Received: 22 January 2022 Revised: 13 February 2022 Accepted: 26 February 2022

DOI: 10.1002/pc.26577

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Carbon fiber/polyetherketoneketone composites. Part I: An

ideal and uniform composition via solution-based
processing

Bolan Li | Feng Zhang | Mengxiao Jiao | Yanbo Li | Xin Wang |

Xiaohua Zhang

Key Laboratory of Textile Science &

Technology (Ministry of Education),
College of Textiles, and Innovation Center
for Textile Science and Technology,
Donghua University, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Xiaohua Zhang, Key Laboratory of Textile
Science & Technology (Ministry of
Education), College of Textiles, and
Innovation Center for Textile Science and
Technology, Donghua University,
Shanghai 201620, China.
Email: zhangxh@dhu.edu.cn
Funding information
Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities, Grant/Award
Number: 2232021G-01; National Natural
Science Foundation of China, Grant/
Award Number: 62176158
Abstract
As limited by the low dissolubility, powder- and dispersion-based composition
methods are used to prepare carbon fiber (CF)/polyaryletherketone (PAEK)
prepregs. Owing to the high content of ketone groups, polyetherketoneketone
(PEKK) is found to have a high dissolubility in fluorine- and/or chlorine-
containing solvents. It is revealed that PEKK can form colloidal solutions with a
particle size down to tens of nm, paving the way for a true solution-based
impregnation toward advanced CF/PEKK composites. After a fabrication route
of impregnation, preheating, and compression molding, PEKK was found to uni-
formly and tightly cover all the CFs within a thickness of 1–3 μm in the final
composites. Such limited spacing and the fiber surface strongly suppress the
crystallization of PEKK. As a result, the composites exhibited a tensile strength
of 1.85 GPa, 94.9% that of the ideal one according to the rule of mixture.
KEYWORDS
composites, mechanical properties, poly(ether ketones), processing

1 | INTRODUCTION temperature window. Note that PEKK can be prepared via

As a family of high-temperature semicrystalline thermo-
plastics, polyaryletherketones (PAEKs) have attracted
growing attention due to the comprehensive properties
such as high temperature stability, high mechanical prop-
erties, electrical insulation, and radiation and chemical
resistances. According to the different compositions and
sequences of ether and ketone linkages, PAEKs are divided
into polyetherketone (PEK), polyetheretherketone (PEEK),
polyetherketoneketone (PEKK), and so on. Recently, PEEK
has become an important matrix for high-performance
composites,[1–8] and PEKK is gaining more interests as
a competitive candidate to PEEK.[9–15] As compared to
PEEK, PEKK exhibits a higher stiffness and toughness,
and a higher and modulable glass transition and
melting temperatures,[16,17] leading to a wider processing
a Friedel–Crafts acylation reaction with diphenyl ether, ter-
ephthaloyl chloride (T) and/or isophthalic chloride (I).[18,19]
Therefore, different PEKK can be synthesized regarding the
T/I ratio, and as a result, their physical properties are also
quite different.
Besides the above structural and physical differences
between PEEK and PEKK, another essential difference
lies in the chemical feature of ketone groups. There is a
general polarity ranking of functional groups, namely
amide > acid > alcohol > ketone

aldehyde > amine > ester > ether > alkane:
Thus due to the rich ketone groups, PEKK has an
enhanced molecular polarity, that might improve the sol-
ubility as highly polar molecules can interact easily with

Polymer Composites. 2022;1–9. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pc © 2022 Society of Plastics Engineers 1

2 LI ET AL.
PEKK.[20] As a result, the preparation process of carbon
fiber (CF)/PEKK composites can be greatly different from
that of CF/PEEK. However, it is still challenging to
obtain a uniform composite structure toward the utiliza-
tion of the advanced properties of both CF and
PEKK. Generally, for the impregnation of thermoplastics
into CF bundles, melt impregnation, solution impregna-
tion, film stacking, fiber mixing, and powder impregnation
have been used.[21] Among them, powder impregnation
is the major one for PAEKs,[22] and to improve the
uniformity, the powder should be ultrafine. Thus liquid
suspensions are prepared for this purpose, due to the
reduced particle size.[23–25] However, such treatment is
still difficult to realize a satisfying composite structure, as
the aggregated PAEK particles can hardly distribute uni-
formly inside CF bundles. As PEKK has a high molecular
polarity, it becomes possible to develop a true solution
impregnation toward advanced composites, owing to at
least two advantages. First, PEKK no longer aggregates as
a large-size particle, and thus can impregnate efficiently
and uniformly inside CF bundles. Second, the dissolved
PEKK can form more intimate and tight interaction
with CFs.
Herein, we report that PEKK can be fully dissolved in
fluorine- and/or chlorine-containing solvents by forming
tiny colloidal particles, and thus be efficiently impreg-
nated into CF bundles. The impregnation is deep into the
interior of CF bundles, leading to a full covering over all
the CFs with a uniform and thin PEKK layer. The com-
posite structure is nearly the ideal one, leading to a high
strength retention ratio of CFs in the composites. It is
also found that the crystallinity of PEKK is suppressed in
the limited spacing between CFs.
2 | EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 | PEKK solutions
The PEKK powders (Shandong Kaisheng New Materials Co.,
Ltd., Zibo, China) were synthesized by using diphenyl ether,
terephthalic chloride, and isophthalic chloride,[18,19,26] and
had a T/I ratio of 50/50. The unsized TZ300 CFs (12 K, diam-
eter 7 μm, density 1.78 g cm3) were provided by Guangwei
Composites Co., Ltd., Weihai, China. The trifluoroacetic acid
(TFA), 4-chlorophenol (4CP), and 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE)
compounds were used as received.
The PEKK solutions were prepared by adding PEKK
powders into a solvent at a mass ratio of 5:95, 8:92, 10:90,
12:88, and 15:85, respectively. TFA and 4CP were used as
the single solvents, and their mixtures with DCE at a
mass ratio of 1:1 as the mixed solvents. Magnetic stirring
(6–8 h) was used at room temperature for TFA and TFA-
DCE, or 50 C for 4CP and 4CP-DCE (the melting point
of 4CP is 42.8 C). PEKK/water suspensions (12 wt%)
were also prepared by ultrasonicating 30 min.
2.2 | Solution-based impregnation
The impregnation was realized by immersing CF bundles
in PEKK solutions or suspensions. The bundle was led to
pass through a series of guide rollers (5–7) in the immer-
sion bath, at a rate of
0.5 m min1. These rollers can
induce a strong tensioning force due to the friction with
the bundle, ensuring a high degree of CF alignment. Con-
sequently, the solution- or suspension-treated CFs were
treated at 120 or 100 C for 4 h to fully remove the
solvents.
2.3 | CF/PEKK composites
An HG-3622 M Electrical Forming Machine (HengGuang
Science & Technology Co., Ltd., Kunshan, China) was
used to mold the CF/PEKK composites. The as-
impregnated prepreg tape was cut into strips with a
length of 90 mm (the size of mold). Then a strip was
placed into the mold to get heated and compressed, with
three different molding profiles discussed in the
main text.
2.4 | Characterizations
The viscosity of PEKK solution was tested with an LVDV-
1T Digital Rotational Viscometer (Minyi Electrics Co.,
Ltd., Shanghai, China). The aggregation degree of PEKK
in solution was evaluated with a BI-200SM dynamic light
scattering system (Brookhaven Instruments, USA) fitted
with a solid-state laser at λem = 532 nm, a BI-200SM goni-
ometer, and a BI-9000 digital correlator.
The tensile tests for CF/PEKK composites were per-
formed with an Instron 5967 Universal Testing Machine
(Instron Corp., Norwood, USA). For the test, the
CF/PEKK strip was cut into smaller ones with a width of

3 mm. The sample's two ends were adhered with stiff-
ening plates on both sides, leaving a gauge length of 20–
25 mm. The tensile rate was 1 mm min1.
The microstructures of PEKK particles and CF/PEKK
composites were characterized with a Tescan Vega-3 scan-
ning electron microscope (SEM, Brno, Czech Republic).
The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was con-
ducted with an HS-DSC-101 analyzer (HESON Instrument
Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) and a DSC250
analyzer (TA Instruments, New Castle, USA) in N2, by
LI ET AL. 3

scanning the temperature from 50 to 400 C at a rate of
10 C min1. The DSC crystallinity was calculated by
χ c = ΔHm/ΔH100%  100%, where ΔHm is the melting
enthalpy and ΔH100% is the melting enthalpy of the 100%
crystalline PEKK, usually taken as 130 J g1. The X-ray
diffraction (XRD) characterization was performed with a
D8 Advance XRD (Bruker, Karlsruhe, Germany) by using
Cu Kα radiation (λ =1.54 Å).
3 | R ES U L T S A N D D I S C U S S I O N
3.1 | Dissolution and impregnation
of PEKK
The rich ketone groups make PEKK quite dissoluble in
highly polar solvents. As 4CP can dissolve PEEK above
120 C,[20] fluorine-containing solvent like TFA can also
be a choice. Furthermore, for a facile processing, it is
important to dissolve PEKK at low temperatures. As
shown in Figure 1A,B, PEEK was not dissolved but
formed suspensions in both TFA and 4CP, either at room
temperature or 50 C, while PEKK was fully dissolved in
TFA at room temperature and in 4CP at 50 C. The TFA
solution exhibited a clear Tyndall effect (laser wavelength
532 nm), while such effect was weak for the 4CP solu-
tions, indicating that the particle size in TFA should be
smaller.
The viscosities of the two solutions were different
(Figure 1C). The PEKK/TFA solution showed a low vis-
cosity of 681 cP at 12 wt%, while it was 7880 cP for the
PEKK/4CP solution. Clearly, the particle size of PEKK in
TFA should be smaller. To show this, the solutions were
diluted to 0.05 wt%, and thus by drying them, the particle
morphology and aggregation degree were clearly
observed (Figure 1D). PEKK can be dispersed into una-
ggregated small-size colloids in TFA, just up to tens of
nm, but forms several-μm-large aggregations in 4CP due
to the crosslinking between colloid particles.
The different colloid size was also reflected by
dynamic light scattering (Figure 1E). For TFA, the inten-
sity peak was at 17 nm, and the total intensity was more

F I G U R E 1 Dissolution and impregnation of polyetherketoneketone (PEKK). (A) Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) formed suspensions, and
sedimentation took place very soon. (B) PEKK was dissolved to form colloids. The Tyndall effect was strong in trifluoroacetic acid (TFA),
and weak in 4CP. (C) Viscosity–concentration plots for various PEKK solutions. (D) Different PEKK aggregation by drying the dilute
(0.05 wt%) solutions. (E) Particle size analysis on the dilute solutions by dynamic light scattering. The dotted red circles mark the major peak
of size distribution. The integrated intensity was 77.3% and 57.1% at 200 nm for the two solutions, respectively
4 LI ET AL.
F I G U R E 2 Capillary-driven impregnation of polyetherketoneketone (PEKK) solution into a piece of carbon fiber (CF) bundles. The
solution concentration was all 5 wt% and the drop was about 0.05 ml in volume
than 60% and up to 77.3% by integrating to 17 and
200 nm. Clearly, colloids smaller than tens of nm domi-
nated in the solution. On the contrary, a strong peak
appeared at 5000–7000 nm in the 4CP solution. The inte-
gration was below 40% up to 30 nm, and just up to 57.1%
until 200 nm. This is ascribed to the aggregation
(or entanglement) of PEKK colloids, leading to the high
viscosity for the 4CP solution.
Although PEKK can be well dissolved in TFA and 4CP,
the solution viscosity is still quite high. For a better impreg-
nation into CF bundles, it might be more beneficial if the
viscosity can be further decreased. For this purpose, mixed
solvents were considered because of the ability to modulate
the solubility and viscosity. DCE was used as it can induce
electron reassign and transmit among the benzene ring and
ketone motif, and increase the polarity of PEKK.[27] Thus
the interaction between PEKK and TFA or 4CP can be
strengthened. Note that DCE itself does not dissolve PEKK
as it just interacts with small segments of polymer chain.
When DCE is mixed with TFA or 4CP, it has more chances
to interact with the dissolved PEKK and feedbacks with
enhanced PEKK polarity to improve the dissolubility. The
solution viscosity was indeed further decreased by DCE
(Figure 1C). At 12 wt% the TFA-DCE and 4CP-DCE solu-
tions exhibited viscosities of 248 and 675 cP, respectively.
3.2 | Impregnation efficiency
To evaluate the impregnation efficiency of different
PEKK solutions, the impregnation process was recorded
by dipping a drop of PEKK solution onto a piece of CF
bundles. As high concentrated solutions would dry before
finishing the impregnation, the low concentrated solu-
tions (5 wt%) were used for the evaluation (Figure 2). The
TFA and TFA-DCE solutions could fully impregnate and
spread along the fiber direction within 40–50 s, while it
took more than 300 and 200 s when the solvent was 4CP
and 4CP-DCE. The two mixed solvents both showed a
higher efficiency than the single solvents. Thus the mixed
solvent of TFA-DCE was the best choice.
3.3 | Fabrication of CF/PEKK
composites
Owing to the efficient impregnation of PEKK/TFA-DCE
solution, such solution-based strategy can well overcome the
key obstacle of uniform composition in the powder-based
compression molding. As the solvent is volatile, a sealed
impregnation tank was used (Figure 3A). A series of guide
rollers were used to maintain the CF straightness. By control-
ling the drawing speed to ensure a sufficient impregnation,
the as-impregnated CF/PEKK prepreg tapes were obtained.
Although the low concentrated solutions possess a
high impregnation rate, the final mass fraction of PEKK
is insufficient due to the rapid filling of PEKK between
CFs. On the contrary, when the concentration is too high,
the high viscosity suppresses the impregnation. Thus the
PEKK mass fraction in the as-impregnated prepregs was
evaluated (Figure 3B), where the optimal fraction of
38 wt% was obtained by using the 12 wt% solution.
Based on the ideal composition (Figure 3C) the PEKK
mass fraction can be obtained by the inter-fiber
spacing δ. The PEKK pffiffiffi has an area per CF of
APEKK ¼ Atotal  ACF ¼ 3ðd þ δÞ2 =2  πd2 =4, where d is
LI ET AL. 5

F I G U R E 3 Solution impregnation of polyetherketoneketone (PEKK). (A) Schematic of the impregnation process. (B) PEKK mass
fraction as a function of the solution concentration. (C) Schematic showing the dependence of PEKK content on the spacing between carbon
fibers (CFs). (D) As-impregnated microstructure, where PEKK particles did not strongly adhere to CFs, leading to the easy separation
between them. (E–G) after being compression molded, an excellent composite structure was obtained, where the PEKK covered all CF
surfaces (E), uniformly impregnated inside CF bundles (F), and had a thickness of 1–3 μm (G)

the fiber diameter. Using the densities ρPEKK =1.28 g cm3
and ρCF =1.78 g cm3, the PEKK mass fraction is 37% at
δ =2 μm, identical to an overall density of 1.55 g cm3.
The advantage of solution impregnation is the uni-
form composition. In the as-impregnated sample
(Figure 3D), the CFs were indeed coated uniformly by
PEKK particles. However, due to the weak adhesion, CFs
could be peeled off, leaving the particles as a shell. After
a molding at 360 C and 50 MPa, the PEKK particles fully
melted and covered around all the CFs (Figure 3E). The
overall cross-sectional morphology (Figure 3F) shows
such composite structure was quite uniform, and the
enlarged view (Figure 3G) clearly shows that the PEKK
between CFs had a thickness of just 1–3 μm. Clearly, this
6 LI ET AL.

F I G U R E 4 Powder
impregnation of
polyetherketoneketone (PEKK).
(A) the PEKK/water mixture
was a suspension without a
Tyndall effect.
(B) Sedimentation took place
within just several hours.
(C) Scanning electron
microscope (SEM)
characterization of the dried
suspension showing that PEKK
was undissolved. The particles
size ranged from 10–20 μm to
100 μm. (D, E) cross-sectional
and side views of the
microstructures of powder-
impregnated carbon fiber (CF)/
PEKK composites, after the
compression molding

is a composite structure very close to the ideal one. The
density of the molded composites was about 1.5 g cm3,
in agreement with the above analysis.
3.4 | Comparison with powder
impregnation
Thus far, there has not been such solution impregnation,
but solid-based methods including the film stacking,
powder or suspension prepregging, and yarn wrapping.
For example, CF fabrics and PEEK or PEKK films can be
stacked then molded by hot compressing.[28,29] Such
impregnation is just within a shallow skin of CF fabrics,
leaving a large un-impregnated region. The powder
impregnation is also widely used, where PAEK powders
with a size of several μm are coated on CF fabrics.[30] The
impregnation can be improved by using PAEK disper-
sions, also called as wet powders.[23,24,31,32] However, the
problem of small impregnation depth still exists. Further-
more, the composition is also realized by commingling
PAEK fibers with CFs to form co-wrapped yarns.[33–35]
This would further induce non-uniformity due to the
localized impregnation.
To show the advantage of solution impregnation,
PEKK/water suspensions (12 wt%) were also prepared for
the powder impregnation. As shown in Figure 4A,B,
there was no Tyndall effect, and sedimentation took place
just in minutes, until all the particles settled out in 4 h.
The dried suspension showed that the particle size
ranged from several to
100 μm (Figure 4C). Therefore,
such impregnation could not result in a uniform PEKK
distribution in CF bundles, as confirmed by the cross-
sectional and side views (Figure 4D,E) of the molded
sample, where the impregnation depth was just 10–
20 μm, and the distribution of PEKK along CFs was
nonuniform.
3.5 | Mechanical properties
As PEKK is still in the form of particles in the as-
impregnated prepreg (Figure 3D), compression molding
is required to finalize the composition. Three profiles are
shown in Figure 5A, including the non-isothermal and
isothermal crystallizations, and cold molding. The mold-
ing pressure on the specimen was Pmold = 50 MPa for all
the procedures. The molding temperatures were
ð1Þ
T mold = 340–380 C for the non-isothermal treatment,
ð1Þ ð2Þ
T mold = 360 C and T mold = 280–320 C for the isothermal
ð3Þ
treatment, and T mold = 180–280 C for the cold molding.
The compression molding had an evident effect on
the fracture of composites (Figure 5B). The non-isothermal
treatment ensured a uniform and tight binding between
PEKK and CFs, and thus efficient across-fiber load
transfer, leading to a neat and flat fracture. For the isother-
mal treatment, it was difficult to uniformly distribute
stresses along the CFs, and sliding between CFs domi-
nated in the fracture. The worst situation was observed in
the cold molding, where the CFs could not be adhered
together and showed an exploded morphology when
being fractured.
Figure 5C shows the typical stress–strain curves of
the samples obtained at the optimal molding
LI ET AL. 7

F I G U R E 5 Mechanical
properties of carbon fiber (CF)/
polyetherketoneketone (PEKK)
composites. (A) Molding
profiles of CF/PEKK
composites. (B) Fracture
morphologies of three different
CF/PEKK composites.
(C) Stress–strain curves for the
three treatments at the optimal
molding temperatures.
(D) Mechanical properties of
CF/PEKK composites under
different treatments

temperatures for the three treatments, and Figure 5D
provides the comparison in strength and modulus for
these treatments as a function of Tmold. The 360 C non-
isothermally treated sample showed the highest strength
of 1.85 GPa. However, its modulus (54 GPa) was smaller
than the isothermally treated ones (60–66 GPa). For the
cold molded ones, it was difficult to improve the strength
and modulus simultaneously. Clearly, a full melting at
360 C is required to remove the voids in the as-
impregnated prepreg, and the over heating above 380 C
would cause PEKK leakage due to the reduced viscosity.
By considering the mechanical properties of the CFs
(the average strength was 3.56 GPa from 20 tensile tests),
one can estimate the strength of the ideal composition. The
rule of mixture gives σ c = σ fvf + σ mvm, where σ f and σ m are
the stresses on the fiber and matrix, and vf and vm are the
volume fractions. As the strength of PEKK (100–110 MPa)
is much smaller, the contribution is mainly from the CFs.
For the ideal case (Figure 3C), vf = 54.9% when δ =2 μm.
Thus the strength is σ c ≈ σ fvf = 3.56  54.9% = 1.95 GPa.
Clearly, the 360 C non-isothermally treated sample was
very close to the ideal one, see also Figure 3G. Furthermore,
the flat and neat fracture (Figure 5B) also indicates that the
load transfer between CFs was as efficient as the ideal case.
3.6 | Reduced crystallinity
We suspect that the crystallization of PEKK is suppressed
by the presence of CFs, and the very limited spacing
8 LI ET AL.
F I G U R E 6 Crystallinity analysis for polyetherketoneketone (PEKK) by using the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermograms
(A) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) diffractograms (B)
between CFs as well. Therefore, amorphous PEKK domi-
nates in the composites. To prove it, the crystallinity in
the strongest CF/PEKK composites via different molding
methods was evaluated by DSC and XRD (Figure 6),
where two pure PEKK specimens were also characterized
for a comparison. The PEKK specimens were treated at
50 MPa and 360 C for 60 min, by using the non-
isothermal profile in Figure 5A, with and without the
preheating stage, respectively.
The PEKK exhibited a strong and wide endothermic
melting DSC peak above 300 C (Figure 6A), with melting
enthalpies of 30.59 and 45.85 J g1 (crystallinities of
23.5% and 35.3%) for the preheated and non-preheated
samples. Differently, the endothermic peak was quite
small for all the composites, with melting enthalpies of
23.56, 25.68, and 24.01 J g1 (crystallinities of 18.1%,
19.8%, and 18.5%) for the non-isothermal, isothermal,
and cold molded samples, respectively. Clearly, the crys-
tallization of PEKK was strongly suppressed after being
composited with CFs.
The XRD results also confirmed the suppressed crystal-
linity (Figure 6B). The preheated PEKK showed peaks at
18.9 , 20.9 , 23.3 , and 29.0 of the crystal Form I,[26] while
the other one at 15.9 , 18.7 , 22.8 , and 28.2 of the Form
II,[16,36] as thermal history strongly affects the crystalliza-
tion.[37] When there were CFs, all these peaks remarkably
decreased, corresponding to a suppressing effect. First, the
1–3 μm inter-fiber spacing prohibits the formation of
spherulites (several to tens of μm). Second, as CFs have a
much larger thermal conductivity (
10 W m1 K1 for
T300) than PAEKs (0.2–0.3 W m1 K1),[38] PEKK can be
easily melted on CFs, reducing the nucleation probability.
Therefore, a high amorphousity is achieved toward the
uniform composition.
4 | CONCLUSION
Owing to the high molecular polarity, fluorine- and/or
chlorine-containing solvents like 4CP, TFA, and DCE
can dissolve PEKK into colloidal particles with a size
down to 20 nm. The solution impregnation leads to a full
covering around CFs by PEKK particles, and a uniform
and nearly ideal composite structure after hot compres-
sion. Such structure utilizes the mechanical properties of
CF as fully as possible, as reflected by the high tensile
strength of 1.85 GPa, 94.9% the theoretical maximum.
Another reason for the improved performance is the
amorphous state of PEKK, as the presence of CF and the
limited inter-fiber spacing remarkably suppress the crys-
tallization of PEKK.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities (2232021G-01) and
National Natural Science Foundation of China
(62176158).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the
authors.
ORCID
Xiaohua Zhang https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9008-791X
RE FER EN CES
[1] A. Lustiger, F. S. Uralil, G. M. Newaz, Polym. Compos. 1990,
11, 65.
[2] R. K. Goyal, Y. S. Negi, A. N. Tiwari, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2006,
100, 4623.
LI ET AL.
[3] A. M. Díez-Pascual, M. Naffakh, M. A. G omez, C. Marco, G.
Ellis, M. T. Martínez, A. Ans on, J. M. Gonzalez-Domínguez,
Y. Martínez-Rubi, B. Simard, Carbon 2009, 47, 3079.
[4] L. Pan, U. Yapici, Adv. Compos. Mater 2016, 25, 359.
[5] A. A. Stepashkin, D. I. Chukov, F. S. Senatov, A. I. Salimon,
A. M. Korsunsky, S. D. Kaloshkin, Compos. Sci. Technol. 2018,
164, 319.
[6] X. Gao, Z. Huang, H. Zhou, D. Li, Y. Li, Y. Wang, Polym.
Compos. 2019, 40, 3749.
[7] T. Yan, F. Yan, S. Li, M. Li, Y. Liu, M. Zhang, L. Jin, L. Shang,
L. Liu, Y. Ao, Compos. B: Eng. 2020, 199, 108258.
[8] X. Zhang, J. Compos. Mater. 2021, 55, 2115.
[9] B. S. Hsiao, I. Y. Chang, B. B. Sauer, Polymer 1991, 32, 2799.
[10] D. Gan, S. Lu, C. Song, Z. Wang, Mater. Lett. 2001, 48, 299.
[11] D. Gan, W. Cao, C. Song, Z. Wang, Mater. Lett. 2001, 51, 120.
[12] B. Yuan, Y. Chen, H. Lin, Y. Song, X. Yang, H. Tang, E. Xie, T.
Hsu, X. Yang, X. Zhu, K. Zhang, X. Zhang, ACS Biomater. Sci.
Eng. 2016, 2, 977.
[13] P. Tadini, N. Grange, K. Chetehouna, N. Gascoin, S. Senave, I.
Reynaud, Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2017, 65, 106.
[14] S. A. Chelaghma, O. De Almeida, P. Margueres, J.-C. Passieux,
J.-N. Perie, A. Vinet, B. Reine, Polym. Crystal. 2020, 3, e10141.
[15] B. Vieille, A. Coppalle, L. LePluart, E. Schuhler, A.
Chaudhary, B. Rijal, A. Alia, N. Delpouve, Compos. B: Eng.
2021, 222, 109046.
[16] K. H. Gardner, B. S. Hsiao, R. R. Matheson, B. A. Wood,
Polymer 1992, 33, 2483.
[17] L. Q. Cortés, N. Caussé, E. Dantras, A. Lonjon, C. Lacabanne,
J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 133, 43396.
[18] S. Z. D. Cheng, R.-M. Ho, B. S. Hsiao, K. H. Gardner,
Macromol. Chem. Phys. 1996, 197, 185.
[19] S. Tencé-Girault, J. Quibel, A. Cherri, S. Roland, B. Fayolle, S.
Bizet, I. Iliopoulos, ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 2021, 3, 1795.
[20] J. Xu, Z. Zhang, X. Xiong, H. Zeng, Polymer 1992, 33, 4432.
[21] A. Pegoretti, Adv. Ind. Eng. Polym. Res. 2021, 4, 105.
[22] S. R. Iyer, L. T. Drzal, J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater. 1990,
3, 325.
[23] A. Texier, R. M. Davis, K. R. Lyon, A. Gungor, J. E. McGrath,
H. Marand, J. S. Riffle, Polymer 1993, 34, 896.
9
[24] I. Giraud, S. Franceschi-Messant, E. Perez, C. Lacabanne, E.
Dantras, Appl. Surf. Sci. 2013, 266, 94.
[25] R. Zhang, J. J. Fallon, R. M. Joseph, J. A. Thomas, M. S.
Hassan, S. R. Choudhury, E. L. Gilmer, M. Kubota, J. M.
Deitzel, J. S. Riffe, M. J. Bortner, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2018, 57,
15346.
[26] X.-H. Zhang, M.-X. Jiao, X. Wang, B.-L. Li, F. Zhang, Y.-B. Li,
J.-N. Zhao, H.-H. Jin, Y. Yang, Chin. J. Polym. Sci. 2022,
40, 175.
[27] Y.-C. Ke, Z. Wu, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1998, 67, 2065.
[28] T. Ren, G. Zhu, X. Hou, B. Li, Y. Hao, J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
2021, 138, 51327.
[29] Y. Su, P. Liu, D. Jing, X. Zhang, S. Zhang, J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
2021, 138, 51326.
[30] X. Yuan, J. Jiang, H. Wei, C. Yuan, M. Wang, D. Zhang, L.
Liu, Y. Huang, G.-L. Gao, Z. Jiang, Compos. Sci. Technol. 2020,
201, 108496.
[31] L. B. Nohara, M. L. Costa, M. A. Alves, M. F. K. Takahashi,
E. L. Nohara, M. C. Rezende, Mat. Res. 2010, 13, 245.
[32] J. Chen, T. Zhang, K. Wang, Y. Zhao, Polym. Compos. 2019,
40, 1187.
[33] J. Jang, H. Kim, Polym. Compos. 1997, 18, 125.
[34] Z. Xu, M. Zhang, G. Wang, J. Luan, High Perform. Polym.
2019, 31, 321.
[35] C. Lu, J. Wang, X. Lu, T. Zheng, Y. Liu, X. Wang, D. Zhang,
D. Seveno, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 31520.
[36] K. H. Gardner, B. S. Hsiao, K. L. Faron, Polymer 1994, 35,
2290.
[37] T. Choupin, L. Debertrand, B. Fayolle, G. Régnier, C. Paris, J.
Cinquin, B. Brulé, Polym. Cryst. 2019, 2, e10086.
[38] J. Audoit, L. Rivière, J. Dandurand, A. Lonjon, E. Dantras, C.
Lacabanne, J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2019, 135, 2147.
How to cite this article: B. Li, F. Zhang, M. Jiao,
Y. Li, X. Wang, X. Zhang, Polym. Compos. 2022, 1.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26577