Introduces You To

The World Of Batteries

 Disclaimer
This book has been published with all reasonable efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the author. This
book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, or otherwise circulated without
the copyright owner's prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a
similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under
copyright reserved above, no part of this publication maybe reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any other means without the permission of the copyright owner.

Registered Office- 907-Sneh Nagar, Sapna Sangeeta Road,

Agrasen Square, Indore – 452001 (M.P.), India
Website: http://www.wingspublication.com
Email: mybook@wingspublication.com
First Published by WINGS PUBLICATION 2022
Copyright © Ramesh Natarajan
Title : BATTERIES DEMYSTIFIED
All Rights Reserved.
ISBN : 978-93-90661-69-5
LIMITS OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY
The Author of this book is solely responsible and liable for its content including but not limited to the views, representations,
descriptions, statements, information, opinions and references. The information presented in this book is solely compiled by the
Author from sources believed to be accurate and the Publisher assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. The
information is not intended to replace or substitute professional advice.
The Content of this book shall not constitute or be construed or deemed to reflect the opinion or expression of the Publisher.
Publisher of this book does not endorse or approve any content of this book or guarantee the reliability, accuracy or completeness
of the content published herein and do not make any representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, including but
not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose. The Publisher shall not be held liable
whatsoever for any errors, omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause or
claims for loss or damages of any kind, including without limitation, indirect or consequential loss or damage arising out of use,
inability to use, or about the reliability, accuracy or sufficiency of the information contained in this book. All disputes are subject
to Indore (M.P.) jurisdiction only.
 Dedicated to
my parents
This book is undoubtedly
a result of their blessings…
My mother, Mrs. Mohana Natarajan, is no more. She did not have any
formal educational degree. She was one amongst a few persons whom I
adored for various reasons. She acquired all the necessary knowledge she
wanted in her lifetime - despite the lack of formal education. She used
technology relevant to the times to further her goal of learning and I am
fortunate to have hopefully imbibed a lot of her wisdom and innovative
thoughts. How I wish she had lived to see this day!
My father, Mr. K V Natarajan, is a veteran of the Indian battery industry.
His lifetime achievements are difficult to emulate. I have always been a keen
admirer of his work ethic and his systematic method of working. I have been
fortunate to have had the opportunity to learn a lot from him. He is 92 years
old now and his passion for work and his selflessness continue to be a source
of inspiration for me.
 Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks are due, to my wife, Nalini, who has ensured that I can
pursue my career and passion for work in an unhindered and devoted manner.
This has provided me with the strength and courage to explore uncharted
territories all through my life. Her assurance at all stages of my life has made
our over 30 years of togetherness seem like a breeze. She has always been
and continues to be a tremendous source of motivation for me. She has
ensured that all family-related activities, especially as regards our children,
during their growing up years - were handled by her, with due care and
necessary tenderness. If not for this cooperation from her, all through my
career and especially in the last few months, when I started this writing
activity - I would not have ventured into this project.
I must thank my son Rahul, who has contributed a lot by adding relevant
photos and has suggested important changes to improve the aesthetics and
readability of this book. His suggestions to make the book user-friendly have
helped me to stick to my goal of keeping the book simple and hopefully
interesting for the layman. He has been a source of immense strength to me
and I am sure he will scale greater heights.
The seed in the form of an idea.... to pen this book.... was planted by my
daughter Priya. My son in law Aditya, asking me regularly about the progress
of the book, has ensured that I work with single-minded devotion and adhere
to a timeline. Their ideas and ardent support is something I will always
cherish.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Mr. Bejoy Peter, my media advisor,
for his help in publishing this book.
 Preface
Congratulations!
You are holding in your hand a book, which I hope, will demystify the
subject of lead acid batteries for you.
I have tried my best to keep the language simple and not use any jargon or
complicated chemical formulae, which can confuse the reader and encourage
the skipping of pages or chapters.
Battery manufacturing...as a subject is evincing much interest in recent times
due to the advent of electric vehicles and due to the environmental activists'
push for renewable energy as an alternative source of power. The "Work
from Home" culture has also compelled many people to install UPS systems
in their homes to ensure the availability of uninterrupted power. Thus,
batteries have touched everyone's lives in one way or the other.
The manufacturing of batteries necessitates some understanding of
metallurgy, chemistry, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering
calculations in addition to chemical engineering. The subject of batteries,
however, is even nowadays taught at a very superficial level in colleges.
Over the years, I have been approached by professors and students of various
engineering colleges with a request that I help them understand the subject of
batteries better. A few from the battery manufacturing fraternity have also
been encouraging me to share my knowledge and experience.
With over 42 years of experience.... encompassing design, process,
production, quality assurance, testing and QMS in addition to working on
large projects to set up lead acid battery plants.....I realised that I need to give
back something to society in terms of my experience by sharing my
knowledge on this topic.
I started in a small way by answering the various queries raised on Quora.
I am happy to note that my answers on Quora have received over 80000
views as on date in a very short period of time. The ‘Up votes’, ‘Comments’
and ‘Shares’ of my answers have also been a source of encouragement for
me.
As I mentioned at the beginning of this interaction with you, I want to
demystify the subject of batteries for you - the battery user. I do not want you
to run through the pages without understanding just because you have got this
book. Hence this book has basic data only.
If you have bought this book, I hope you will find it useful enough so that it
delivers some value to you. If you have been gifted this book by a well-
wisher, I can only say that you are lucky to have such people in your circle of
friends and family.
Enjoy the reading experience and do send me your queries pertaining to lead
acid batteries and send me your feedback about this book on,
- rameshnkailad@gmail.com.
 Prologue
The development of the human species, from the days of being a caveman
until the date of establishing his supremacy by hunting down other animals
for food, has been chronicled down the ages. Once human beings learnt to
survive on a day to day basis, the natural progression was to store for future
needs.
Storage of energy, as a necessity for use as and when required in the future,
was also a similar need.
The birth of lead acid batteries to store energy was a landmark invention in
the evolution of mankind. The first version of the Lead Acid Battery was
invented by the Frenchman Gaston Plante in the year 1860. This was the
most successful secondary battery and continues to be the most practical &
widely used safe battery of robust design till date. Lead Acid Batteries are
highly recyclable, making it the lowest environmental footprint energy
storage technology. Plante used corroded lead foils to form the active
material and contained the electrolyte in a glass jar. He separated the lead
foils to prevent shorting by inserting a rubber strip in between these foils.
With a view to improving the battery capacity further, Faure coated the lead
foils with lead oxide. This enhanced commercial usage and provided wider
acceptance of the technology. The success of this was improved upon by
replacing the lead foils with perforated lead mesh, i.e. a grid structure to hold
the paste. This was done in the year 1881 by Volckmar. Sellon, in the same
year 1881, worked on these lead grids and added Antimony which hardened
the grid and improved the mechanical strength.
Further improvements in subsequent years by Brush, Tudor & Lucas
continued. In the year 1890, Phillipart designed the tubular battery with
individual ring-type construction.
Subsequent years witnessed a lot of research & developments in alloys and
paste formulations, which led to improvements in battery life and capacity.
The automation of processes once the technology was standardised helped
industries to manufacture consistent quality products with a much better life.
The Lead Acid Batteries became very popular due to its various applications
in automobiles, trains, aircrafts, telecom sector, material handling
applications, golf carts, scrubbers, space research, electric vehicles, nuclear
power stations, solar photovoltaic systems, UPS systems, home inverters etc.
etc. The challenge faced by the users was in terms of the maintenance of
these batteries.
This was satisfactorily addressed by the industry by introducing maintenance
free batteries, having, Absorptive Glassmat Separators (AGM) or GEL mixed
with electrolyte, to have an immobilised electrolyte. These batteries were
designed without the conventional vent plugs, which had vent holes for
venting out hydrogen & oxygen gas. The recombinant technology developed
and widely used had batteries with safety valves, which opened when the
pressure inside the battery exceeded safety limits. These Sealed Maintenance
Free (SMF) batteries are popular, and the batteries with such construction are
also called Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries.
However, such maintenance free batteries could not be designed for all the
applications due to certain constraints.
In the meanwhile, certain other applications emerged that needed batteries.
These needed portable maintenance free batteries with limited voltage &
capacities. They were Digital Cameras, Medical Equipments, Mobile Phones,
Toys, Drones, Hand Tools and Defense Instruments etc. etc. Thus, you can
observe that the usage of batteries has impacted mankind to such a large
extent that it is now next to impossible to imagine life without batteries and
energy storage.
The portable applications could not use Lead Acid Batteries, which were
heavy, needed a long time for a recharge, and contained corrosive electrolyte
in the form of sulphuric acid. The development of Lithium Ion batteries as an
alternative to Lead Acid Batteries emerged successfully for this segment.
The Lead Acid Battery has been the most popular, widely used, robust, safe
and economical choice for decades. It still continues as the preferred mode of
storage of energy.
The Lithium Ion battery manufacturers are trying to develop batteries for all
applications, which presently use Lead Acid Batteries. Will the Lead Acid
Battery be able to meet this challenge? Can Lithium Ion Batteries dethrone
Lead Acid Batteries from its lofty pedestal? I have made an effort to list out
the pros & cons of both the technologies and look forward to your comments
on this matter.
Times are changing fast. Climate change is just one of the indicators of things
to come. Our environment is getting severely affected. Nature is showing its
fury. It is now necessary for us to respond fast. We have to listen to the voice
of reason. We have to respect nature and live in harmony, preserving nature
for the sake of future generations.
Lead Acid Batteries or Lithium Ion or Sodium Ion or Aluminum Air or
Nickel Hydrogen? Do we have a choice?
 TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Batteries – concepts explained
2. Introduction to batteries
3. Machines for battery manufacture
4. Terminology you may want to know
5. UPS & Home inverter systems
6. Inverter batteries
7. UPS reliability
8. Inverter & Battery selection
9. Cost of power generation using batteries
10. Replacement of batteries
11. Quality of battery water
12. Batteries in solar power applications
13. Cells in series & Cells in parallel
14. Battery chargers
15. Capacity rating of batteries
16. Electric vehicles & Batteries
17. Good…better…best lead acid battery
BATTERIES – CONCEPTS
EXPLAINED
B efore we proceed ahead, I feel it is necessary to understand certain
concepts.
Electricity, as such, cannot be seen. Its effects are visible and can be
measured using various instruments. To convey the certain phenomenon of
electricity, w.r.t., lead acid batteries, it has been my experience that a
comparison with the behaviour of water, makes this subject, more logical and
easier to understand.
Coulomb – Electrical Unit Of Quantity
The electrical unit of quantity is the Coulomb. It is the quantity of electricity
transported in one second, by a current of one ampere.
Thus, the Coulomb represents a definite amount of electricity and is like a
gallon, which represents a definite amount of water.
Current
When water moves through a pipe, we have a flow or current of water.
Similarly, when we have electricity flowing through a conducting element,
we have a current flow of electricity.
Resistance
The pipe, through which water is passed, offers some resistance to the flow of
water through it. The smaller the pipe diameter, the greater is the resistance.
Also, the longer the pipe – the greater is the resistance to the flow of water
through the pipe.
Similarly, if an electrical conducting copper wire is used, the resistance to the
flow of current is higher if a small cross section of wire is used or a long wire
is used. Additionally, in the case of electricity, the material of the conductor
is another parameter to be considered when we talk of electrical resistance.
Usually, aluminium & copper are used as the conducting materials for cables.
Copper is considered the best conductor & is superior to aluminium.
Voltage
For water to flow in a pipe, pressure is necessary. Hydraulic pressure depends
upon the head of water & is expressed as feet of water. Similarly, the
electrical pressure required to cause a flow or current of electricity through a
conducting wire is called voltage.
The nominal voltage of a lead acid battery cell is 2.0 Volts. Irrespective of the
size of the cell, the voltage is the same. This is due to the chemistry of the
electrodes used in the manufacture of lead acid batteries, which exhibit a
potential difference when charged.
Two battery cells of different sizes may be compared with two water tanks, of
different sizes, capable of storing different volumes of water but of the same
height.

Depending on the level of water in the tank, the water pressure at the outlet
shall change if the valves of both the tanks are kept open in a similar manner.
When it comes to comparing this with a battery, if the current drawn from
two batteries of different sizes (different capacities) are the same, then the
voltage (pressure) shall reduce as the level decreases. It is obvious that the
bigger capacity battery shall last for a longer time.
A Comparison
 Water Tanks Battery Cells
Valve opening in the water tank is the same for both tanks – irrespective of
the size of the water tank A load of 40W bulb
Thus, it is clear, from the comparison above, that the pressure in both water
tanks being the same, due to the same height of water in both the tanks, with
both the water outlet valves being uniformly open – the bigger tank has a
larger capacity. It can dispense water for a longer period.
Similar to the case of water – explained above – the larger capacity cell shall
have a greater capacity to give out electricity than a smaller capacity battery
cell.
Series Connection
To increase the pressure of water, we can add tanks one above the other so
that the height of the water is more, and there is more pressure at the outlet
valve.
In the case of battery cells connected similarly, in series, the voltage shall
become additive. The voltage drop shall be gradual for a fixed load, in the
case of a higher voltage battery, when compared to the drop in voltage of the
lower voltage battery.

Parallel Connection:
To increase the ability of water tanks to dispense water for a longer period of
time, without the need for higher pressure, we can keep tanks side by side,
instead of one above the other. In this case, the pressure shall be the same as
for a single 'tank'.
In the case of battery cells connected in parallel – similar to the water tanks –
the voltage shall remain constant at 2 Volts which is the voltage of one cell.
However, the load can draw current for a longer duration since the capacity
has increased. The capacity of the battery shall be the sum of the capacities of
the number of cells connected in parallel.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm's law states that the voltage between two points is directly proportional
to the current or electricity passing through the resistance & directly
proportional to the resistance of the conducting circuit.
The formula is expressed as V = IR
Thus, it expresses the relation between Voltage (V), Current (I) and
Resistance (R).
If there are two circuits connected to the same voltage, i.e. say we have a
similar cell connected to the load, the current drawn by the load can be
greater in that circuit of lower resistance.
As you can see in the illustration above – the tanks are of the same size, with
the level of water in the tanks being equal. Hence the pressure at the outlet is
equal.
However, the discharge of water from one tank is through a small pipe, i.e.
high resistance. In the other tank, the discharge is through a larger diameter
pipe, i.e. low resistance to the flow of water.
Obviously, the current of water flow shall be more from the tank, which has a
larger diameter pipe, where the resistance to the flow of water is low.

In this sketch of batteries, we have two cells of the same voltage. One cell is
connected to a high resistance circuit and the ammeter shows a low current
flowing through it. The other cell connected to a circuit of low resistance
shows a higher current passing through the circuit.
Now see the sketch below: -

The pressure from one tank is more in comparison to the pressure from the
other tank. Since the resistance is the same, the flow shall be more from the
tank having higher pressure.
In the case of batteries, we observe that the heater load being the same; more
power shall be delivered by batteries of higher voltage compared to a battery
of lower voltage.
Please see the following sketch for a better understanding of the concept
being explained:

RESISTANCE IS SAME FOR BOTH THE CIRCUITS

From the above, it is obvious that the current is directly proportional to the
voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. The formula can be
expressed as follows: -
V (Volts)
I (Amperes) = ------------
R (Ohms)
Electrical Power
The electric power is defined as the product of V, the potential difference and
I, the electric current. i.e. P = VI
Suppose we have 3 cells connected in series operating a lamp having a
resistance of
6 ohms then the current drawn is
6 (Volts)
I (Ampere) = ------------ = 1 ampere
6 (Ohms)
Suppose we have 1 cell operating a lamp having a resistance of 2 ohms then
the current drawn is
2 (Volts)
I (Ampere) = ------------ = 1 ampere
2 (Ohms)
Obviously, the lamp connected to a 6 Volts battery draws 6 Watts Power
since P = 6 Volts x 1 Ampere = 6 W.
By the same logic, the lamp connected to a 2 Volts battery draws 2 Watts
Power since P = 2 volts x 1 Ampere = 2 W.
The lamp of 6 Watts is more powerful and gives more light and is brighter
than the lamp of 2 Watts which is less luminescent.
Electrical power increases as voltage increases and as current increases. It is
proportional to their product.
The unit of electrical power is Watt. As an example, One Watt is equal to
One Ampere flowing under the pressure of One Volt.
Watts (W) = Volts (V) x Amperes (I)
Back Up Duration
It is apparent that when water is drawn from a tank by opening the outlet
valve, the level drops as water flows out. The pressure reduces as the level
comes down and becomes zero when the tank becomes empty.
If the tanks are of the same size and have valves that can be opened partially
or fully, we can operate the valves according to our needs
.
On a similar basis, if we have two cells of the same size, as regards voltage &
capacity, we can draw a lower current from one cell compared to the other.
The cell delivering lower current shall surely last longer, though both the
cells are of the same voltage & capacity.
Extending the logic further, it is obvious that an intermittent draw of current
rather than a continuous draw of current extends service life since the energy
is available for a longer duration. In fact, the intermittent rest period in such
cases aids the battery and increases the available energy substantially in the
case of lead batteries.
Cut Off Voltage

In the above figure, we have shown two tanks having water drain pipes at
different levels. Since the drain pipe is fixed at a lower level in one tank, the
water available for use in this tank is more than the water available for use in
the other tank, where the drain pipe is fixed at a higher level. This is despite
the fact that both the tanks are of the same size, with the top level of the water
being the same, such that the pressure is the same.
The varying level of drain pipes ensures that the flow of water is restricted,
such that water will not flow out of the tank once it has dropped to a
particular level.
This cut off point decided by the placement of the drain is the cut off pressure
point. Irrespective of the rate of flow of water, which can be adjusted by
keeping the valve fully open, or partially open, or equally open, in both the
tanks, the cut off of water supply shall be maintained, based on set level,
depending on the location of the outlet in the tank.
A low cut off ensures good output, i.e., output for a longer duration provided
other parameters are constant for both the tanks. A higher cut off means less
output.
In the case of a battery, a similar working can be obtained by setting the cut
off voltage. The cut-off voltage is the low voltage set point up to which a
load can draw current from the battery during the discharge operation. It is
therefore preferred to set a battery voltage cut off to as low a level as
permitted by the battery manufacturer whenever one is designing a circuit, for
best performance, as regards back up from a battery.
INTRODUCTION TO
BATTERIES
A battery is a device which stores power. This power is used to run different
loads. The chemicals in the device, transform themselves, as they deliver the
power to the load.
Basically, speaking there are two types of batteries – Primary & Secondary.
Primary batteries are those batteries, wherein a certain defined quantity of
chemicals, are available. Once this quantity is spent, over a period of time, as
electrical energy to power a device – the battery has to be discarded.
Secondary batteries are those batteries, which can be used repeatedly, for a
defined period. These batteries can be connected to a load and discharged,
and then charged again for further discharge. The number of such cycles, of
charge and discharge, is determined by the manufacturer. This cycle life is
based on the output power, that the battery has to deliver and the defining
factor is the amount of materials that the device contains. Battery life is
defined as the number of cycles, or, number of years, depending on its
application. Examples of secondary batteries commonly used, are the
batteries, used in motorcycles, cars, buses, trucks, UPS systems, home
inverters, street lighting, railway signaling, telecom applications, battery
operated scrubbers, golf carts, material handling applications etc. etc.
To summarize – a secondary battery can be defined as an electrochemical
device, which converts chemical energy to electrical energy, by a reversible
reaction.
There are various types of secondary batteries viz. nickel cadmium, lead acid,
nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, etc. etc.
We shall try and concentrate on the topic of lead acid batteries, with
references to other battery types restricted, to comparison only, as and when
required.
Lead acid batteries have been around for a very long time and are considered
a proven technology, which is rugged and safe to use. The battery as
developed, in the initial stages has fundamentally remained the same, but
developments over the years have culminated into the emergence of batteries
with tubular plates, for industrial applications, which need a long life.
Subsequent developments have resulted in Valve Regulated Batteries
popularly known as Sealed Maintenance Free Batteries.
The manufacture of lead acid batteries is, highly process oriented, requiring a
basic knowledge of metallurgy, chemical engineering and mechanical
engineering as well as electrical engineering. The entire process from raw
material stage to final inspection, after the assembly of battery, needs 2 to 3
weeks conventionally.
The following flow charts outline the process of an automotive battery and an
inverter battery manufacture.
You would have noticed that the process of manufacture of an "Inverter
Battery", which has tubular positive plates, is a little different from the
process of manufacturing of an "Automotive Battery".
The battery designer adapts the product and ensures that the battery is made
to suit the application.
To elaborate further – the automotive battery has to be compact, lightweight
and be suitable for cranking applications.
An industrial stationary battery has to have a long life and give power to the
load over a defined duration, on a consistent basis, without delivering surge
high current like in a engine starting application. Such stationary batteries
need not be compact and can be heavy. Their being of low maintenance
characteristics or no maintenance type, can however be an advantage.
An industrial traction battery has to be as compact as possible, and shall need
to be rugged enough to work as a prime mover of the electric vehicle, with a
capability to undergo, at least one charge / discharge cycles every day. The
variety of cells, which are required to be made in different sizes, to meet the
varying demands of material handling vehicle manufacturers, is another
matter altogether, in the case of industrial traction batteries.
Attached are pictures showing the various types of lead acid batteries. The
design characteristics are related to the application. The applications of
various lead acid batteries and the target market details are also given.
MACHINES FOR BATTERY
MANUFACTURE
I t is clear from the process flow chart of batteries that lead and oxide of
lead are the main raw materials required for the manufacture of batteries.
The other components, which can be purchased from various vendors, viz.,
battery separators, tubular bags, plastic containers & covers, vent plugs etc.,
are easily available. The chemicals to be used in the process of paste mix
manufacture, as well as sulphuric acid, can also be sourced from reputed
vendors. These components and speciality chemicals are usually not made by
the battery manufacturer.
The process being quite cumbersome, the manufacture involves different
sections/departments, carrying out varied activities over quite a long duration.
Hence, a lot of machines are required, as mentioned in the process flow chart.
As with any industry, it is possible to do a lot of automation and thereby
reduce labour, increase productivity as well as production, optimise costs,
improve quality, have consistency in the product etc. etc. However, the
degree of automation is dictated by the individual manufacturer's market
demands and one's capacity to invest in high value raw materials.
The battery industry also has some manufacturers who do certain operations,
manually or in a semi-automatic manner. This enables the setup of battery
production as a SSI unit.
The photographs of various machines required for the production of battery
plates, assembly and charging, are as shown.

Pressure Die Casting Machine

DEVAKI - India

Negative Grid Casting Machine

DEVAKI - India
 Paste Mixer
UNIK - India

Universal Pasting Machine

UNIK - India
Double Side Pasting Machine
DEVAKI - India

Tubular Plate Filling Machine

UNIK – India
 Curing Chamber
UNIK - India

Plate Formation Rectifiers

ADOR DIGATRON - India
Plate Dry Charging Chamber
UNIK - India

Plate Brushing Machine

UNIK - India
Plate Parting Machine
UNIK - India

Lug Brushing Machine

UNIK - India
Container Hole Punching Machine
TEJASWI - India

Inter Cell Welding Machine

TEJASWI - India
Heat Sealing Machine
TEJASWI - India

Battery Charger
ELIND - India
The machines mentioned cover the major processes. The jigs, fixtures, online
test equipments etc., required for fitting on machines shall depend on the type
of batteries to be manufactured. Other related equipments to be installed,
which shall include demineralised water plant, test equipments, compressors,
material handling equipments, effluent treatment plant etc. etc. shall depend
on the proposed plant capacity.
The list provides data to the extent possible. The detail of machine
manufacturers covers only some machine manufacturers in India who are
amongst the many other reputed manufacturers and who supply proven
machines and is not an exhaustive list.
Large scale manufacturers of batteries install lead smelting plants to recycle
scrap batteries and manufacture Lead Alloy. They also produce Pure Lead
from this alloying facility to process it further as Lead Oxide. Pure Lead is
converted to Lead Oxide by processing it in Ball Mills or Barton Pots.
India has a lot of vendors of equipments who make good quality machines to
produce Lead Alloys & Lead Oxide.

TERMINOLOGY YOU MAY

WANT TO KNOW
UPS & HOME INVERTER
SYSTEMS
U ninterruptible Power Supply Systems are very commonly referred to as
UPS. Such a system used in homes, as standby power source, is often
referred to, as inverter or home inverter.
UPS systems are critical in certain applications i.e. in hospitals, clinics,
jewelry shops, software industries, continuous process industries, telecom
systems, electrical power stations, nuclear power establishments, airports,
organizations using computers etc. etc.
The three basic types of UPS topology are Off Line UPS, ON Line UPS and
Line Interactive UPS.
OFF Line UPS
The most popular and widely used UPS systems, especially in homes and
shops, are Off Line UPS. They are lighter and more affordable and also
portable, due to being smaller in size, compared to other UPS systems.
The Off Line UPS comes into play only in cases of power outage. The utility
power supply connected to the system, is the priority power source, and the
inverter is always on a standby mode. The inverter supplies power to the load
only in case of power failure. The changeover switch in the Off Line UPS
gets activated, to enable the inverter to draw DC power from the batteries and
convert it into AC power for supply to the load.
During such times, when the changeover takes place, by switching on power
to the load from the inverter instead of mains utility – the critical load
normally has a momentary power loss for a few milliseconds. However,
equipments having SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply) tolerate such a
momentary power break, without getting adversely affected.
As and when the power resumption takes place, the changeover switch
ensures that the load gets the supply from the mains utility.
The battery which has been partially or fully discharged, during the power
outage, now needs to be recharged. The charger which is a part of the UPS
system now draws power from the main utility and charges the battery.
Once the battery has been fully charged, the charge current reduces from
boost to a trickle current, which is a low current, sufficient to compensate for
the self-discharge losses of the battery. This trickle current, is such, that the
battery is maintained, within a specified range of voltage, known as the float
voltage.
The advantages of the Off Line UPS are:
r Its portability, due to small size
r Affordable pricing
r Efficient working, as there is no double conversion when utility power is
being utilized.
The disadvantages of the Off Line UPS are:
r Its capacity limitation – usually available up to 3 KVA
r It does not provide power conditioning & protection to the load, when the
load is powered by the utility.
r Has a momentary power break, during transition, from the utility power to
AC supply, through inverter, when battery DC power is being used.
r It is usually available, with a square wave inverter output.
On-Line UPS
The On-Line UPS is a Double Conversion UPS.
In an On-Line UPS, the incoming power from the utility supply, is converted
to DC. The DC power maintains the charge condition of the battery, and is a
source of supply to the inverter. The inverter then inverts the D.C. to A.C.
supply, for the critical load.
At times when the power supply from the utility fails the D.C. power is
drawn from the battery to ensure uninterrupted power supply to the load.
As and when the power resumption takes place, the charger ensures that the
battery is recharged sufficiently, to be ready for supply of power, in case of a
subsequent power breakdown from the utility.
The advantages of the On-Line UPS are:
r Supply of good quality power to the load. The critical load is guaranteed of
power, which is free of spikes, voltage fluctuation, surges and frequency
related issues.
r Absence of transitional switching, in the cases of, power outages and power
resumption.
r Availability of UPS systems, of high capacities. Systems of 800 KVA are
also available in a single unit configuration – thereby ensuring that
continuous process industries or large hospitals can have reliable and
clean power of good quality.
r Reliability of operation and availability of uninterrupted power, without a
break for even milliseconds, as and when, the battery takes over the load.
The disadvantages of the On-Line UPS are:
r Its bulky size and heavy weight. Such a UPS system needs a full size
rectifier, which is capable of, supplying the total power connected to it, as
well as, to charge the battery.
r Its cost, which is naturally more, compared to other UPS designs.
r Its efficiency, considering that this UPS uses the Double Conversion
methodology.
r Its requirement, of a bypass mechanism, to provide additional current, or to
give power to the critical loads, at times of momentary demand. This
becomes necessary, as and when, the UPS inverter is unable to supply
 current, for in-rush demand.
LineInteractive UPS
The Line Interactive UPS functions in a manner similar to Off Line UPS. The
UPS in this case, supplies utility power directly to the load as and when the
power is available. However, the power is made to go through 1 or 2 stages
of filters, with the aim of trying to filter off, some unwanted noise.
A Line Interactive UPS also has a voltage booster, to regulate the output
voltage. This makes the UPS more suitable, for operation in areas having
input under voltage problems. Usually, these UPS operate in a wider range of
input voltage, in the range of, – 30% and +10% of the nominal voltage.
Instead of having a separate charger, to charge the batteries, and an inverter
to convert DC from the batteries to A.C., for powering the load, the Line
Interactive UPS usually has only one converter module, which performs the
function of battery charging as well as discharging.
The transition period is better when compared to OFF Line UPS; however, it
is pertinent to note that, the transfer time exists.
The advantages of the Line Interactive UPS are:
r It is small and compact – hence light weight also.
r It is economically priced.
r It is usually a sine wave inverter output type.
r It has a comparatively faster switching time, as compared to an Off Line
UPS.
The disadvantages of the Line Interactive UPS are:
r Its lack of output power quality control features comparable to On Line
UPS.
r Its unsuitability for critical power loads which are sensitive to transition
 time.
r Its susceptibility to input frequency.
The above systems, all depend on battery power, as an alternative source of
energy, and the selection of the battery, in terms of its capacity, charger
compatibility and quality of the battery are all very important aspects, to be
considered, while deciding on the UPS system purchase.
As a precautionary measure, it is better to have a by-pass switch, to ensure
availability of power, in case of failure of UPS or a fault in the UPS,
especially in cases, where On Line UPS is being used. This by pass switch
ensures that the loads are supplied power, in case of utility power availability,
even if the UPS is not working.

INVERTER BATTERIES
B atteries of the lead acid kind popularly used in home inverter batteries
are of two kinds – sealed maintenance free type or the flooded
electrolyte type.
The major difference at the customer’s end i.e. at the point of use, is that, the
flooded electrolyte type battery can be maintained by water topping up,
whereas the sealed maintenance free batteries cannot be maintained.
Before we proceed further – let us first understand the working of an inverter
coupled to the battery.
A lead acid battery has a series of positive plates and a series of negative
plates, inside. These are the electrodes.
They are the reason, why power is delivered from the battery, through the
inverter, to the load. The inverter converts DC power to AC power, in case of
a power outage.
During this period, the active material of the positive plates converts to
PbSO4, from their active state of PbO2. At the same time the active material
of the negative plates which is in the form of sponge lead, converts itself to
PbSO4.
Once this chemical transformation has taken place completely, the ability of
the electrodes to deliver power is over.
The battery needs to be recharged, by connecting it to a charger. The inverter
unit consists of a suitable charger, which starts working, as soon as AC power
is available.
The charger unit draws A.C. power from the electric mains, and converts it to
DC power, and gives it to the battery. A chemical transformation of PbSO4 to
PbO2 in the case of positive plates, and sponge Pb in the case of negative
plates, now takes place.
The discharged plates are now charged, for delivery of power to the load, in
case of the next outage of power.
This cycle of charge / discharge, with the accompanying chemical
transformation continues, depending on product and maintenance quality of
course, within the manufacturer’s design specifications.
The chemical reaction explained above is depicted as follows:
Material Particulars Charged Discharged
Positive PbO2 PbSO4
Negative Pb PbSO4
Electrolyte Dil. H2SO4 Very Dil. H2SO4
We shall now address the various questions, which a battery inverter user
usually has, one by one.
Why do inverter batteries bulge?
The major cause of bulging of batteries is due to undercharge.
The lead sulphate formed on both the positive & negative plates, during
discharge, occupies more space, than the original materials of the plates, viz.
lead dioxide & sponge lead.
If a battery is left in a undercharged state, due to a fault in the inverter, or due
to the charger being of smaller capacity w.r.t. battery requirement, or battery
being of a large capacity, the battery plates shall not get sufficiently charged.
The solution to this problem is to ensure that the battery coupled to an
inverter, is of correct capacity, as per the recommendation of the inverter
manufacturer.
An overcapacity battery coupled to a under capacity charger, can end up with
undercharged batteries, which, seemingly bulge and leave the customer
dissatisfied, as regards power back up duration.
The person buying the inverter must never suggest to the dealer, to supply a
higher capacity battery, for longer duration of power back up, without
understanding the ability of the charger, to charge the battery from its fully
discharged state.
Why do inverter batteries need top up water?
This query is relevant to flooded electrolyte batteries, which can be
maintained by the user.
The electrolyte in a lead acid battery is dilute sulphuric acid, which has the
water component drying OFF, due to high ambient, or in certain cases, due to
overcharge of the batteries. This water component needs to be replenished
periodically.
At times, when a customer negotiates too much on the price, the dealer ends
up supplying a lower capacity battery, or an automotive battery instead of a
tubular battery, to ensure that his margins are safeguarded. The voltage of the
battery, he ensures to be, as per inverter requirements. Such a compromise,
on the part of system dealer, ends up with overcharge of the battery. An
inverter having a charger of say 15 Amps capacity to charge a 12V 120Ah
battery, ends up charging a 12V 60Ah or 12V 80Ah battery, at a current of 15
Amps, which is very high for the 60 Ah or 80Ah battery, This shall surely
heat up the lower capacity smaller battery, necessitating more frequent water
topping up.
A fault in the charger of the inverter, with the charger not tapering down the
current, as the battery picks up charge, or not cutting off charging, as soon as
the battery is fully charged, can be another possible reason for batteries
needing more top up water, or needing top up water frequently.
Why does the back up of an inverter battery reduce?
The back up of an inverter battery depends on the load connected and the
capacity of the battery.
More the load – lesser will be the backup duration.
Lower the battery capacity – lesser will be the backup duration.
Ensure that the load on the system is not increased over a period of time, to
draw a false conclusion that the backup was better earlier, and, has reduced
over a period of time.
A natural reduction in backup over a long period of usage, despite load
remaining constant, is acceptable as the battery ages.
However do check tightness of battery cable connections and ensure that
petroleum jelly is applied to the terminals periodically, during routine
maintenance, so that loose contact is not the cause of this reduced back up
duration.
Why does water or acid bubble out of the top of inverter batteries?
The most commonly observed cause of water coming out of the top of
inverter batteries is overfilling of water during top up.
Another possible reason is overcharging due to use of smaller capacity
battery, or, a bigger capacity charger, or, a fault in the charger.
Why do inverter batteries – sometimes explode?
Batteries on charge release hydrogen gas, which needs to escape through the
vent holes of the vent plugs, in the case of flooded electrolyte batteries.
If the vent holes are covered due to dust or any material kept on top of the
battery, the buildup of gases inside the battery increases the pressure on the
battery container, leading to an explosion.
Another possible reason for explosion is a metallic contact, which causes
shorting of the positive and negative terminals of the battery. It is necessary
to ensure that only insulated spanners or tools are used whilst working on
batteries. Accidental shorting of terminals, or any metallic item coming in
contact with exposed terminals of the battery, can cause an explosion.
Loose contact in the terminals, which can cause a spark, is to be avoided.
When a battery is on charge – explosive hydrogen gases evolved, can come
out through the vent holes. A spark due to loose contact can ignite and be the
cause of a fire or explosion. These are of course rare occurrences and are not
very common with low voltage systems of home inverter.
To summarize the above
1) Avoid overfilling.
2) Ensure proper charging – no under charging
3) Keep terminals clean and tightly connected.
4) Periodically check whether the batteries are being overcharged and correct
such a fault, if any.
5) Ensure that the load connected, to the batteries, is as per recommendation.
6) Clean the vent plugs during routine maintenance, to ensure that the vent
holes are not clogged.
Finally but most importantly – do buy inverter and batteries from a dealer
who gives you the system, as per the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Please note that an inverter meant for sealed maintenance batteries, has the
charger settings, which are different from the settings, meant for flooded
electrolyte batteries. Do not interchange a sealed maintenance free battery
with a flooded electrolyte battery or vice versa, when you need to change the
batteries of an inverter. This can be done only after changing the charger
settings in the inverter.
UPS RELIABILITY
R eliability of a UPS system or Home Inverter system is a matter of
concern to the user, more so if the UPS is meant to supply power in
cases of emergency to highly critical and sensitive loads.
To ensure the reliability of power availability, at times of power outage from
the utility, maintenance of the UPS system, which includes batteries, is an
absolute must. The maintenance must not be restricted to breakdown
maintenance. The maintenance, in fact, must be preventive & predictive in
nature.
The schedule for preventive maintenance must be followed strictly, with a
special focus on batteries, considering that batteries are the component
needing a top up with water, corrosion resistant coating at contact points of
the terminals, cleaning of the battery top as well as vent holes of the vent
plugs etc. etc. The UPS per se, though it is complex electronic equipment, has
no moving parts other than cooling fans if the fans are provided. Ensuring
cleanliness of the UPS, using a cloth for wiping and a blower to blow off
accumulated dust, is usually sufficient.
The preventive maintenance of UPS and batteries must be assigned to
qualified personnel, with greater stress, on battery maintenance.
In any case, the UPS cannot be generally repaired, reset, or attended to, at the
site, in case of problems in the UPS. It has to be usually done by the factory,
or by factory trained personnel, in a service workshop. As long as a UPS
manufacturer has the spares available in the city of operation and has an
authorised service centre, the user has an assurance as regards UPS.
Diagnosis of battery related issues and the promptness with which battery
problems can be sorted out, as and when there are back up related issues, or a
failure of UPS, is, therefore, the only matter of concern for the UPS user.
The UPS vendor must have,
r An accessible and responsive service organisation.
r Battery service experts who shall attend to calls promptly.
r Technical ability and expertise to handle service needs of UPS and battery.
r A team offering periodic preventive maintenance, on a regular basis, in a
defined manner.
r A scheme offering Annual Maintenance Contracts.
r A trained team, with quick response capability.
Distributors and dealers of UPS systems, who do not have the capability to
solve problems at the site, are unsuitable for this work. Such vendors are
unable to meet the needs of the customer, who invest in high end costly UPS
systems. The customer, who is the end user, must be wary of such agencies
and buy a UPS system or Home Inverter system based on the above
guidelines.

INVERTER & BATTERY

SELECTION
I t is possible to determine the inverter as well as battery capacity in Ah,
which is required, for a certain load capacity, if the backup duration is
already defined.
The following steps and the constant termed as K factor selected from the
chart shall enable the battery user to finalise the required battery capacity.
Step 1
List out the loads to be connected to the inverter and arrive at total VA. In
case W is known, the VA can be calculated for a presumed power factor of
0.86.
Sr. Watts of each Total Total
Appliances Qty.
No. unit Watts VA
1 Ceiling Fans 2 75 150 174
2 Tube Light 2 40 80 93
3 CFL Lights 5 20 100 116
Washing
4 1 1000 1000 1162
Machine
Sandwich
5 1 750 750 872
Toaster
6 Microwave Oven 1 1200 1200 1395
7 Laptop 1 100 100 116
8 Printer 1 250 250 290
Total 3630 4218
The total load in VA is 4218. Usually, the user switches off at least 50% of
the load in case of power failure. Hence the inverter of 2109 VA is
considered sufficient. However, in such cases, care must be taken to ensure
that the maximum load of any one of the connected equipments does not
exceed this 50% presumed load of 2019 VA. In the above case, the
microwave oven needs 1395 VA, which is less than the 2109 VA calculated.
Step 2
Find out from the inverter vendor as to what is the voltage of the battery to be
connected to the inverter. Based on home inverters popular in India, we have
the following data:
Model Inverter Capacity Battery Voltage
A 650 VA 12 Volts
B 750 VA 12 Volts
C 1050 VA 12 Volts
D 1650 VA 24 Volts
E 2000 VA 24 Volts
F 2500 VA 36 Volts
G 2500 VA 48 Volts
H 3500 VA 48 Volts
Step 3
Since the requirement based on the load in the above case comes to 2109 VA,
we shall consider the 2500 VA inverter as suitable for our use.
Step 4
Now we can determine the current that shall be drawn by the load ideally. We
have the option of using inverter models F and G.
Model F 2500 VA divided by 36 Volts = Draws 69.44 Amps DC
Model G 2500 VA divided by 48 Volts = Draws 52.08 Amps DC
Step 5
Find out the efficiency of the inverter. Usually, it is 80% or 85%.
If efficiency is 80%, it means the efficiency is 80 divided by 100 = 0.80.
If efficiency is 85%, it means the efficiency is 85 divided by 100 = 0.85.
Step 6
Now we can determine the current that shall be required to be considered, for
our operational needs, based on the inverter model, for the two different
efficiencies.
Model F (36 Volts) 69.44 / 0.80 = 86.3 Amps. for 80% inverter efficiency.
Model F (36 Volts) 69.44 / 0.85 = 81.6 Amps. for 85% inverter efficiency.
Model G (48 Volts) 52.08 / 0.80 = 85.1 Amps. for 80% inverter efficiency.
Model G (48 Volts) 52.08 / 0.85 = 81.2 Amps. for 85% inverter efficiency.
Step 7
Refer to the K factor chart, which lists out the factor to be used in the
calculation, for different back up durations.
For e.g.
Inverter model F is of 36 Volts & shall need 3 batteries of 12 Volts in series.
Inverter model G is of 48 Volts & shall need 4 batteries of 12 Volts in series.
If we choose to use a Model F inverter with 85% inverter efficiency and need
a backup for 2 hours, the chart of K factor above specifies a factor of 3.16.
Multiply 81.6 Amps required by the inverter of 85% efficiency with 3.16 to
arrive at 81.6 x 3.16 = 257.85 Ah
say 250 Ah
CONCLUSION
Inverter Model F
Inverter Efficiency 85%
Backup Duration 2 Hours
Inverter Capacity 2500 VA
Battery Voltage 36 Volts
Battery Ah 250 Ah
COST OF POWER GENERATION
USING BATTERIES
W ith the increasing trend of working from home (WFH), and with the
installation of inverters at home no longer considered a luxury,
almost all residences have opted for a fairly large capacity home inverter, in
addition to a small UPS for computers.
Shops and clinics in urban areas have been equipped with an Uninterrupted
Power Supply system for many years. Of late, this trend of installing UPS is
being observed in rural areas, where power interruptions are relatively more
frequent. Many professionals have shifted back to their hometowns during
the lockdown and are continuing to work from home. Schools & colleges are
also conducting classes online. The demand for UPS systems has therefore
gone up drastically.
One question, which is often asked, is whether the power bills from the utility
power go up, as and when a UPS is installed. In other words, does the
consumption of power from the utility increase?
On the other hand, there are a few people who seem to have a contrarian
view. They ask as to whether it is better to utilise battery power through the
newly installed inverter on a daily basis and avoid using utility power for 2 to
3 hours, though the power from the grid is available. They want to do it, at
least over the weekend, when WFH is not being done.
We shall now see an approximate calculation of the cost of power generation
in cases where a battery is connected to the UPS system.
Part II – Units Of Power Generated
A battery of 120Ah @C10 is to be considered as a battery
of 86 Ah @C3. It can deliver 28.68 Amps for 3 hours
i.e. 12 Volts x 28.68 Amps x 3 hours = 1032.48 Wh
1032.48 Wh translates to 1.03 units per day.
If the battery is being used for 12 days x 12 months x 3 years, i.e. 432 cycles
- it means the battery can deliver 432 cycles x 1.03 units = 444.96 units…..
445 units of power.
Summation
Based on the above, we observe that the cost of 1 unit of power works out to
Rs. 26.71
i.e. total cost Rs.11887.00 divided by 445 units.
Conclusion
The cost of power generated using a battery is very high, and hence the usage
of inverter/UPS power must be optimised.
Suggestions & Recommendations
1) Ensure that battery is maintained well, so that it works, for more than 3
years.
2) Ensure that you do not compromise on the battery quality with price as the
only criteria at the time of purchase, since battery cost comprises of the
main cost of the system. The better the life of a good battery - lower shall
be the cost of generated power.
3) In case of any fault in the UPS or Inverter, indicating that the battery is
being overcharged or over discharged or undercharged, please arrange for
prompt service so that the battery is not damaged.
4) Check inverter and get the same cleaned/serviced periodically and surely
at the time of fitment of the replacement batteries.
5) In case of an inordinate increase in electricity bill, check whether the
battery is getting overcharged, or whether there is a malfunctioning of
inverter, with a possibility of continuous charging at boost rate.
Notes
1) The cost of the battery and the cost of the inverter are not considered for
the cost of power calculation. It is also presumed that the inverter shall be
good enough beyond the 3 year period when the battery is most probably
due for replacement. The AC side losses due to inverter efficiency have
not been considered. Inverter efficiency is presumed to be excellent.
2) If the cost of the battery is considered as Rs. 13500.00, and battery
replacement is expected to be after 3 years, and if this cost is added to the
power generation cost, the unit cost of power shall escalate to Rs. 57.00
per unit.
REPLACEMENT OF BATTERIES
In case sealed maintenance batteries are to be replaced
with flooded electrolyte batteries in a UPS system.
W hile a flooded electrolyte lead acid battery and sealed maintenance
free battery are both lead acid batteries, the user of batteries, often
times, matches the voltage as well as the battery Ah capacity, presuming that
such a change over makes no difference to the working of the UPS system.
Whilst it is true that the performance characteristics are quite similar, in both
cases, one needs to understand that these batteries have a marked difference,
w.r.t their charging parameters. This special and important difference,
incorporated at the manufacturing stage, is the design feature, which makes
both types of batteries unique in different ways.
A flooded electrolyte battery made for large UPS systems is usually
manufactured as a series of 2V cells to be connected in series. The electrodes
are lead plates, classified as positive plates and negative plates. The positives
are tubular positive plates, i.e., spine lead grids surrounded by lead oxide
active materials, encased by acid resistant cloth tubular structure, to prevent
active materials from shedding. The negatives are flat plates, i.e., a cast lead
grid structure, on which lead oxide paste is applied and subsequently dried in
a controlled atmosphere to prevent shedding. The active materials of negative
have expanders, retaining fibers and carbon as special additives, added to the
lead oxide during the paste mixing stage.
As far as sealed maintenance free batteries are concerned, both the positive &
negative plates are usually made as flat plates. The chemicals added to a
positive paste mix are, however different, from the many chemicals added to
a negative paste mix. Nowadays, a few manufacturers are reintroducing gel
filled batteries with tubular positive plates & pasted negative plates into the
market.
Another major difference pertains to the quantity of electrolyte used in the
batteries or cells.
The electrolyte used in both types of lead acid batteries is dilute sulphuric
acid.
A flooded electrolyte battery has abundant electrolyte and hence the sp.
gravity of the electrolyte used for these batteries are generally lower than the
sp. gravity of electrolyte used in a sealed maintenance free battery.
The lower specific gravity means lesser corrosion, especially at elevated
temperatures. The abundant volume of electrolyte, also acting as a coolant,
makes the flooded electrolyte battery more suitable for working in areas of
high ambient without the need of air-conditioned rooms for the batteries. One
of the reasons for the enhanced life of these batteries, in comparison to sealed
maintenance free batteries, is the availability of electrolyte, far in excess of
the quantity required, purely for the reaction.
On the other hand, sealed maintenance free batteries have a restricted volume
of electrolyte. This electrolyte is sulphuric acid, which has been mixed with
certain chemicals to make it like a gel so that it does not flow out. An
alternative technique used is to trap the electrolyte in the pores of the
separator.
The separator in such cases is an insulating porous material used between the
positive & negative plates to prevent physical shorting. The material of the
separator is a glass mat, and, in industry parlance, it is called Absorptive
Glass Mat or AGM separator. The specific gravity of the sulphuric acid
electrolyte is usually higher than its flooded electrolyte counterpart and this
ensures that the limited volume has a high enough specific gravity reading at
the end of discharge to ensure conductivity, which is necessary for recharge
acceptance.
Is it possible to replace Sealed Maintenance Free (SMF) batteries with
Flooded Electrolyte Low Maintenance batteries in a UPS system?
All stationary batteries are connected to a charger, which gives a trickle
current, to maintain the batteries within a specified range of float voltage, as
and when the batteries are not supplying power to the load. This trickle
current ensures that all self-discharge losses are compensated for, thereby
guaranteeing that the battery is in a state of readiness to deliver the
power,which it is expected to deliver, as and when needed in case of an
emergency.
This is common for AGM type as well as flooded electrolyte batteries.
However, what varies in the charger used for AGM batteries and the
conventional type flooded electrolyte batteries is very important as well as
critical, from the battery life point of view.
The change is in the float voltage setting of the charger for both these types
of batteries. There is another significant change that pertains to boost voltage
or top of charge voltage.
All AGM batteries need a float voltage setting of the charger to be in the
range of 2.20 to 2.25 volts per cell. The maximum voltage setting of the
charger meant for AGM batteries is limited to a voltage below the gassing
voltage.
All flooded electrolyte batteries need a float voltage setting of the charger to
be in the range of 2.16 to 2.20 volts per cell. The maximum voltage setting of
the charger meant for flooded electrolyte batteries is set to be in a broad range
of 2.55 volts to 2.75 volts per cell. This is known as boost charge voltage.
Hence, it is absolutely necessary to change the charger setting, as and when
the type of battery connected to the load and the charger is changed, from
AGM type to flooded electrolyte type. The charger setting has to suit the
battery.
Hence a UPS system, meant for AGM batteries, cannot be used for Flooded
Electrolyte batteries & vice versa without changes in charger setting.
Another aspect to be considered before changing AGM batteries to Flooded
Electrolyte batteries is the room floor size, as well as ventilation.
In case the physical limitations of size, or the environmental demands of
safety, do not allow such a replacement of AGM batteries with flooded
electrolyte batteries, then adjusting the charger to suit batteries does not serve
your purpose.
Flooded electrolyte batteries cannot be used, where acid fumes that are
generated during boost charge and vented out through vent holes are not
permitted.
Flooded electrolyte batteries are to be kept upright to avoid acid electrolyte
spillage, unlike the AGM batteries, which can be kept in any orientation.
Flooded electrolyte batteries of capacity equivalent to AGM batteries are
bulkier compared to AGM batteries and occupy more space.
The battery user who has experienced better battery life with tubular plate
batteries, of the conventional flooded design, compared to battery life and
reliability of SMF battery, must understand the various aspects explained
above.
QUALITY OF BATTERY WATER
T he water used for topping up must be clear, without any suspended
impurities, colourless & odourless. It is recommended by battery
manufacturers that only demineralised or distilled water is used for topping
up as and when the electrolyte level drops. The pH of water used must be
between 6 and 7. In case the water to be used for topping up needs to be
stored, such storage shall be in a glass or plastic container.
Impurities, if any, shall not exceed the limits specified below: -
Considering that test facilities may not be available easily for testing of
water, the purchase of water for topping up batteries, used in homes for UPS
systems, may be done from reputed automobile service stations, spare parts
dealers, or fuel stations. Please do not use bottled drinking water or tap water.
The effects of different impurities on battery life and performance are as
follows:
BATTERIES IN SOLAR POWER
APPLICATIONS
B atteries, as and when used in solar applications, are connected to an
array of photovoltaic modules through an inverter. The inverter has a
charger and charge controller, which ensures that the battery is charged using
energy from the Sun in the daytime. The charged batteries get discharged and
deliver power to the load as and when required. The various A.C. equipments
like fans, television sets, lights etc., are powered through the inverter, which
converts, D.C. to A.C.
Such solar powered systems, which store power in batteries, are very popular
in remote areas, where electric power, generated by conventional methods, is
not available.
With the increasing cost of power, shortages in power supply, interruption of
power and breakdown of supply due to excessive demand, putting a strain on
the power generating companies etc. etc., solar photovoltaic systems are
gaining wider acceptability, even in areas where electric power is easily
available.
Another reason for the rising popularity of solar power usage is the
environmental consciousness amongst the general public at large and the
various subsidies offered by the governments. The promotion of the
renewable energy sector by the various heads of state all over the world has
helped in the growth of industries in this segment.
However, the widely used and, nowadays, popular roof top solar installations
and buildings integrated solar panels do not need battery backup for storage
of energy.
Now let us understand the lead acid batteries used for the storage of power, as
and when these are used for solar photovoltaic applications.
A lead acid battery, irrespective of the application, is the same in so far as the
basic chemical reactions are concerned. However, variations that have a
lasting effect on life and performance can be made in the processing stage,
depending on the application for which the battery is to be used.
Manufacturers use AGM separators or Gel Electrolyte to make the batteries,
which are sold as sealed maintenance free batteries. Manufacturers
use tubular positive plates to make batteries last longer in stationary or
electric vehicle applications.
Within the realm of stationary batteries are - UPS / Inverter batteries and
batteries for Solar Photovoltaic applications. I am often asked as to what
should be the difference in the construction of the batteries of these two
applications.
The first thing we need to understand is that both these batteries are used in a
stationary mode. However, cycling is more frequent or regular in the case of
batteries used for solar application. The depth of discharge in the case of
batteries used for solar application is normally limited, though, compared to
batteries used for inverters. Another factor to be considered is recharge.
The batteries connected to a solar application shall receive a charge in an
irregular manner and for a limited duration, unlike batteries used in UPS or
Inverter application, wherein the charging is from a definite AC source and in
a defined manner.
The batteries used for solar applications may be installed in a remote location
having limited or no easy accessibility. Hence maintenance may be irregular
and erratic too, compounded with the non-availability of trained personnel in
such areas.
A battery meant for solar application is expected to last much longer than a
battery meant for UPS/Inverter application. Hence a solar battery has to be
more rugged in construction. Changes in design or process at the
manufacturer's end ensure that the solar battery meets the required criteria
and is different from the UPS/Inverter batteries.
To enable the solar battery to revive quickly, after a full discharge, in rainy
days, where the battery has not got power from the Sun and the depth of
discharge has been more, a higher electrolyte volume helps by ensuring that
the electrolyte specific gravity is high enough to ensure better conductivity.
This conductivity becomes critical when a deep discharged battery has to be
revived using solar power.
To guarantee good charge acceptance in a solar battery, a more than adequate
cross section of lead in the pillars and bus bar of the plate groups helps by
ensuring that there is no voltage drop during the charging cycle. This takes
care of the limitation of charge current available for a short duration and
received in an irregular manner.
To take care of irregular maintenance, where the maintenance in flooded
electrolyte stationary batteries is primarily water topping up, a provision for
abundant electrolyte volume needs to be made in the design stage. The
electrolyte above the top of the plates has to be much more than in an inverter
battery. Cell containers that can accommodate large volumes of electrolyte
are chosen for solar applications vis a vis for inverter applications.
To have a battery for solar application last much more than a UPS /Inverter
battery - the paste used for making the negative plates of the solar battery has
to be of higher density. The tubular bags used for solar application have to be
of overall good quality to ensure that the positive plates last really long. The
web thickness of separators used for solar photovoltaic application has to be
higher than the separators used for a normal battery.
If the container is able to accommodate more number of plates per group,
then it is preferable to make a battery with more number of plates than use
lesser and taller plates to obtain the required capacity. This shall contribute to
better charge acceptance. Due care must be taken to ensure that there is no
voltage drop, however, by ensuring that the taller pillar required in such cases
is of the adequate cross section.
The additional electrolyte in the solar battery ensures that the battery is well
suited for very hot as well as very cold climatic conditions.
Due to abundant electrolyte in the cells, the specific gravity is sufficiently
high even when the battery is fully discharged and this prevents freezing of
the electrolyte and the resultant problems associated with freezing. The
abundant electrolyte contributes to keeping the battery cool in areas of high
ambient. This becomes important since corrosion of battery plates in the
acidic atmosphere is otherwise accelerated at high temperatures.
The above additional points taken care of from the battery manufacturer's end
- of course, in addition to the normal quality assurance parameters of paste
formulation, curing and charging etc. - shall ensure that the lead acid
stationary battery performs well in a solar photovoltaic application.
In certain cases where tall plate lead acid cells are used - issues pertaining to
Partial State of Charge (PSOC) or acid stratification may arise in spite of the
battery being well designed. In such instances, one needs to look at the
charger capacity or panel sizing.
CELLS IN SERIES & CELLS IN
PARALLEL
B y now, you would have understood the concept of voltage and capacity.
The following examples with the numbers and sketches shall make the
concept of series and parallel connection clearer.
Whenever batteries are connected in series, the voltage is additive and
capacity is constant.

The positive of one battery is connected to the negative of another battery and
as per sketch.
3 batteries of 12V 100Ah connected in series shall deliver 36V 100Ah.
12V + 12V + 12V = 36 Volts
The capacity of one battery is 100Ah and due to the series connection,
capacity of 3 batteries shall be remaining the same 100Ah.
Whenever batteries are connected in parallel, the capacity is additive and
voltage is constant.
The positive of one battery is connected to the positive of another
battery and the negative of one battery is connected to the negative of another
battery as per sketch.
3 batteries of 12V 100Ah connected in parallel shall deliver 12V 300Ah.
100 Ah + 100Ah + 100Ah = 300 Ah
The voltage of one battery is 12V and due to parallel connection, the voltage
of 3 batteries shall remain the same 12 Volts.
At times batteries are connected in a complex combination of series and
parallel connection. This is uncommon but done especially in cases where
high Ah capacities are required.
For the sake of understanding the method of calculation, we shall see how
such a connection is done using sets of 3 nos. of 12V 100Ah batteries.
In such cases, care must be taken to ensure that discharging and recharging is
uniform in all strings of batteries.
It is possible to check the D.C. current using a clamp meter. The current can
be kept constant in parallel strings by keeping the length and cross section of
the cables constant. This ensures that the resistance being the same, the
current is uniformly distributed. Alternatively – the introduction of electronic
controls in the circuit to monitor and vary the current of parallel strings is
possible. However, this shall entail additional costs.
BATTERY CHARGERS
A charger is a device which returns the charge to a discharged battery.
As such, a lead-acid battery needs to be charged after manufacture and later
on during regular use. Charging done after assembly of the battery at the time
of commissioning of battery for use is referred to as commissioning charge or
initial charging. Subsequent charging after discharge is known as recharging.
The devices used for initial charging at the manufacturer's factory or the
distributor/dealer's premises are usually rectifiers or chargers which use
utility AC power. These chargers are of constant current DC output type or,
at times constant voltage chargers.
The recharge of the battery is carried out by various methods – depending on
the application. Automotive batteries, including the ones used for
motorcycles, are charged using the vehicle's alternator. Home inverters &
UPS batteries of the stationary type are charged using a float/boost charger
which is a component inside the inverter.
Batteries coupled to solar photovoltaic systems are charged by solar panels
through a charge controller, which is also a part of the inverter. The charge
controller limits the input charge to the battery as the battery gets charged.
The solar panels draw energy from the Sun in this case.
Batteries used in E-Rickshaws or electric vehicles or scrubbers, sweepers &
golf carts are referred to as Deep Cycle Batteries and these batteries are
charged after every cycle of use. Since such batteries are fully discharged,
they need to be recharged using onboard chargers or external chargers having
output DC current, which reduces as the battery voltage increases.
Traction batteries, i.e. batteries used in industries for motive power
applications, are charged using chargers having substantial output current at
the start, which tapers down to an equalising charge current as the battery
reaches a full state of charge.
In the charging process, AC power is converted to DC power and then
supplied to the battery or a bank of batteries. This process oxidises the lead
sulphate of the positives to lead dioxide and reduces the lead sulphate of the
negatives to sponge lead by a simultaneous redox reaction. Simultaneously
the density of the electrolyte increases. The electrolyte being sulphuric acid, a
noticeable rise in specific gravity of the electrolyte is observed as and when a
battery is charged. The specific gravity is measured using a hydrometer.
We shall now discuss the various methods of charging batteries for a better
understanding of the terms used in industry parlance.
a) Constant Current Method.
b) Constant Voltage Method.
c) Modified Constant Voltage Method.
d) Taper Charging.
e) Trickle Charging.
f) Float Charging.
g) Equalising Charge.
a) Constant Current Charging:
Constant current charging is often used to charge all types of lead-acid
batteries at the manufacturer's premises, where the Ah input is a critical factor
that is monitored and recorded as a quality parameter. Constant current
charging is also used invariably in the laboratory because of the convenience
of calculating ampere-hour input and because constant current charging is
required to determine Ah and Wh efficiency. Constant current charging at
very low currents is often resorted to at site to decrease the sulfation in
batteries which have been over-discharged and/or under charged.
b) Constant Voltage Charging :
In this method of charging, the charging is done with the voltage maintained
at a constant defined value per cell. The value of the initial or starting current
of a completely discharged battery, when put on charge, often exceeds the
normal and usually high rate of charging. During the charge, as the battery
picks up a charge and the voltage of the battery slowly increases and reaches
the gassing voltage, the current is set to automatically reduce to a value much
below that of the high starting rate. In such chargers, the end of the charge
currents are set very low and are always lower than the finishing rate current
of the constant current chargers.
c) Modified Constant Voltage Charging :
Modified constant voltage charging is used for stationary batteries used in
UPS applications, home inverters and telecom application batteries wherein
the charger or rectifier is always connected to the battery. In this case, the
charger has an upper current limit. The charge current is continuously fed till
the battery reaches a defined voltage. After the battery has reached the
defined voltage, the charger current starts reducing as the voltage rises and
the battery gets fully charged. Once the battery is fully charged, the battery is
maintained within a range of voltage known as float voltage so that it is ready
for discharge in a fully charged state.
The modified constant voltage charge, with constant and high starting
currents and lower finishing current rates, is also used for traction and
monobloc deep cycling batteries. These batteries are rated for discharge at the
5 hr. rate to a depth of 80%. The recharge current of these batteries is
adjusted so that the charging is completed in a 6 to 8 hrs. duration for
batteries used in temperate climate conditions. The recharge current of these
batteries is adjusted so that the charging is completed in 12 to 14 hrs. period
for batteries used in tropical climatic conditions. The charger is set for the
constant potential in a range of 2.35 V to 2.40 V per cell, which is the gassing
voltage, and the starting current is settable in a range of 12 to 20 A per 100
Ah of the rated 5-h ampere-hour capacity. The initial current is maintained
constant until the average cell voltage in the battery reaches 2.35 V to 2.40 V
per cell. The current drops at constant voltage, tapering down to the finishing
rate of 3 A to 5 A per 100 ah, which is then maintained for a period of 3 to 6
hrs. using a settable timer. The time of charge is selected such that Ah input
which goes into the battery, is around 10 % to 20% more than the ampere-
hour output of the previous discharge. The charging time can be increased or
reduced by setting the initial current limit rate in such chargers.
d) Taper Charging:
Taper charging is similar to the modified constant voltage charging method.
However, in this case, the charger has fewer controls and thereby costs less.
Hence there is a possibility of more gassing during the recharge along with an
increase in cell temperature. The degree of the gassing and temperature rise
shall depend on the current taper profile and is thus a characteristic of the
charger design. Battery life can be affected in such chargers due to the
increase in battery temperature and gassing if the chargers are not selected
appropriately.
The end of the charge is often related to a fixed voltage rather than a fixed
current. Modified constant voltage charging methods with initial currents
based on battery Ah capacity is to be selected based on ambient temperatures
at the place of use to have a good battery performance and life.
e) Trickle Charging:
A trickle charge is a continuous constant current charge at a low rate. The
charge current is usually 1% of the battery Ah capacity. The trickle charges
current is used to maintain the battery in a fully charged condition. A trickle
charger delivers a current significant enough to compensate for self-discharge
losses as well as to restore the energy to a battery discharged during
intermittent use of the battery. This method is usually resorted to for SLI
batteries when the battery is removed from the vehicle in a service station or
when the battery is idle for long periods duly disconnected from its regular
charging source. It is also used for Genset batteries. In the case of Genset, the
trickle charger is permanently connected to the battery so that the battery
remains fully charged always and can respond to emergency situations.
f) Float Charging :
Float charging is a low-rate charge current which is fed to a battery. This sort
of charging is done to maintain the battery in a state of readiness for
discharge as and when demanded by the load. A float charger keeps the
battery in a fully charged condition. This method of charging is used mainly
for stationary batteries. The float voltage for a flooded electrolyte vented
battery is usually 2.16 V to 2.20 V per cell. The float voltage for a lead-acid
VRLA/SMF battery is usually2.20 V to 2.25 V per cell. The float charger
ensures that the voltage of the battery is continuously maintained within the
defined parameters of the set voltage range.
g) Equalising Charge :
It is commonly believed that whilst a battery is being `float charged’, it will
have consistent voltages and specific gravities and shall be in a fully charged
condition. This shall necessarily not be the case always, especially in
batteries having tall plates. A phenomenon known as acid stratification can
take place, leading to an uneven current distribution between the plates of the
cell. Stratification is the separation of electrolytes into distinct layers of
differing densities. The density of the electrolyte at the bottom of the cell
shall be higher than the density of the electrolyte at the top of the cell.
The resultant uneven current distribution and the varying `acid strength’ can
cause variation in cell plate characteristics. There can be a gradual discharge
of portions in the plates located in the low current density areas. Initially, the
overall cell voltage remains at the correct float level and no variations are
seen when the cell is new.
This partial discharge in some areas of the cell plates causes sulphation. The
degradation of cell quality due to sulphation worsens with time. The battery's
internal resistance gets affected, causing considerable variations in individual
cell voltages as well as specific gravity. The only corrective action possible to
rectify any such battery or cell is an equalising charge.
Such a battery should be periodically equalised by charging with a constant
current which is 4 to 6 percent of the ampere-hour capacity at the 10 hour rate
in the case of stationary batteries.
Batteries must be fully recharged prior to equalising. The recharge prior to
equalising charge should continue until such time as the specific gravity and
voltage readings of individual cells have reached a maximum value and have
ceased to rise for a period of three consecutive hourly readings.
In the case of traction batteries also, equalising is required. Traction batteries
are not connected to a charger when in use and are not on float charge.
Traction batteries are fully discharged to 80% depth of discharge almost on a
daily basis. These batteries need an equalising charge periodically. Battery
manufacturers usually recommend the equalising charge current rate as 3 to 5
percent of the ampere-hour capacity at the 5 hour rate. Traction batteries are
also to be equalised after a full recharge.
The purpose of equalising is attaining the constancy of voltages and specific
gravities. The actual value of voltage is not an important factor at this point in
time. It is recommended that equalising charges be carried out as per the
manufacturer's advice..
CAPACITY RATING OF
BATTERIES
T his test is done to determine the capacity of the battery, to deliver the
current in amperes which a battery has to deliver, for the defined period,
as per its rating, in line with manufacturer's specification. This capacity is
usually mentioned on the battery. The manufacturer usually specifies the
battery in conformance with industry standards, providing the following
details:
1) Battery voltage in volts.
2) Battery capacity in ampere hours.
3) Battery rating as C10 or 10 hr.
4) Battery serial number.
5) Month and year of manufacture.
6) Make or brand name of the battery.
Let us take the case of a tubular inverter battery used in homes.
Suppose we have a 12 V 100 Ah battery rated at 10 hr. rate; the battery is
expected to deliver 10 amperes constant current for 10 hrs. to an end voltage
of 10.5 Volts.
The battery behaves differently at various rates of discharge, i.e. it lasts
longer at lower currents of discharge and lasts for a lesser period at higher
currents of discharge.
As per the standards IS 13369:1992, the latest amendment in the year 2003,
the accepted performance of a battery for various rates of discharge is as
follows:
 Capacity expected
Rate Of Discharge End Voltage
as %age of C10 Capacity
C10 100 % 1.80 Volts
C5 83.3 % 1.80 Volts
C3 71.7 % 1.80 Volts
C1 50.0 % 1.75 Volts
What this means is that, in the case of a 12V 100 Ah battery, we can expect
performance in line with I.S. standards as below:-
Capacity No. Of To End Voltage Discharge
Rating Hours Per Cell Current
C10 10 hrs. 1.80 V 10 Amps --
& not 20
C5 5 hrs. 1.80 V 16.66 Amps.
Amps.
& not 33
C3 3 hrs. 1.80 V 23.90 Amps.
Amps.
& not 100
C1 1 hr. 1.75 V 50.00 Amps.
Amps.
Using the above logic, it is clear that a 12 V 100 Ah battery can be classified
as a 12V 120 Ah battery by the battery manufacturer since the same battery
lasts longer when discharged at lower currents.
12V 100Ah C10 rated battery delivers 10 A for 10 hours
(12V 100Ah @C10)
12V 100Ah C10 rated battery delivers 06 A for 20 hours
(12V 120Ah @C20)
The battery is the same. It has been rated differently. Thus, it is clear that
discharge rate w.r.t. time is not a linear relationship.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES &
BATTERIES
E lectric vehicles are the latest trend, with a reported 8.5 lakh plus
vehicles on Indian roads, as on December 2021.
The major vehicles are of course two wheelers and three wheelers, which are
being used to ferry passengers. Cargo carrying three wheelers and Passenger
E-cars together account for the balance 8% of the approx. total volume.
Concerns about air pollution and climate change are forcing the adoption of
electric vehicles as the cleaner and environment-friendly means of
transportation.
In India, the central government has introduced the Faster Adoption and
Manufacturing of Electrical Vehicle Scheme, popularly known by the
acronym FAME. The government has also reduced GST on electric vehicles,
as well as charging infrastructure, to promote the development of charging
stations.
The Government of India has also approved a Production Linked Incentive
scheme to encourage the setting up of manufacturing facilities for advanced
Chemistry Cells in India. Similar PLI schemes have been announced for
Automobiles and Auto Components for electric vehicles.
With the increase in the cost of petrol and diesel, many fleet management
companies are considering the option of converting to electric vehicles,
especially for the last mile delivery requirements.
The running cost of electric two wheelers is substantially lower, approx. one
fourth to one fifth of the cost. This is in comparison to the cost of running a
two wheeler on petrol.
The acceptance of electric vehicles as the future, from an economic
standpoint, as well as the requirement to save the environment, is now a
given. The general population and the various heads of state all over the
world are in consensus on this matter.
The adoption of this technology, however, imposes certain challenges in
terms of charging infrastructure, high prices of the vehicles, availability of
good batteries at economical prices, safety related issues pertaining to
batteries - which at times crop up in the case of lithium ion batteries,
recycling and disposal of scrap batteries, standardisation of charging sockets,
educating and training of the users, development of battery management
systems which are easy to use, and, of course, mileage.
Fortunately, all these challenges are being addressed effectively and in a fast
manner due to a time frame being imposed for an all-electric vehicle
scenario. The battery industry is also gearing up to meet the various
challenges head on in a successful manner.
As of now, Lithium Ion batteries are popular & mostly used in electric
vehicles. These batteries are very costly and constitute 40% to 50% of the
cost of electric vehicles. With the increase in demand for electric vehicles, the
requirement for batteries is set to skyrocket. In fact, another application,
which also uses Lithium Ion batteries, is the renewable energy segment.
Lithium Ion batteries are widely used in consumer electronics, but EV
batteries are bigger batteries and hence more complex.
As and when bigger batteries or systems of higher voltages and higher
currents are required, the quality of Lithium Ion batteries becomes more
critical. In fact, Battery Management Systems have an important role to play
when Lithium Ion batteries are used in Electric Vehicles.
The reason for this is that Lithium Ion batteries are prone to thermal runaway
problems, leading to an explosion of batteries and resulting in fire. These
may be due to either or a combination of reasons viz. electrical, thermal,
mechanical abuse or internal short circuit.
Storage of Lithium Ion batteries is again a challenge. The following care
needs to be taken:
1) Lithium Ion batteries need to be stored in a well-ventilated area.
2) Adequate provision needs to be made for firefighting in case of a fire.
3) Personnel must be trained for the careful handling of batteries.
4) Monitoring of stores, using CCTV cameras, is a must.
5) Sensitive sensors to detect smoke & fire, complete with alarms, have to be
installed.
6) Adequate fire insurance, with all safeguards in place, has to be ensured.
7) Employing trained personnel to handle fire & emergency situations is also
important.
It is advisable to store Lithium Ion batteries in a segregated area and away
from other inflammable materials.
As far as fire extinguishers are concerned, experience has shown that Halon
and CO2 are effective, though there is a limited understanding in this matter
as of now. In case of fire due to Lithium Ion batteries, sand has been
effectively used to cover the battery to allow a controlled burn out. Water,
when added, has been found to make the fire worse.
As regards Lithium Ion batteries, there are mainly four types
1) Lithium Iron Phosphate
2) Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (LiNMC)
3) Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA)
4) Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO)
The Lithium Iron Phosphate and Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt are
popular for use in Electric Vehicles. Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) batteries
are used mainly in portable electric products like mobile phones, cameras,
laptops and toys. Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) are used in
medical devices like ventilators, dialysis systems, anaesthesia machines and
limited industrial applications.
Though Lithium Ion is popular and presently used for electric vehicles, there
is a lot of R & D going on simultaneously to explore better technologies.
This is, all the more so, especially due to the non-availability of Lithium in
sufficiently large quantities in India, a feeling of discomfort due to incidents
of some vehicles catching fire, lack of clarity as regards recyclability and
disposal.
There are a few startups segregating used lithium batteries and working on
these cells to give it a second life. The second life, of course, shall be with a
reduced capacity, for sale, accordingly.
Below is a chart comparing the lead acid battery to two variants of Lithium
Ion batteries from an academic point of view.
The question on the mind of many people, including the minds of
manufacturers of lead acid batteries, is whether it is the end of the road for
Lead Acid Batteries and whether Lithium Ion shall replace Lead Acid
Batteries in various applications. Well, I do not think it is possible to totally
displace Lead Acid Batteries for the following reasons: -
1) Safety
The major cause of concern for all battery users is safety. Lead Acid Batteries
have a proven track record and are very safe to use. Lithium Ion Batteries
are relatively unsafe, with cases of the explosion of batteries and incidents
of fire being more frequent, in the case of Lithium Ion Batteries. Fires due
to Lithium Ion Batteries, generate toxic gases. Moreover, putting off these
fires is difficult too.
2) Availability of Lithium & Cobalt
Lithium mines exist in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile, with some quantities in
U.S.A., Australia & China. Cobalt required for making Lithium Ion
Batteries is mainly found in Congo. Importing Lithium & Cobalt or
Lithium Ion Cells for assembly from abroad is akin to importing petroleum
products for petrol & diesel vehicles from oil rich nations. Lead on the
other hand, being recyclable, is easily available.
3) Recyclability & Disposal
Though the claims of a longer life compared to Lead Acid Batteries may
imply that Lithium Ion Batteries shall need to be replaced after a lot of use,
and thereby less frequently, it is still frightening to imagine the colossal
waste that shall be generated in the future, if an effective mechanism to
recycle & dispose of the scrap batteries is not devised, by then. Moreover,
such recyclers must be available with efficient and environmentally safe
technologies, all over the world, in various locations so that recycling is
feasible and practical.
4) Cost
The cost of Lithium metal is high and further increasing, thereby making it
prohibitively costly for certain applications. The difference in cost w.r.t
Lead Acid Batteries is such that, a lot of users shall prefer Lead Acid
Batteries if given a choice, despite the shorter life and cumbersome
maintenance requirements that Lead Acid Batteries entail. Some
applications, like large size material handling equipments and high
capacity die loaders, may accept Lead Acid Batteries.
5) Reparability
Due to the ease of repair of lead acid battery, familiarity of the product and
the rebate available on scrap battery – the acceptance of the technology of
Lead Acid Batteries continues, despite the purported advantages of
Lithium Ion Batteries, in terms of quick recharge, remote assistance and
longer life characteristics.
6) Retrofit Options
A lot of vehicles with internal combustion engines and a lot of electric
vehicles, as well as material handling equipments with lead acid batteries,
are not going to be scrapped, at least for 10 years from now, or, say 10
 years from the date of sale. Hence lead acid batteries shall need to be made
for these customers, who shall not opt for any retrofit on their vehicles, to
replace Lead Acid Batteries with Lithium Ion Batteries since such a
retrofit, is likely to be very costly & cumbersome.
7) Power Demand Situation
The growth of the renewable energy sector has put a lot of focus on Solar
Energy and there is an ongoing effort to reduce the use of thermal and
nuclear power plants. This means that the requirement of storage of power
shall increase. Solar energy, which can be directly used through roof top
panels, is limited to day time use. If the energy harnessed from the Sun has
to be used at night, we need to store the power. For this, one needs
batteries. Lead Acid Batteries are proven, robust, safe and inexpensive
compared to Lithium Ion. As long as the design of the Lead Acid Batteries
meant for solar applications are done properly – maintenance is also not an
issue. It has been observed that Lead Acid Batteries are designed
adequately well, last for over 10 to 12 years in solar photovoltaic
applications.
There are many more similar reasons. Considering the few reasons stated
above, we can surmise that the Lead Acid Battery industry shall survive the
advance of Lithium Ion Battery or any other similar types of batteries, into its
domain. The growth of the renewable energy segment, which is inevitable
due to the need for the preservation of the environment, shall become a
dominant reason for the demand for batteries. Lead Acid Batteries shall
therefore survive but needs technology upgradation.
The areas of improvement in Lead Acid Batteries on which the future
generation can probably work are
1) Development of software adapted to the battery industry needs. This shall
 reduce inventory, which is a major area of investment of borrowed funds,
with scope for reduction of battery cost. Reduction in interest cost on
working capital is necessary.
2) Another area with scope for reduction of battery cost is in electric power
consumption. We observe high power consumption in battery industries,
in the department of charging of batteries. Development of software that
shows the efficiency of charger, and recommends usage in terms of
optimisation, and gives alerts in case of inefficient usage, shall benefit the
battery industry.
3) Development of an App with real time data of buyers and sellers. This App
shall be useful, especially for new manufacturers of components as well
as entrepreneurs setting up a new battery manufacturing industry. This
shall also promote exports by giving wider exposure to manufacturers
based in India.
4) Improving the efficiency of batteries by developing additives, which give
exponential benefits in terms of life & capacity.
5) Cost reduction in manufacturing by simple & economic automation of
plant and machinery.
6) Development of a digital probe to measure the specific gravity of
electrolyte at an economic cost is another necessity.
7) Development of Battery Management System suitable for Lead Acid
Batteries, tailored for Electric Vehicle Applications & Stationary Battery
Installations.
8) Development of battery chargers with much higher efficiencies than the
presently available chargers.
9) Development of a method to refine & reuse the dilute sulphuric acid
coming out from various processes.
10) Development of an effective and low cost effluent and acid fume
treatment plant for small scale industries.
11) Development of an acid recirculating charging system suitable for small
scale industries.
GOOD… BETTER… BEST LEAD
ACID BATTERY
A good lead acid battery is one that sufficiently meets customer
expectations by being suitable for that specific application in all respects.
Hence an automotive battery is expected to be as light as possible but
powerful enough to crank the automotive engine for a defined number of
times, repeatedly at times, for an expected life period of 2 to 4 years.
A stationary monobloc battery with tubular positive plates designed for home
inverters is expected to be as compact as possible, with a life expectancy of 3
to 5 years.
A stationary 2 Volt cell with tubular positive plates, designed for use,
coupled to UPS systems in large industries, power stations or telecom
systems etc., is expected to work for long durations at times of power
outages. These batteries are expected to last for 10 to 12 years and actually
last for 15 to 18 years and even more at times.
A stationary 2 Volt cell with tubular positive plates, designed for use,
coupled to a solar photovoltaic system and installed in a remote location is
expected to work with minimal or no maintenance for a period of 10 to 15
years, depending on ambient conditions and depth of discharge. These
batteries are usually charged by solar photovoltaic cells and designed for
quick charge acceptance as well as use for up to 5 days of continuous
discharge without a recharge. Monobloc stationary tubular plate batteries
used in solar applications are expected to deliver a minimum of 5 years of
useful life.
A motorcycle battery, made using ultra-thin battery plates, is made such that
it delivers power to meet the demanding needs of today's hi-tech two
wheelers. The batteries used in two wheelers nowadays are expected to even
crank the engine since quite a few two wheelers are designed with push
button self-start technology. The power delivered by motorcycle batteries,
which literally fit in the palm of a hand, is to be experienced to be believed.
A motive power battery, known in industry parlance as a traction battery, is
used to power material handling vehicles, which are used in airports, large
industries, railway stations, docks etc. etc. These batteries being the prime
movers, are discharged on a daily basis and recharged for use on the
following day. These batteries at times act as a counterweight and are very
heavy. They are made rugged since they are cycled on a daily basis usually.
Batteries meant for scrubbers, sweepers, electric vehicles, boom lifts, cranes
and recreation vehicles are also deep cycling batteries and these are designed
to be rugged but light weight.
The different types of lead acid batteries used with specific requirements for
varying applications have to be designed
r with differing sp. gr. of operations
r with varying pitch of assembly
r with separators of differing thicknesses
r with abundant or limited electrolyte volume, depending on battery size
limitations
r with alloy of lead having calcium or antimony or selenium etc., depending
on expected performance characteristics
r with paste density variation
r with fine tuning of certain processes etc. etc. etc.
Thus, you see that lead acid batteries used for different applications have
minor changes in processes, or materials used, or in design characteristics.
Once a good battery has been designed and the product has been validated in
the field, after a proper review of the design, it is necessary to freeze the
design, material specifications and process to have a consistent product.
The consistency of the product, which has been accepted by the user as an
acceptable and good product, as well as the after sales technical and service
support, is what helps a manufacturer build his brand value for a bigger
market.
The customer ultimately decides, based on user experience, as to which is the
BEST battery in the market.