matter and is being continuously circulated in nature by a
series of changes known as the carbon cycle. Atmospheric CO2 forms a vital link among the various
carbon compounds. The volume of carbon IV oxide in the atmosphere remains constant. This is achieved
through a natural balance between its rate of formation and removal from the atmosphere, through the
following processes.

 Respiration of living organisms

 Burning of all substances
 Decay of all organic substances
 Heating of CO32- AND HCO32-
 Fermentation of sugars
 deforrestation

Carbon IV oxide is removed from the atmosphere by:

 Photosynthesis
 Dissolving in rain water and natural water bodies
 Dissolving in chemicals like alkalis
 Afforestation

Assignmnent

 Explain the carbon cycle and why you think activites of human(anthropogenic) have disrupted
the carbon cycle.