ENGLISH: COMPETENCE & USE 2

UNIT 4. OBSTACLES AND OPPORTUNITIES; APPROXIMATION

APPROXIMATIONS

We use approximations when we talk about amounts to emphasize the scale of numbers
rather than the exact amount.
- These expressions mean at or slightly above or below a number:
approximately X around X hundreds of (etc.)
about X more or less X X-odd
roughly X some X X … or thereabouts
X or so
Remember to approximate the number and make sure it is a close approximation.
- The use of these words depends on the number you are talking about:
• nearly (the actual number is a bit lower)
• just over (the actual number is a bit higher)
• at least (the actual number is the same or higher)
• as much as / as many as (you think the number is large)
• as little as / as few as (you think the number is small)
- These words mean that you are being vague or can’t think of a better way to describe
something:
• kind of X / sort of X (e.g., He was kind of dumb)
• X-ish (e.g., It was blue-ish)
• some X / some X or other (e.g., I saw some woman getting out of her car)
• stuff / things (e.g., There’s some black stuff on your face)

VOCABULARY

Come up against a brick wall To address an issue To make a splash

To voice a concern To be met with opposition
To get a cold/warm reception An obstacle To sell like hotcakes

KEY WORDS

Physiologically Adrenaline Sympathetic nervous system

Open mic (an occasion when members of the public are invited to sing or do comedy.)
Epiphany (a moment of sudden insight or understanding) Extremities

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UNIT 5. HAVING IDEAS; UNREAL PAST AND INVERSION IN CONDITIONALS

UNREAL PAST

Some expressions in English can be followed by past-tens forms even when the meaning is
present or future. These are used when we talk about unreal or hypothetical situations.

I WISH & IF ONLY

To express a regret: use past perfect-
I wish I hadn’t turned down the job offer in Madrid.
If only she had applied for that job in Barcelona.
To express a wish that something would be different: use simple past-
I wish my job was closer to home.
If only my job was closer to home.
I wish my friend would stop smoking.
To express dissatisfaction or annoyance and a desire for change: use would (or ’d) + infinitive-
If only they wouldn’t come to work late every day.
I wish you would remember to clean the tools after you’ve used them.
SUPPOSE, SUPPOSING & WHAT IF
To ask about the consequences of a possible situation: verb tenses vary-
Suppose the business failed – what would we do?
Supposing I help you find a new job – would you be interested?
Supposing I were to help you find a job – would you even take it?
What if we run out of cash half way through the trip?

WOULD RATHER & WOULD SOONER

To express a preference: verb tenses vary-
I’d rather you didn’t use your phone during the exam.
I’d sooner travel to Lisbon for the event than go to London.

IT’S (HIGH) TIME

To indicate that action needs to be taken soon: use simple past tense-
It’s time I found a job where I can use my degree.
It’s high time you started looking for work.

INVERSION IN CONDITIONALS

In more informal and written contexts, we can form conditional sentences by putting an
auxiliary verb before the subject instead of using if.
Usually it means starting with had, should or were. In order to invert, we don’t just switch the
order of the 2 phrases.
• I'd be very happy if you came tonight.
Were you to come tonight I'd be very happy.
Had you come tonight I would have been very happy.
Should you come tonight I’d be very happy.

WERE I + statement with 2nd conditional (possible but currently untrue statements)
Were I in a position to do so, I’d offer you a job today.

WERE + subject + TO (possibilities in the future, but not impossible situations)

Were the company to relocate to Berlin, we’d pay for moving expenses.

WERE IT NOT FOR (THE FACT THAT) (show how a particular event or person has changed a
situation)
Were it not for the fact that I have bills to pay, I would take more time off.

HAD I + past is used to (3rd or mixed conditional used in specific action in the past that led to a
specific outcome, often regretful)
Had I known you were coming, I would have reserved a bigger room.

HAD IT NOT BEEN FOR (THE FACT THAT) (very similar to Were it not for. Used to show how a
particular event or action of a particular person in the past has changed a situation)
Had it not been for my science teacher, I would never have gone to university.

SHOULD YOU instead of if in more formal contexts

Should you need any career advice, don’t hesitate to talk to us.
Should you ever want to visit my office, you’re welcome any time.

VOCABULARY

can’t come up with to be stuck for ideas (unable to achieve something)

to not have the faintest idea to dawn on me (donar-me compte)
to occur to me to draw a blank (fail to find or remember something)
to strike me to come to the realization (to become aware)

KEY WORDS

an inspiration propagate
contradiction objectification (degrading someone to the status of an object)
motivational exceptional
UNIT 6. SOLUTION COLLOCATIONS; EXPRESSING PURPOSE

EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE

We use the following structures to express the purpose of doing something.

(IN ORDER) (NOT) TO + infinitive (To alone is less formal tan in order to)
We stoped the car to change a falt tyre.

In order to prevent anyone from entering, they put a guard at the entrance

We hurried in order not to be late

SO (THAT) / IN ORDER (THAT) + a statement. (So that is less formal than in order that. Often
used with auxiliary verbs such as can or may)

Please keep your phone switched on so that we can contact you if necessary

The company paid for the party in order that everyone could attend

In informal English, we can omit that after so.

I always keep my phone switched on so I can be contacted easily

SO AS (NOT) TO + infinitive without to

I turn my email off for several hours a day so as to be able to concentrate

I always keep my phone switched on so as not to miss a call

TO AVOID / PREVENT (FROM) (indicate the purpose of an action taken to make something not
happen)
We use to avoid to talk about an action we take so that something else doesn’t happen
We took Flower Road to avoid the traffic on George Street
We use to prevent … (from) + ING to talk about an action we take to stop a problem before it
happens
The windows are closed to prevent rain from damaging the floors

FOR + noun (describe a purpose of an action or thing)

Eric keeps these water bottles for emergencies

VOCABULARY

to solve a riddle/dilemma to figure out something

to get to the bottom of a problem to clear up a misunderstanding
to overcome an obstacle, to sort out a mess to crack a puzzle/problem
KEY WORDS

contaminated filter diarrhea

sterile pores nanometres

UNIT 8. TEAMS AND TEAMWORK; CAUSE AND RESULT

CAUSE AND RESULT

We can use a number of different verbs in English to show how one thing causes or is caused
by another. In sentences with kills, gives rise to, causes, brings about, leads to, contributes to,
makes, produces, fosters the result follows the expression.
Fog results in poor visibility
In sentences with is a consequence of, results from, is the result of and arises from, the result
comes before the expression and the cause comes after.
Poor visibility is the result of fog
Some verbs tend to be used when the speaker feels that the result is negative, and others
when the result is positive. Some can be used in either context.
Usually negative Can be both / neutral Usually positive
kills gives rise to makes fosters
arises from stems from
is a consequence of
causes results from
brings about
leads to results in
contributes to
produces is the result of
We can also express cause and result using the conjunctions since, as and because.
As his daughter was ill, he took the day off
Since his child was ill, he was obliged to take a day’s leave
He stayed at home because his daughter was ill
The prepositions due to, owing to, because of, on account of can also be used explain cause.
Due to the flu epidemic, staff numbers were very low
The high absenteeism was owing to the flu epidemic
I missed the first day of the conference because of / on account of severe flight dalays
Thanks to is used to explain why something positive has happened
 Thanks to increased funding, we have been able to help 30 per cent more people this
year
We can also express result using adverbs and adverbials for this reason, as a result, therefore
(formal), consequently (formal) that’s why and thus (very formal or literary) can all replace so
to talk about the result of something you’ve just mentioned.
It’s been a very cold winter. As a result / therefore, staff have not always been able to
get into the office
We can also use thus with a gerund to mean “in this way”
It’s been a very cold winter, thus leading to more work days missed

VOCABULARY

to do your fair share of (sth) (total negative or positive amount of sth that someone deserves
to receive in a situation)
to pull your weight (to work as hard as other people) to feel a part of (sth)
to go the extra mile (to do more than one is required to do) to bond as a group
to share the load to have a sense of belonging

KEY WORDS

collaboration facilitation assumption executive admin

kindergartener iterative (doing something again and again, usually to improve it)

UNIT 10. RISK AND PROBABILITY; PASSIVE REPORTING VERBS

PASSIVE REPORTING VERBS

When the focus is more on the object than the subject. We can form the passive reporting
structures like this:
Type 1: Subject + be + past participle reporting verb + to (infinitive)
This structure can be used with present, past or future reference
They are said to be the best surfers in the world
The new energy source is expected to be cleaner
These verbs are often used with this construction: allege, assume, believe, consider, estimate,
expect, report, etc.
We can use the passive voice to report actions and events. We use reporting verbs in the
passive when:
- We don’t know or cannot verify the source or agent of the information
No injuries have been reported
- We assume the reader or listener is not interested in who the agent or source is
They are believed to have started exploring the cave at four in the morning
- The agent or source is obvious from the context
100 people are known to have been arrested
- When you want someone to remain anonymous
You’ve been reported to be driving without a license
Type 2: It + be +past participle reporting verb + (that) clause.
It is known (that) ancient people climbed mountains
These verbs are often used with this construction: agree, allege, announce, assume, believe,
claim, consider, decide, estimate, expect, fear, hope, presume, report, etc.
This construction can be also used with present, past or future reference.
It is said that they are the best surfers in the world
It is expected that the new energy source will be cleaner
Notice the use of There
It is known that there are many more dangerous sports 
There are known to be many more dangerous sports

VOCABULARY

to be a one-in-a-million chance to increase the likelihood of

something
to pose a threat to something to reduce / increase the odds of something
to run the risk of something the chances of recovering from something

KEY WORDS

to root out (find and identify) cut and dried (clear and already decided)
calamity (disaster) prenuptial agreement (legal contract made before a wedding)
innocuous (not likely to hurt anyone) stakes (risks, potential losses)

UNIT 11. EXPRESSIONS WITH LOOK AND SEE; SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

We use a subordinate clauses to give more information about a main cause. A clause is a group
of words that contains at least a subject and a verb. A clause can be a full sentence, but is
often just part of a sentence.
She sings (a clause that’s a full sentence)
You bring (a clause that isn’t a full sentence)
When we want to combine two or more ideas in one sentence, we can use multiple clauses.
The tour bus arrived
The locals held a welcome party
The tour bus arrived and the locals held a welcome party
When a clause could be a sentence on its own, it’s called a main clause. Two main clauses can
be joined into one sentence with a conjunction such as and, but or or.
A subordinate clause can be joined to a main clause using a conjunction such as: when,
because or although.
When you get there, be sure to ask for a local guide
The most important information is at the end of the sentence.
Hal shouted for joy after being rescued 
After being rescued, Hal shouted for joy
We use a comma after a subordinate clause when it begins the sentence.
The main clause and the subordinate clause can have different subjects.
I haven’t been to Laos, although David might have been
We had to borrow Leanne’s map because I didn’t have mine
Time
after, as, as soon as, before, by the time, every time (that), once, since, the first/last/next
time (that), until, when, whenever, while
Contrast
although, even, though, in spite of the fact that, regardless of the fact that, though,
whereas, while
Precaution or provision
in case, in the event that
Condition
as long as, assuming (that), if, providing/provided (that), unless
Cause/reason
as, because, considering (that), given (that), in view of the fact that, since, in light of the fact
that
Referring to other ideas, situations or information
as far as … (is concerned), as regards

VOCABULARY

oversee (supervise) as far as I can see look and see

see eye to eye (to agree with someone) on the lookout for wait and see
look (someone) in the eye need to look into
going to see about look up to (someone)

KEY WORDS

prototype (first version) innovation ventilation compressed

fragile cast (pour liquid into a pre-made shape  hardens and makes sth solid)

UNIT 12. OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM; FUTURE IN THE PAST

FUTURE IN THE PAST

When we talk about the future from the perspective of the past, we use a range of structures,
depending on whether we are talking about predictions or intentions, and on the level of
certainty and immediacy.
WOULD + INFINITIVE (WITHOUT ‘TO’)
We use would and would have to:
- Report ideas held in the past about the future
We thought Joe wouldn’t arrive until midnight, but he came at eleven
- Describe something in the past as if seen as a future prediction
The 20th century would be a time of extraordinary change
- Hypotheses about different out comes if the situation had been different, using the 3 rd and
mixed conditionals
I wouldn’t have called you, but I didn’t know who else to ask for help
This construction is also used in the passive voice
You would have been offered the job, but you’d already taken another one
BOUND TO + INFINITIVE (WITHOUT ‘TO’)
We use be bound to to talk about past beliefs about what was almost certain to happen in the
future
Cars were bound to become more popular as the price went down
This construction is also used in the passive voice
The problem was bound to be discovered
ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE (WITHOUT ‘TO’)
We use about to to talk about things in the past that were going to happen in the immediate
future, or on the point of happening.
I was about to buy an MP3 player when a newer model came out
This construction is also used in the passive voice
The world record was about to be broken
LIKELY/UNLIKELY TO + INFINITIVE (WITHOUT ‘TO’)
We use be likely / unlikely to to talk about things in the past that were seen as probable or not
probable.
I was unlikely to be cold, so we didn’t take any warm clothes
This construction is also used in the passive voice
The idea was likely to be sold for a lot of money
WAS / WERE GOING TO + INFINITIVE (WITHOUT ‘TO’)
We can use was / were going to in the following ways to talk about the future in the past:
- To make a prediction based on available information which may or may not have been
fulfilled
It was going to be a very profitable investment
- To talk about an intention which may or may not have been fulfilled
I was going to take a job as a bus driver, but I decided to go to university instead
- To talk about a plan or arrangement which then changed
We were going to meet for lunch, but then Dave became ill
- To report a thought
I knew I was going to need help, but I didn’t know who to ask
- In reported speech
I told you it was going to be sunny today
This construction is also used in the passive voice
The rumour went around that a big discovery was going to be made
WAS / WERE TO
We can use was / were to:
- Instead of was going to or would to talk about something in the past as if seen as a future
prediction
The 1900s were to bring even more world-changing events
- With have + past participle, to talk about a past plan or expectation, especially one that
wasn’t fulfilled
I was to have travelled to Stockholm, but the trip was cancelled at the last minute
- To report a past instruction
They said we were to let them know what time we were arriving

VOCABULARY

every cloud has a silver lining see clouds on the horizon

light at the end of the tunnel look on the bright side
see something through rose-tinted glasses the glass is half full/empty