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MERRYLAND INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

GRADE 10 – CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER WISE IMPORTANT POINTS

The particulate nature of matter:

 Properties of solids, liquids and gases(refer the text book). Understand the term particle
separation, movement and arrangement in various states of matter.
 Inter conversion of matter (melting, evaporation etc)
 Energy change associated with the inter conversion. (which are exothermic and

endothermic)
 Draw and label the heating, colling curve. Importance of the flat portion on the curve.
 Three statements of kinetic theory.

 In the answers connected with kinetic theory we need to use the terms random,
movement, collisions, evaporation, diffusion, spread out etc)
 Diffusion – as the movement of particles from the region of higher concentration to lower

concentration to fill all the available space.

 Factors affecting diffusion – temperature and mass of the substance. [ higher the temp
faster the rate of diffusion and higher the mass lower the rate of diffusion]

Atoms, elements and compounds:

 Atomic number, mass number and electronic configuration.

 Calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons from the given data.

 The mass and charge on the sub atomic particles.

 Define the terms like element [Substance made up of one kind of atom (same atomic

number)], compound [two or more different kinds of atoms (different atomic number)],

mixture.
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 Define isotopes and why do they have similar chemical properties - SADM, they have

similar chemical properties because they have same electronic configuration and same

number of electrons in the outer most shell.

 Ionic bond is formed between a metal and a nonmetal by gaining and donating

electrons. While drawing the ionic bond represent the ions in bracket with charges on the

top and number at the bottom. Also write the electronic configuration and confirm the
number of shells, electrons in their respective ions – if the blank structure is already

given for you.

 Ionic bond is defined as the electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged
particles.
 Ionic lattice is the regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions in row
and columns.
 Ionic compounds have high MP, BP, density, crystalline solids and good conductors of

electricity either in molten or aqueous state (as ions are free to move). In solid state it’s a
bad conductor as ions are not free to move.

 Covalent bond is formed between two nonmetals by sharing a pair of electrons. While
representing the structure using the dot and cross model, make sure that all atoms have
8 electrons around them. Practice with simple and complex molecules given in the
syllabus.

 Ionic compounds usually have high Mp and Bp as the ions are held by strong force of
attraction and need to spend more energy to break them. On the other hand, covalent
compounds are held by weak force of attraction and needs less energy to break them.

Specify the type of bond if its not mentioned in the question.

 Covalent compounds are usually gases or liquids and they are water insoluble. They
have properties that are exact opposite to ionic compounds.

 Structure of Diamond and Graphite:

 In diamond each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral
manner and the C-C bond in strong. This makes it hard and good for drilling purposes.
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 In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in a hexagonal

manner and the layer are held together by weak force of attraction. So these layers will

slide over when force applied. This makes it useful as a lubricant or in pencil lids.
 In SiO2, each Si atom is bonded to 4 Oxygen atoms and each Oxygen atom to 2 Si

atoms in a tetrahedral manner. [Should be able to represent the structure of SiO2]

 At times you may get a question out syllabus but there will be a reference to something
that you already have studied. Eg: SiC has a structure similar to diamond. Give three

physical properties of SiC

 Metallic bonding – in the metallic lattice, positive metal ions are placed in a sea of
common delocalized electrons. The force of attraction between these electrons and
positive metal ions is metallic bonding.
 Based on metallic bonding explain why metals are malleable and why are they good
conductors of electricity – in the metallic lattice metals ions are placed in a sea of

common delocalized electrons in layers with weak force of attraction. These layers can
slide over, therefore it is malleable. These electrons are free to move therefore good

conductors of electricity.

Mole concept

 Define relative atomic mass – average mass of an atom compared to 1/12th the mass of
C-12 atom.
 Define Molecular Formula – the number and type of atoms in one molecule.
 Empirical Formula – Simplest whole number ratio of the different atoms or ions in a

compound.
 Mole is defined as the Ar or Mr expressed in grams/ mass of an atom that contains

Avogadro number of particles.

 In solids n =m/Ar or Mr [m=n x Ar or Mr] very commonly used step in any mole concept
question.
 In solutions n = M x V [Volume should be in dm3 will be always given in cm3]

 In gases n = Vol/24 [ in the question they will mention RTP]

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 From the above equations, if two values are given the third value can be calculated by

rearranging the equation.

 Mass of one mole of an compound is nothing but the Mr. [ repeated many times in
IGCSE.]

 To convert the mol/dm3 to g/dm3 ➔ [(……mol/dm3) X Mr of the compound]

 For questions related to limiting and Excess, we need to calculate the number of moles
of both the reactants and then do the ratio method to find out which is limiting or excess.

 In all other questions we use the formula only once to find the number of moles of the 1st

reactant and then ratio method to find the number of moles of the second reactant.
 % yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield )*100
 % purity = (amount of X / total amount) *100
 Empirical formula calculations always use Ar to find the number of moles. Then divide
the values with the smallest value followed by the ratio. [use this idea in all formula

related questions like the formula of the hydrocarbon, value of x etc]

 You should know how to write the word, chemical and ionic equations. Mention the state

symbols only if you are asked. In the question if the name of a compound is asked,
make sure that the name is written and not the formula. [ Answer to the question]

Electrolysis

 Process by which ionic compounds either in the molten or aqueous state is broken down
by passing electricity.
 Electrodes are made up of usually carbon/ graphite as it is a good conductor of

electricity and being inert.

 PANIC

 CARO – cathode reduction and anode oxidation

 The possible products at the anode – chlorine/ Bromine /Oxygen [ preference to the
halogens and then OH- / O2-]
 The possible products at the cathode will be metal (molten electrolyte), hydrogen

(aqueous\dilute electrolyte). If copper is present in the electrolyte in any form then

copper will be formed at the cathode.
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 During the electrolysis of dilute solution hydrogen will be formed at the cathode and

oxygen at the anode. If copper is there in the dilute solution, then it will be Cu at the

cathode and O2 at the anode.

 Electrolysis of brine solution or aqueous NaCl – specify the ions, show the ions which

are moving to the anode and cathode. Write the reaction at the anode and cathode. The

ions left in the solution will combine to give NaOH.

 Uses of hydrogen (to make ammonia), chlorine (to purify water) and NaOH (To make

soap)

 Electroplating – The metal will the anode and object to be electroplated will be cathode.
Electrolyte will be aqueous solution of the metal salt. During this process the surface of
the object is cleaned so that the metal will stick properly and the object is rotated for
uniform coating. The object to be electroplated should be completely immersed in the
solvent. [uses of electroplating – to make it attractive and free from corrosion]

 Electrolysis of copper sulfate using copper and carbon electrodes – in this reaction the
only difference is at the anode. If the electrode is carbon, then hydroxide ion will move to
the anode and undergo oxidation to form oxygen. But if the electrode is copper the
copper will undergo oxidation to form copper ions. [go through the equations for both the
reactions]. The reaction at the cathode is the same. In some questions it will be
mentioned that the electrolysis is similar to that of copper sulfate using copper or carbon.
Based on that change or modify the reactions at the anode.
 Advantages of Hydrogen as a fuel – combustion of hydrogen produces water vapour and
it is a renewable source.

 The main disadvantage of hydrogen – The main disadvantage is storage and

transportation problem. It is also highly inflammable.

Chemical energetics:

 A chemical reaction where heat energy is given out to the surroundings is called
exothermic reaction and if heat energy is taken in from the surroundings it is known as

endothermic reaction.
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 If we plot a graph of exothermic reaction the graph goes up and it goes down for an

endothermic reaction.

 In terms of bond energy – in exothermic reactions, the products have less energy when
compared to the reactants and vice versa for endothermic reactions.

 Enthalpy change(∆H) is the transfer of thermal energy during a reaction.

 The ∆H(Enthalpy Change) value will be negative for exothermic and positive for
endothermic reactions.
 You should know how to draw the energy profile diagram, with all labeling and be able to

calculate the bond energy values from the given set of data’s.
 Activation Energy(Ea) is always represented with a double headed arrow and the

enthalpy change is represented by a single headed arrow either upwards(Endo) or

downwards(Exo)
 BFX and BBN – bond forming is exothermic and bond breaking endothermic. In a
reaction if the energy released is more than the energy consumed to break the bond the

reaction will be exothermic and vice versa.

Rate of chemical reactions:

 Equation to calculate the rate of the reaction -volume / time

 Factors affecting the rate of the reaction –
 Temperature – increases [1 mark] when temp increases particles gain energy travel

longer distance, a greater number of collisions in unit time [frequent collisions] and more
collision will overcome the activation energy and be successful, thus the rate of the

reaction will increase.

 Activation energy – the minimum energy required to convert the reactants to products.
 Pressure – for gases. When pressure increases more particles in unit volume, a greater
number of collisions in unit time [frequent collisions] and more will overcome the
activation energy (successful collisions), thus the rate of the reaction increases.

 Concentration – for liquids. When concentration increases more particles in unit volume,

a greater number of collisions in unit time [frequent collisions] and more will overcome
the activation energy (successful collisions), thus the rate of the reaction increases.

 Particle size – smaller the particle size faster will be rate of the reaction.
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 Catalyst – provides an alternative path way where the activation energy is less thus the

rate of the reaction will increase. More amount of catalyst rate of the reaction will

increase as it provides more surface area for the reactants to react. But the amount of
the product remains the same.
 Methods to measure the rate of the reaction – reaction rate can be measured either by

measuring the volume at regular intervals till the volume becomes constant or by
measuring the decrease in mass till the mass becomes constant.

 The rate of the reaction will be always fastest at the start of the experiment and as the

reaction proceeds the rate decreases and finally becomes constant as the reactant gets
used up. The decrease on the rate of reaction can be understood based on the gradient
of the graph.
 You should know how to plot the graph and if more than 1 graph then it should be
labeled or named. When values are taken from the graph make sure that it is clearly

shown on the graph.

 Volume graph – if the rate is increased the new graph drawn will be above and below the

original graph if the rate is slower.

 Mass graph - if the rate is increased the new graph drawn will be below and above the
original graph if the rate is slower
 In a second graph we will have a different end point only if the concentration of the

limiting reactants is changed.

Reversible reaction:

 Reversible reaction – type of reaction that can take place in both directions depending
on the reaction conditions.

 Equilibrium – in a closed system the rate of forward is equal to rate of backward and the

concentration of the reactant and products remain constant.

 Factors affecting equilibrium:
 Temperature: for an exothermic reaction provide low temperature and for an

endothermic reaction provide high temperature.

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 Pressure: when pressure increases reaction proceeds in a direction where number of

moles decreases and vice versa.

 Concentration: when concentration increases reaction proceeds in the direction to

reduce the concentration.

 A catalyst will not affect the yield of a reaction but it will make the reaction faster.

 If the number of moles is same on both sides then pressure has no effect on the
equilibrium. They may ask question just to find your knowledge in equilibrium. Even if the

pressure has no effect on equilibrium, if we increase the pressure particles will be close

to each other just making some effect on the colour of the reaction. So you may observe
some colour change.
 This is one portion that can confuse you so be careful when you answer. They will ask
equilibrium question alongside with rate question. Keep one thing in mind rate always
increases while equilibrium has different effect. The table questions.

 Habers process – for the manufacture of ammonia and the nitrogen is obtained from the
fractional distillation of liquid air and hydrogen from the reaction of methane with steam.

 Conditions: Temp - 450 °C, Pressure - 20 000 kPa / 200 atm and an iron catalyst
 Ammonia is used to make fertilizers (Eg of fertilizers made from Ammonia: Ammonium
sulfate, Ammonium Nitrate)
 Contact process – for the manufacture of Sulfuric acid, SO2 is obtained by the burning of
sulfur and oxygen from the fractional distillation of liquid air.
 Conditions: Temp -450 °C, pressure - 200 kPa / 2 atm and a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.
 In certain questions you need to mention about the compromise situation between the
yield and rate, like good yield at a satisfactory rate.

Redox reaction:

 Oxidation can be defined in term of oxygen (addition of oxygen), hydrogen (removal of

hydrogen), electrons (loss of e-) and oxidation state (increase in oxidation state).
 Reduction can be defined in term of oxygen (removal of oxygen), hydrogen (addition of

hydrogen), electrons (gain of e-) and oxidation state (decrease in oxidation state).
 Type of reaction where oxidation and reduction take place side by side is redox reaction.
 The substance that undergoes oxidation – reducing agent [Reductant]
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 The substance that undergoes reduction - oxidising agent [ Oxidant]

 Test for oxidising agent - Pass aq. KI through oxidising agent it turns from colorless to

brown.
 Pass Acidified. KMnO4 through a reducing agent the colour turns from purple to

colorless. / Pass Acidified. K2Cr2O7 through reducing agent it turns from orange to green.

– test for reducing agent.

 One of the most important conditions for the above reaction is that it should be acidified.

 You should know to write ionic equation for all precipitation reactions. [CaSO 4, PbSO4.

BaSO4, PbCl2, AgCl]. Include the state symbols also.

 Oxidation state is number assigned to the element to know the relative state of oxidation
/ reduction. + means it lost and – means it gain electrons.
 Oxidation numbers mainly used for transition elements as they can exhibit variable
valencies.

 Rules:
• the oxidation number of elements in their uncombined state is zero
• the oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion
• the sum of the oxidation numbers in a compound is zero
• the sum of the oxidation numbers in an ion is equal to the charge on the ion

Acids, bases and alkalies:

 Acids are proton donors, ie they release protons when reacted.

 Bases are proton acceptors
 Alkalies are water soluble bases.

 Acids can be classified as strong and weak. Strong acids will undergo complete
dissociation in water while weak acid will undergo partial dissociation in water.

 They can be identified by pH meter or electrical conductivity or reaction rate.

 Same can be done for bases also.
 Indicators and their colour change in acids, bases.

• ABR and BRB – acids turn blue litmus red and bases turn red litmus blue.
• Thymolphthalein is colorless in acids while blue in bases.
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• Methyl orange is red in acid, orange in neutral and yellow in alkali.

 Reactions of acids with metals, metal oxide, metal hydroxide and metal carbonates with

their equations are important.

 When it comes to bases, know the reaction with acids.

 Alkalis react with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia – this reaction is very important.

Could be asked directly or indirectly. When this question is related to farming then the
alkali to be used is calcium hydroxide and in other situations, we can use any alkali.

 Also keep in mind ammonia reacts with acid to form only the salt and no water.

 pH meter and pH scale.

 Methods to reduce the acidity of soil. In this calcium carbonate is more preferred as it
won’t increase the pH above 7 and is water insoluble.
 Dissociation Equation for HCl and CH3COOH is very important.

Oxides:

 Four types of oxides: acidic, basic, neutral and amphoteric oxides.

 Oxides that react with bases are called acidic oxides – all non-metallic oxides are acidic.
 Oxides that react with acids are known as basic oxides – all metallic oxides are basic
oxides.
 Oxides that won’t react with both acids and bases are neutral oxides – CO, H2O, N2O

are examples.
 Oxides that can react with both acids and bases – amphoteric oxides. Aluminium oxide
and Zinc oxides are examples. Even zinc hydroxide is also example.

 Question related to amphoteric oxides are asked very frequently – like how will you
separate an amphoteric from a basic oxide, how will you differentiate an amphoteric
oxide from others etc.
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Salt preparation

 There are three methods to prepare salt based on the type of salt to be prepared.

 First see if the salt to be made is insoluble like calcium, barium, lead sulfate or lead,

silver chloride, then the method is precipitation.

 Then see if the salt to be made is from group I or ammonium, if so then the method is
titration.

 If the above mentioned two types of salts are not mentioned then the method is
neutralization.
 For precipitation – reagents will be a nitrate and an acid
 For titration – reagents will be an acid and an alkali. Also mention the apparatus (pipette,
burette and conical flask) name of the indicator.
 For neutralization – reagents will be an acid and a metal/ alkali/metal oxide/metal
carbonate

 Water of Crystallization is defined as the amount of water that forms the integral part of

the crystal.
 Solubility Rules:

o All group 1 and ammonium salts are soluble

o All nitrates are soluble
o All chlorides are soluble, except lead and silver
o All sulfates are soluble, except barium, calcium and lead
o All carbonates are insoluble, except sodium, potassium and ammonium
o All hydroxides are insoluble, except sodium, potassium, ammonium and calcium
(partially)

Periodic table:

 Properties of group 1 and group 7 elements. Like their melting and boiling point
variations down the group.

 In group 1 from top to bottom the reactivity increases and the melting point decreases

down the group.

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 In group 7 reactivity decreases down the group and the melting point increases down the

group.

 In halogens a highly reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from its
compound.

 Fluorine and chlorine are gases while bromine is liquid, iodine and astatine are solids.

Their colours are also important. When we move from top to bottom in group 7 intensity
of colour changes. Fluorine is pale yellow, chlorine is greenish yellow, bromine reddish

brown, iodine and astatine is black.

 You should also be able to predict the properties from the given set of data.
 In your past paper, there is a slide which gives the physical and chemical properties of
group 1,7 and transition metals. [ keep in mind that question was specifically about F
and K ]
 In transition metals, questions related to their physical and chemical properties will be

asked directly or indirectly.

 Physical properties – hard, high density, high Mp and Bp. Three chemical properties –

act as catalyst, variable valences and they form coloured compounds.

 Noble gases they have an octet structure or they have a completely filled outermost
shell. So, they don’t take part in the reaction. You should also know the uses of all noble
gases. He – hot air balloons, Ne – advertisement sign boards, Ar – light bulbs, Kr –

camera flash lamp, Xe – light houses, Rn – treatment of cancer.

Metals

 Physical (malleability, ductility) and chemical properties (reaction with water and acids)
are important.

 When a metal reacts with water (cold) we get the hydroxide and when with steam then it

will be oxide. In both the cases hydrogen gas is formed.

 The properties of Al, that makes it useful in air craft, overhead power cables, food
container and copper in electrical wires, vessels all are to be noted.

 The reason for the presence of steel core in over head power cables. [ to provide
strength and to prevent the sagging off]
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 Alloys are uniform mixture of a metal with another metal or nonmetal. They are hard as

there is a different size atom in the metallic lattice that makes it difficult for the layers to

slide over and they are malleable as the layers are held together with weak force of
attraction and they can slide over each other. You should also be able to represent an

alloy.

 Brass – Cu and Zn [ to make door knobs,]

 Stainless steel – Fe, C, Ni and Cr. [ to make kitchen utensils, crockery]

Reactivity series:

 You should know the reactivity series in the correct order and know the significance of

elements in their position.

 Elements on the top of the series are highly reactive. As we go down the reactivity
decreases.

 A highly reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its aqueous compound.
 Elements above carbon can be separated by electrolysis and below carbon can be
separated by heating with carbon.

 Elements at the bottom of the series can be obtained in the pure form.
 Elements above hydrogen can displace hydrogen from the acids and below hydrogen
like copper silver and gold can’t displace hydrogen from the acids. [In the question if it
says that hydrogen is not displaced by a metal it means that it less reactive than
hydrogen]
 Elements on the top of the series will undergo corrosion faster while at the bottom of the

series will remain as it is.

 When metals react with cold water (group 1 and 2) they form hydroxides and when

metals react with steam it forms oxides.

 Anything to do with aluminum, the presence of oxide layer is an option. Ie in many

condition Al shows un reactivity due to the presence of the oxide layer.
 Conditions required for rusting and the ways to prevent to be noted.
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 Sacrificial protection: The property by which a highly reactive metal like Zn or Mg

undergoing oxidation faster producing electrons. These electrons will prevent the other

metal from undergoing corrosion

 You should know to explain sacrificial protection for 3 or 4 marks (4 marks will be asked

when it will be compared with other metals.)

 Why is galvanising better than painting

 (1)Zinc reacts faster than iron producing electrons which(2) spread all over the metal

surface and (3)prevent the oxidation of iron atoms

 (4) Equations Zn ➔ Zn2+ + 2e−

 Fe ➔ Fe2+ + 2e−
 Difference between sacrificial protection [SP] and cathodic protection [CP] - SP is an
electrolytic cell while CP is a simple cell. In SP we need a highly reactive metal to be
sacrificed to protect the other metal while in CP the electrons from the external power

supply will prevent the metal rom corrosion.

Extraction of Iron:

 Ore of iron is hematite. Fe2O3 is the formula and iron oxide is the chemical name.
 The raw material used is C, CaCO3, Fe2O3 along with oxygen.
 Reactions are done in the blast furnace.
 You should know all the 5 reactions and their specialties.
 Reaction of carbon with oxygen to form carbon dioxide is an exothermic reaction. This
explains the role of carbon in the extraction.

 Using the heat calcium carbonate decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide. This is as an example of thermal decomposition reaction or endothermic

reaction.

 Carbon dioxide will react with more carbon to form carbon monoxide.
 CO formed will reduce iron oxide to Fe and Carbon dioxide. The equation is very
important. This reaction is an example for redox reaction.
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 Calcium oxide formed will react with the acidic impurity SiO2 to form slag. This is an

example to acid base / neutralization reaction. This explains the role of calcium

carbonate in the extraction of iron.

 Extraction of Aluminium – The ore of aluminium is bauxite (Al2O3, Aluminium oxide). As it

has high Mp and water insoluble, bauxite is mixed with molten cryolite which will act as a

solvent, reduces the Mp and increases the electrical conductivity. During the electrolysis
aluminum is formed at the cathode and oxygen is formed at the anode. But at anode

other than oxygen, CO2 and CO is also formed.

 Reason for the formation of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide: at high temperature
oxygen formed at the anode will react with the electrode to form carbon dioxide
(complete combustion) and carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion). Also, cryolite will
decompose to form fluorine.

Air and water:

 In the chapter water you need to the physical and chemical test for water.
 Boling point or melting point is the physical test while the reaction of anhydrous copper

sulfate (colourless to blue) / cobalt chloride (blue to pink) with water is the chemical test.
 The processes involved in the purification of water – sedimentation, filtration, addition of
carbon (to remove the colour and odour) and chlorination (to kill the microbes).
 Sand and gravel make the rain water the pure form of water as it acts as a sieve in water
purification.
 You should also have an idea about the various pollutants that will pollute the water,

their causes and harmful effect.

 What is the use of water at home or in industry?

 Air: you need to know the composition of air. 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon
dioxide and all noble gases are present in air. [One important thing there is no hydrogen

present in atmosphere.]
 Sometimes they may ask which gas constitute 1% of air? The option given will be Ar.
 How are the different components of air separated? – by the fractional distillation of

liquefied air. [Air is allowed to compress and expand suddenly; as a result, it gets
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liquefied. Then the air is boiled and fed in to the fractionating column where it gets

separated according to their boiling point. The fraction with the highest boiling point will

be obtained at the bottom and the lowest boiling point at the top.] (if asked for 5 m)
 Common pollutants in the air as being carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of

nitrogen and lead compounds

 Source of: – carbon monoxide and particulates from the incomplete combustion of
carbon-containing substances

 Carbon dioxide – by the complete combustion of carbon containing fuels.

 Sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds
leading to ‘acid rain’
 Oxides of nitrogen from car exhausts (due to high temperature inside the engine
nitrogen reacts with oxygen)
 State the adverse effect of common pollutants on buildings and on health

 A catalytic convertor reduces the pollutants - A catalytic convertor makes the oxides of
nitrogen to react with CO to form CO2 and N2.

 In presence of catalyst (Pt for example) NOx decomposes to N2 and O2

2NO ➔ N2 + O2 / CO is oxidised to CO2

 Hydrocarbons are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water

 Haber process for ammonia manufacture

 Fertilizers usually contain N,P,and K

 You should know the name of the fertilizers made from ammonia / sulfuric acid.

 Greenhouse gases: (1) carbon dioxide and

 (2) methane and may contribute to climate change

 You should know how the global warming can increase the atmospheric temperature.

 Photosynthesis – the process by which plants absorb CO2 from the air, water from the
soil in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll as the catalyst to form glucose and O2

 Sources of methane: decomposition of vegetation and waste gases

from digestion in animals

 Desulfurisation – process by which SO2 present in flue gas is removed by passing over

lime.(CaO)
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 Some uses of lime and slaked lime (which are basic)

 (1) in treating acidic soil to neutralise and

 (2) neutralising acidic industrial waste

Organic chemistry:

 Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only.

 Saturated compounds contain carbon to carbon single bond while unsaturated

compounds contain carbon to carbon double bond.

 Bromine water is used to differentiate these two compounds.
 Unsaturated compounds decolorizes bromine water.

 Functional group- alcohol(-OH), acids(-COOH), amines(-NH2), alkanes (- bond), alkenes

(double bond), esters (-COO-)
 Homologous series - they are group of compounds with same general molecular

formula, similar chemical properties, same functional group and consecutive members
differ by –CH2 group.
 Alkanes: saturated hydrocarbons with general molecular formula CnH2n+2. Main source of

alkanes is petroleum (mixture of hydrocarbons). Alkanes mainly show two types of

reaction a) combustion b) substitution.
 In combustion if done in excess oxygen carbon dioxide and water is formed while
incomplete combustion produces CO and water. You should be knowing how to balance
the organic equation.
 Substitution reaction – type of reaction in which the hydrogen of the alkane is replaced

by the chlorine atoms in presence of sunlight. This is the characteristic reaction of

alkanes.

 The main disadvantage of this process is that we get a mixture of products as one H

atoms are replaced at each step.

 As this reaction happens in the presence of sunlight. Thus, an example of photochemical
reaction.

 Alkenes: unsaturated hydrocarbons with general molecular formula CnH2n. Main source
is from alkanes.
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 They show mainly two types of reaction: combustion and addition reaction.

 Addition reaction – reaction in which reactants combine to one single product

 This reaction is very important, asked many times. The most important thing that you
need to keep in mind is that the reaction happens at the double bond. So, the incoming

group should be added to the double bonded carbon.

 Alkenes can react with hydrogen to form alkanes (cond. Ni catalyst), water to form
alcohol (cond. con H3PO4, 3000C) and with chlorine (chloro alkanes).

 If we compare substitution reaction with addition reaction to make dichloro butane –

addition method is preferred because alkene will give a single product.

 Isomerism: property by which compounds have the same molecular formula but different
structural formula. Isomers are drawn by shifting the position of the functional group or
substituent between the second and 1st carbon atoms.
 Fuels are substances that will produce energy on burning.

 Fossil fuels are substances that produce energy on burning obtained from the organic
materials.

 Renewable and non-renewable substances – substance that can be made again is

renewable wand that which can’t be made again is nonrenewable.
 Fractional distillation – process by which the different components present in a mixture
are separated based on the difference in their boiling point.

 Refining of oil – process by which different components of crude oil are separated based
on their boiling point, the fraction with the lowest bp will be obtained at the top and
highest bp at the bottom

 Fraction – group of hydrocarbons with a specific boiling range.

 You should know the 8 fractions and their uses.
 Cracking: The process by which long chain hydrocarbons are broken down to short

chain alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen by heating to 4500C, and in the presence of Al2O3
as catalyst. Or just mention high temperature and catalyst.
 Alcohols: group of hydrocarbons with –OH as the functional group. CnH2n+1OH is the

general molecular formula. Given the Mr of the compound, we should be able to identify
the formula of the compound.
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 Two methods to produce ethanol.

 Method 1 – reaction of alkene with steam at 3000C and H3PO4 as catalyst. (Equation is

important). Advantages of this method: 1) reaction is fast 2) produces more concentrated

alcohol. Disadvantages: alcohol produced from non-renewable source.

 Method 2 – Fermentation (Process by which glucose is converted to ethanol by the

action of enzyme present in yeast.) During the reaction the temperature is maintained at
25- 350C. So that the reaction won’t be slow and a higher temperature can’t be used as

it will denature the enzyme. The reaction is carried in the absence of oxygen to prevent

the oxidation of alcohol to ethanoic acid.

 To draw the isomer of alcohol, shift the position of –OH between the 1st and 2nd carbon
atoms.
 Reactions of alcohols – 1) oxidation - either by adding oxygen in the presence of
bacteria or by adding an oxidizing agent like acd. KMnO4.

 Dehydration – alcohols on dehydration by con H2SO4 produces alkene.

 Uses of alcohol – 1) as fuel 2) as a solvent 3) in drinks.

 Acids: -COOH is the functional group. GMF - CnH2n+1COOH

 You should know the main reaction of acid in the manufacture of esters. While drawing
the structure of esters we can draw any way we want but while naming alcohol part to be
first followed by acid part.

 Isomer of an acid is an ester.

 You should also know all the reactions of ethanoic acid and be able to write the chemical
equation.

 Polymers - small units called monomers combine together to give macromolecules

called polymers.
 Advantages of polymers – light in weight, can be made into any intricate shape, flexible

etc. But the main disadvantage is that its non-biodegradable and on burning it produces
toxic gases.
 Non-biodegradable – substances that can’t be decomposed by the action of bacteria.

 Polymerization – reaction in which monomers combine to give polymer. Two types of

polymerization
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 Addition polymerization : type of polymerization in which monomers combine to give

polymer as the single product. The most important thing to keep in mind is that the

monomer should always be in a two-carbon structure with a double bond between

carbon atoms. Do not draw the polymer from a three or four carbon monomer.

 Condensation polymersiation – reaction in which monomers combine to give a polymer

and a byproduct like water.

 PET: polyester

 Nylon: poly amide.

Proteins:

Monomers used – amino acid.

Structure of proteins:

 Proteins are made from 20 diff monomers while Nylon is made from 2 diff

monomers. In protein monomers there is 1 -NHs and 1 -COOH gp while in Nylon

there is 2 -NH2 and 2 -COOH gps

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Experimental techniques:

 The apparatus that is used to measure volume – pipette and burette for accuracy and

measuring cylinder for convenience. Gas syringe to measure the volume of gas.

 In paper 6, if there is a question related to the error or improvement in the experiment,

use of measuring cylinder is an option. As an improvement will be using a pipette or

burette instead of MC.

 Chromatography - purpose of base line, why base lines are drawn with pencils,

chromatogram, mention the name of the solvent, how to identify the different spots

(same rf value, same height), locating agents for colorless substances, single spot

means pure and more than 1 means it’s a mixture.

 Different methods of separation ➔ distillation to remove water from the solution,

crystallization or evaporation to get the solute from the solution, filtration to remove the

solid from the liquid, diffusion to separate two gases, fractional distillation to separate

two liquids, chromatography to separate two colours or amino acids.