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ECZ GRADE 12 CHEMISTRY SUMMARISED NOTES
(FOR 5070 & 5124) WITH QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS
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G12 CHEMISTRY 0
SUMMARIZED
ESKULU ZM 4/30/18
NOTES(5070 & 5124)
This document summarizes Chemistry (5070 & 5124)) notes according to the ECZ (Examinations Council
Syllabus).
The questions and answers are adapted from actual Cambridge past exam papers.
Prepared by Jeffrey M for eskulu.com
Contact +260978031524
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UNIT 1. METALS ............................................................................................................................................ 4

Topic 1.1- What is a Metal? ...................................................................................................................... 4
Topic 1.2- Chemical Properties of Metals ................................................................................................. 5
Topic 1.3- Extraction of Metals ................................................................................................................. 9
Topic 1.4- Alloys ...................................................................................................................................... 12
Topic 1.5- Corrosion of Metals................................................................................................................ 15
EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS................................................................................................. 16
UNIT 2. NON METALS .................................................................................................................................. 31
Topic 2.1- Non Metals: Key Points .......................................................................................................... 31
Topic 2.2- What are Non Metals? ........................................................................................................... 32
Topic 2.3- Hydrogen ................................................................................................................................ 33
Topic 2.4- Oxygen.................................................................................................................................... 34
Topic 2.5- Ammonia ................................................................................................................................ 35
Topic 2.6- Carbon .................................................................................................................................... 38
Topic 2.7 Limestone and its Uses ............................................................................................................ 40
UNIT 3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY .................................................................................................................... 47
Topic 3.1- Organic Chemistry: Key Points ............................................................................................... 47
Topic 3.2- Alkanes ................................................................................................................................... 47
Topic 3.3- Isomers: Branched Chain Alkanes .......................................................................................... 48
Topic 3.4- Making Alkanes ...................................................................................................................... 50
Topic 3.5- Chemical Behaviour of Alkanes .............................................................................................. 53
Topic 3.6- Alkenes ................................................................................................................................... 53
Topic 3.7- Chemical Behaviour of Alkenes .............................................................................................. 55
Topic 3.8- Addition Reactions: ................................................................................................................ 56
Topic 3.10- Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids, Esters: Key Points ..................................................................... 59
Topic 3.11 – Alcohols .............................................................................................................................. 60
Topic 3.12- Properties of Alcohols .......................................................................................................... 62
Topic 3.13 Carboxylic Acids ..................................................................................................................... 64
Topic 3.14 Esters ..................................................................................................................................... 66
UNIT 4 MACROMOLECULES ........................................................................................................................ 67
Topic 4.1- Macromolecules: Key Points .................................................................................................. 67
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Topic 4.2- Synthetic Polymers................................................................................................................. 68

Topic 4.3 – Natural Macromolecules ...................................................................................................... 70
References .............................................................................................................................................. 86
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UNIT 1. METALS
Topic 1.1- What is a Metal?
A metal is a chemical element that is an effective conductor of electricity and heat and good at forming
cations with non-metals.
These elements are on the left side of the periodic table
Physical properties of metals;
 high densities
 high melting points / high boiling points
– because atoms in metals are held together tightly, therefore it requires more energy(heat) to
pull them apart
 are good conductors of heat
– the moving electrons help carry heat energy
 good conductors of electricity
– outer electrons easily move away from the metal atom, producing a sea of electrons
 high tensile strength
 are malleable
-the layers of atoms can slip past each other
 are ductile (able to be drawn into thin wire)
METAL DENSITY(g/cm3) MELTING POINT(OC) BOILING POINT(oC)

Aluminium 2.7 659 2447
Gold 19.3 1063 2600
Iron 7.9 1540 3000
Magnesium 1.7 650 1110
Tungsten 19.4 3410 5930
Zinc 7.1 420 908
Structure of Metals
Metal atoms are arranged in rows, similar to how ions are arranged in ionic compounds.
Outer electrons in the atom can easily be lost because they are far away from the nucleus – hence these
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electrons move freely.

This forms rows of positive ions surrounded by a sea of moving electrons
Metals can be stretched into wires when warm and soft because the particles vibrate faster and further
away from each other in the metal
Metals are malleable because the layers of atoms do not move apart
Topic 1.2- Chemical Properties of Metals
Sodium is soft and reacts violently with both air and water. Iron also reacts with air and water but much
more slowly, forming rust.
Remember:
 The reactivity of metals varies.

 More reactive metals displace less reactive metals. This happens in “displacement reactions”
 All reactions between water and a metal will produce hydrogen gas and a metal hydroxide.
 Aluminum is a reactive Metal but appears unreactive because it is coated with aluminium oxide
which prevents further reaction
 Nitrates, carbonates and hydroxides of all metals (except Group 1) decompose on heating
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Reaction between Metals and Water
METAL REACTION WITH WATER

Potassium Potassium will burn on ice. It reacts rapidly with water
Sodium Also reacts rapidly but does not burn on ice
Calcium Reacts rapidly with water and produces hydrogen bubbles
Magnesium Reacts slowly with cold water. Magnesium will burn in steam
Zinc and Iron Reacts very slow with water
Aluminium Will not react with water but corrosion is seen if water is impure
Copper Will not react with water at all
When water reacts with these metals, hydrogen gas is produced. We can test for hydrogen gas.
Hydrogen will put out a burning splint with a pop sound.
An example of the reacting a metal with water
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ------ Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)2
Reactions between Metals and Acid
 Hydrogen gas and a salt is produced

 Heat is emitted, the reaction is exothermic.
Example
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The Reactivity Series
Shows the order of the most reactive metal to the least reactive metal.
The more reactive metal is the one that has the highest tendency to lose outer electrons to form a
positive metal ion.
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Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper
Silver
Gold
The arrow shows increasing reactivity
Reaction with Oxygen/Air.
Metals react directly with oxygen to form oxides.
e.g 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Decomposition of Metal Nitrates, Carbonates, Oxides and Hydroxides.
The decomposition processes are different, depending on the position of the metal in the reactivity
series.
Metal Nitrates,
Nitrates of reactive metals are heated and decompose to produce the Metal Nitrite and Oxygen gas.
e.g 2NaNO3(s)  2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

heat
Nitrates of moderately reactive metals decompose to produce poisonous brown fumes of nitrogen
dioxide gas and a metal oxide plus oxygen gas.
e.g 2Mg(NO3)2(s) heat

 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) O2(g)
Unreactive metal nitrates decompose to give the metal, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen.
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Metal Carbonates
They undergo decomposition to give the metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)

heat
Very reactive metals e.g potassium and sodium do not easily undergo any decomposition reaction.
The less reactive the metal, the lower the temperature needed to make the carbonate decompose.
The carbonates of unreactive metals such as gold, silver and platinum are too unstable to exist.
Metal Hydroxides
Hydroxides of reactive metals show no decomposition when they are heated.
The hydroxides of moderately reactive metals decompose to produce: Metal oxide + Water.
This process is used to convert calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) into calcium oxide (lime).
Ca(OH)2(s) heat
 CaO(s) + H2O(g)
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Topic 1.3- Extraction of Metals
Metals are extracted from “ores”
Some common ores;
METAL NAME OF ORE CHEMICAL FORMULA METHOD OF EXTRACTION

COMPOUND IN ORE
Aluminium Bauxite Aluminium Oxide Al2O32H2O Electrolysis
Copper Copper Pyrites Copper Iron Sulfide CuFeS2 Roasting in air
Iron Haematite Iron(iii)oxide Fe2O3 Heat oxide with carbon
Sodium Rock salt Sodium Cholride NaCl Electrolysis
Zinc Zinc Blende Zinc Sulfide ZnS Roasted in air and heated in
carbon
Making Copper from its Ore
This is how copper is extracted from Chalcopyrite, the most common copper ore in Zambia.
1. It is mixed with sand and heated strongly with air.

2CuFeS2 + 2SiO2 {Sand} + 4O2  Cu2S + 2FeSiO3 + 3SO2
2. The Copper Sulphide (Cu2S) is heated again to produce blister copper (99% pure)
Making Pure Copper from Electrolysis
The electrolysis cell contains a stainless steel cathode (-) and an impure copper anode (+)
The positive copper ions are attracted to the cathode. A layer of copper is formed on each side of the
cathode.
Making Iron from its Ore
Iron is extracted mainly from its oxides, hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).
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 Extraction occurs in the blast furnace. It is loaded with iron ore (usually haematite), coke (made
by heating coal) and limestone (calcium carbonate). A blast of hot air is sent in near the bottom
of the furnace through holes (tuyères) which makes the ore glow, as the coke burns in the
preheated air.
a blast furnace
Reactions in the Blast Furnace

 The limestone begins to decompose:
CaCO3(s) { calcium carbonate } → CaO(s) {calcium oxide} + CO2(g)
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 The carbon dioxide gas produced reacts with more hot coke higher up in the furnace, producing
carbon monoxide in an endothermic reaction.
CO2(g) + C(s) { coke } → 2CO(g) { carbon monoxide }
 Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent. It rises up the furnace and reduces the iron(iii) oxide ore.
This takes place at a temperature of around 700°C:
Fe2O3(s) { iron(iii) oxide } + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l){ iron } + 3CO2(g) { carbon dioxide }
 Calcium oxide is a base and this reacts with acidic impurities such as
silicon(iv) oxide in the iron, to form a slag which is mainly calcium silicate.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s){ silicon(iv) oxide } → CaSiO3(l){ calcium silicate }
The slag trickles to the bottom of the furnace, but because it is less dense than the molten iron,
it floats on top of it.
* Metallic oxides, such as calcium oxide (CaO), are basic and non-metallic oxides, such as silicon(iv)
oxide (SiO2), are acidic.
* Certain oxides, such as carbon monoxide (CO), are neutral and others, such as zinc oxide (ZnO), are
amphoteric
Making Zinc from its Ore
The main source of zinc is zinc sulfide or zinc blende.
 The zinc sulfide is heated very strongly in a current of air in a furnace to convert it to the oxide:
2ZnS(s) { zinc sulfide } + 3O2(g){ oxygen } → 2ZnO(s) { zinc oxide } + 2SO2(g){ sulfur dioxide }
 Sulfur dioxide is a useful co-product and is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
 The zinc oxide is heated alongside coke in a furnace to a temperature of approximately 1400°C.
The zinc oxide is reduced by the coke to zinc:
ZnO(s) {zinc oxide} + C(s) {coke} → Zn(g) {zinc} + CO(g) {carbon monoxide}
 Zinc can also be extracted by electrolysis of Zinc Sulphate.

 Zinc is used in alloys such as brass. It is also used to galvanise steel and for electrodes in
batteries
Extraction of aluminium
 Aluminium is the most abundant metal on Earth. Despite this, it is expensive, largely because of
the amount of electricity used up in the extraction process.
 Aluminium ore is called bauxite. The bauxite is purified to yield a white powder, aluminium
oxide, from which aluminium can be extracted.
 The extraction is done by electrolysis. But first the aluminium oxide must be made molten so
that electricity can pass through it. Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point (over
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2,000°C), so it would be expensive to melt it. Instead, it is dissolved in molten cryolite, an

aluminium compound with a lower melting point than aluminium oxide. The use of cryolite
reduces some of the energy costs involved in extracting aluminium.
The diagram shows an aluminium oxide electrolysis tank. Both the negative electrode (cathode) and
positive electrode (anode) are made of graphite, a form of carbon.
Aluminium metal forms at the negative electrode and sinks to the bottom of the tank, where it is
tapped off.
Oxygen forms at the positive electrodes. This oxygen reacts with the carbon of the positive electrodes,
forming carbon dioxide, and they gradually burn away. Consequently, the positive electrodes have to be
replaced frequently, which adds to the cost of the process
Topic 1.4- Alloys
What is an Alloy?
The majority of the metallic substances used today are alloys.

Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals and are formed by mixing molten metals thoroughly.
Types of Steel Alloys
Steel is the most widely used alloy of Iron. It is mixed with carbon
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Carbon Steels;
KIND OF STEEL PERCENTAGE OF CARBON % USES

Cast Iron 4+ Engine blocks, drain covers
High Carbon 0.8 to 1.5 Knives, razor blades
Medium Carbon 0.3 to 0.8 Railway lines, springs
Low Carbon Less than 0.3 Car bodies, rivets
Steel is mixed with other metals to form Alloy Steels;
NAME COMPOSITION USES

Chromium Steel Up to 5% chromium Ball bearings
Colbalt Steel Up to 10% cobalt Magnets
Molybdenum Steel Up to 4% molybdenum Gun barrels
Vanadium Steel Up to 2% vanadium Spanners, tools
Tungsten Steel Up to 18% tungsten Amour plate
Stainless Steel 18& chromium, 8% nickel Sinks, cutlery, vessels to hold corrosive
chemicals and foodstuffs
Metals can be made stronger when they are mixed with a small amount of another metal that has
atoms of different size;
Atoms of different sizes
Some Useful Alloys:
ALLOY COMPOSITION SOME USES PROPERTIES

Duralumin Aluminium, copper, Aeroplanes Light and Strong
magnesium
Brass Copper, zinc Doorknobs, Corrosion resistant and hard,
ornaments readily pressed into shapes
Bronze Copper, tin, zinc Ships’ propellers, Corrosion resistant, looks like
church bells, statues silver
Cupro-nickel Copper, nickel Silver coins Corrosion resistant, looks like
silver
Titanium alloy Titanium, iron, Aeroplanes Light and strong, low expansion
carbon when heated
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Solder Lead, zinc Joining wires, copper Very low melting point
pipes
Uses of Some Metals
Copper
 Electrical wires
 Electrical equipment
 Domestic water pipes
Zinc
 Coat steel to stop it from rusting (galvanizing)

 Making brass
Aluminium
 Make objects for lightness and corrosion resistance

 Aircraft, car engines, pans, kitchen foil, window frames, some coins
Iron
 Making steel because pure iron is weak
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Topic 1.5- Corrosion of Metals
Rusting is the most common form of corrosion but this term is used for iron and steel.
Corrosion is the process which takes place when metals and alloys are chemically attacked by oxygen,
water or any other substances found in their environment.
 The higher the metal is in the reactivity series, the more rapidly it will corrode.
 Gold and platinum are unreactive and do not corrode, even after thousands of years.
Causes of Rusting of Iron
1. Air(Oxygen)
2. Water
 The nail in the dry air did not rust at all

 The nail in the water with no dissolved
air did not rust either
 The nail in the one with water and air
rusted alot
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Prevention of Corrosion
METAL OBJECT METHOD ADVANTAGE OF USING THIS METHOD

Car bodies Paint Easily applied; looks attractive
Bicycle chain Oil Protects moving parts, other coatings
will wear off
Iron roofing Galvanizing (the sheet is coated Long-lasting; easy to apply
with a layer of zinc, which
corrodes first)
Food can Tin plating( steel is coated with a Tin does not corrode easily
layer of tin)
Cutlery Silver electroplating(using very attractive, even and hard wearing
electricity)
EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

INSTRUCTIONS:
*Attempt the questions before you look at the answers*
1. Gallium is a metallic element in Group III. It has similar properties to aluminium.
(a) (i) Describe the structure and bonding in a metallic element. You should include a labelled
diagram in your answer.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [3]
(ii) Explain why metallic elements such as gallium are good conductors of electricity.
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) Give the formula of gallium(III) chloride,

..................................................................................................................
gallium(III) sulfate.
.................................................................................................................... [2]
(c) Gallium(III) oxide, Ga2O3, is amphoteric.
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(i) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between gallium(III) oxide and dilute nitric acid to
form a salt and water only.
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) The reaction between gallium(III) oxide and sodium hydroxide solution forms only water and a
salt containing the negative ion Ga2O42–. Write the chemical equation for this reaction.
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(d) Alloys of gallium and other elements are often more useful than the metallic element itself.
Suggest two reasons why alloys of gallium are more useful than the metallic element.
....................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [2]
ANSWERS
1. (a) (i) Diagram must have positive ions (labelled/named) [1 mark]

Diagram must have electrons (labelled/named) [1 mark]
Diagram must show attraction between positive and negative [1 mark]
(a)(ii) Conduction due to movement of electrons/mobile electrons [1 mark]
(b) GaCl3 [1 mark]

Ga2(SO4) [1 mark]
(c) (i) O3 + 6HNO3  2Ga(NO3)3 + 3H2O [2 marks]

formula of Ga(NO3); all formulae and balancing correct
(c) (ii) O3 + 2NaOH  Na2Ga2O4 + H2O [2 marks]

formula of Na2Ga2O4; all formulae and balancing correct
(d) any 2 from: [2 marks]
 (do not) corrode

 Strong
 Hard
 (improved) appearance
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2. Zinc is extracted from an ore called zinc blende, which consists mainly of zinc sulfide, ZnS.
(a) (i) The zinc sulfide in the ore is first converted into zinc oxide.
Describe how zinc oxide is made from zinc sulfide.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) Write a chemical equation for the reaction in (a)(i).
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) Zinc oxide is converted into zinc. Zinc oxide and coke are fed into a furnace. Hot air is blown into
the bottom of the furnace.
Zinc has a melting point of 420 °C and a boiling point of 907 °C. The temperature inside the furnace
is over 1000 °C.
(i) Explain how zinc oxide is converted into zinc. Your answer should include details of how the heat
is produced and equations for all the reactions you describe.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [3]
(ii) Explain why the zinc produced inside the furnace is a gas.
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iii) State the name of the physical change for conversion of gaseous zinc into molten zinc.
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(c) Rusting of steel can be prevented by coating the steel with a layer of zinc.
Explain, in terms of electron transfer, why steel does not rust even if the layer of zinc is scratched so
that the steel is exposed to air and water.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [4]
(d) When a sample of steel is added to dilute hydrochloric acid, an aqueous solution of iron(II)
chloride, FeCl2, is formed. When a sample of rust is added to dilute hydrochloric acid, an aqueous
solution of iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, is formed.
(i) Aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to the solutions of iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride.
Complete the table below, showing the observations you would expect to make.
Solutions of iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride were added to solutions of potassium iodide and
acidified potassium manganate(VII). The results are shown in the table.
(ii) What types of substance cause potassium iodide solution to turn from colorless to brown?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
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(iii) What types of substance cause acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution to turn from purple
to colourless?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iv) Which ion in iron(III) chloride solution causes potassium iodide solution to turn from colourless
to brown?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(v) Which ion in iron(II) chloride solution causes acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution to turn
from purple to colourless?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
ANSWERS
2(a)(i) /heat and in air / oxygen [1 mark]
(a)(ii) 2ZnS + 3O2  2ZnO + 2SO2

SO2 on right of equation; all formulae and balancing correct [1 mark]
(b)(i) heat produced by carbon/coke (burning in) oxygen/air [1 mark]

OR
C + O2  CO2 produces heat / exothermic
OR
2C + O2  2CO produces heat/exothermic
C + CO2  2CO [1 mark]

OR
2C + O2  2CO
ZnO + CO  Zn + CO2 [1 mark]

OR
ZnO + C  Zn + CO
OR
2ZnO + C  2Zn + CO2
(b)(ii) temperature (inside the furnace) is above 907oC/temperature (inside furnace) is above the
boiling point (of zinc) 1000oC is above the boiling point (of zinc) [1 mark]
(b)(iii) condensing/condense [1 mark]
(c) zinc is more reactive than iron / zinc is higher in the reactivity series in the reactivity series [4marks]
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zinc loses electrons

iron/steel/oxygen/air/water gains electrons OR electrons move to iron/steel/oxygen/air/water
(therefore) iron does not lose electrons/get oxidized/form Iron
(d)(i) green precipitate [1 mark]

red-brown/brown/orange precipitate [1 mark]
(d)(ii) oxidizing agent/oxidant [1 mark]
(d)(iii)reducing agent/reductant [1 mark]
(d)(iv)iron(iii)/Fe3+ [1 mark]
(d)(v) iron(ii)/Fe2+ [1 mark]
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3. The diagram shows a blast furnace.
(a) The following equations represent reactions which take place in the blast furnace.
A. C + O2 → CO2
B. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
C. CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
D. CO2 + C → 2CO
E. Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
(i) Which reaction is used to increase the temperature inside the blast furnace? ........... [1]
(ii) Which reaction is an example of thermal decomposition? ........... [1]
(iii) In which reaction is carbon both oxidised and reduced? ........... [1]
(iv) Which equation shows the removal of an impurity from the iron? ........... [1]
(v) Which equation shows the reaction of an acidic substance with a basic substance?...........[1]
(b) Use the diagram of the blast furnace to help you answer these questions.
(i) What enters the blast furnace at X?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) What leaves the blast furnace at Y?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iii) Name two waste gases that leave the blast furnace.
1. .........................................................................................................................................
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2. ......................................................................................................................................... [2]
(c) The graph shows how the malleability of iron changes as the percentage of carbon in the iron
changes.
(i) D escribe how the malleability of iron changes as the percentage of carbon changes.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) Iron obtained from the blast furnace contains high levels of carbon.
Explain how the amount of carbon in the iron can be decreased.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
ANSWERS
3. (a)(i) A [1 mark]
(ii) B [1 mark]
(iii) D [1 mark]
(iv) E [1 mark]
(v) C [1 mark]
(b)(i) air [1 mark]

(b)(ii) iron [1 mark]
(b)(iii) any two from: [2 marks]
carbon dioxide; carbon monoxide; nitrogen
(c)(i) as the percentage of carbon increases, the malleability decreases [1 mark]
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(c)(ii) m1 oxygen (gas) blown in [1 mark]

m2 carbon dioxide formed/ C + O2  CO2 [1 mark]
4. W, X and Y are metals, one of which is copper and one of which is iron.
• W has a coloured oxide which can be reduced by carbon.
• X has a black oxide and is also found in nature as a pure metal.
• Y has an oxide which cannot be reduced by carbon.
Which metal is the most reactive and what is the possible identity of W?
5. Tin is a metal that is less reactive than iron and is extracted from its ore cassiterite, SnO2.
Which statements about tin are correct?
1 Tin can be extracted from cassiterite using carbon.
2 Tin does not conduct electricity.
3 Tin is hard and shiny.
A. 1, 2 B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 2 and 3 only
6. Some chemical properties of three metals W, X and Y and their oxides are shown.
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What is the order of reactivity of these metals? Most reactive first.
A. W → Y → X
B. X → Y → W
C. Y → W → X
D. Y → X → W
7. The diagrams show what happens when three different metals are added to water.
What are X, Y and Z?
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8. Which substances do not react together?

A. calcium + water
B. copper + dilute hydrochloric acid
C. sodium + water
D. zinc + dilute hydrochloric acid
9. In an experiment, three test-tubes labelled X, Y and Z were half-filled with dilute hydrochloric
acid. A different metal was added to each test-tube. After a few minutes the following
observations were made.
In tube X, bubbles slowly rose to the surface.
In tube Y, there was a rapid release of bubbles.
In tube Z, no bubbles were produced.
Which three metals match the observations?
10. Iron from a blast furnace is treated with oxygen and with calcium oxide to make steel.
Which substances in the iron are removed?
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11. Iron is obtained from its ore in a blast furnace and is used to make steel.
Iron obtained from the blast furnace is contaminated with ........(1).........
In order to remove this substance, ….....(2)…..... is passed through the molten iron.
........(3)........ is also added to remove oxides of phosphorus and silicon which are ........(4).........
Which words complete the sentences about the conversion of iron to steel?
12. Iron is extracted from its ore (hematite) in the blast furnace.
Which gas is produced as a waste product?
A. carbon dioxide
B. hydrogen
C. nitrogen
D. oxygen
13. The diagram shows a blast furnace.

In which part is iron ore changed to iron?
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14. Which statement is incorrect?

A. Carbon dioxide is a waste product in the extraction of iron.
B. Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent.
C. The extraction of iron from hematite involves reduction.
D. When iron is converted into steel, oxygen is used to oxidise the iron.
15. Many metals are extracted from their ores by heating the metal oxide with carbon.
Which metal cannot be extracted using this method?
A. aluminium
B. copper
C. iron
D. zinc
16. Some metals react readily with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Some metals can be extracted by heating their oxides with carbon.
For which metal are both statements correct?
A. calcium
B. copper
C. iron
D. magnesium
17. Which statement about the uses of metals is correct?
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A. Aluminium is used in the manufacture of aircraft because of its strength and high density.
B. Copper is used in electrical wiring because of its strength and high density.
C. Mild steel is used in the manufacture of car bodies because of its strength and resistance to
corrosion.
D. Stainless steel is used in the construction of chemical plant because of its strength and
resistance to corrosion.
18. Copper is sometimes used to make cooking utensils.
Three properties of copper are given.
1. corrosion resistant
2. good conductor of electricity
3. good conductor of heat
Which properties make copper a suitable metal for making cooking utensils?
A. 1 and 3 B. 1 only C. 2 and 3 D. 2 only
19. The diagrams show four uses of iron.
In which of these uses is the iron most likely to rust?
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20. Duralumin is an alloy. It contains aluminium, copper and magnesium.

It has many uses including the manufacture of cooking utensils and ships.
Which statement about duralumin and its properties is correct?
A. It is a good conductor of electricity.
B. It is brittle.
C. It is soluble in water.
D. The aluminium, copper and magnesium are chemically combined.
ANSWERS
4. D 12. A 20. A
5. C 13. B
6. C 14. D
7. A 15. A
8. B 16. C
9. C 17. D
10. A 18. A
11. B 19. C
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UNIT 2. NON METALS

Topic 2.1- Non Metals: Key Points
 Non-metal elements usually have low melting and boiling points, are poor conductors of heat
and electricity, and have low densities
 They are found in Groups IV to VIII of the Periodic Table. They form negative ions in ionic
compounds with metals and covalent compounds with each other
 Hydrogen is prepared by the action of a reactive metal with an acid
 Properties of Hydrogen; lighter than air, explodes when mixed with oxygen and ignited, has no
effect on red or blue litmus paper
 Hydrogen is manufactured from natural gas and also from water
 Main uses of Hydrogen; manufacture of ammonia, filling balloons, hydrogen is used as a fuel
 Properties of Oxygen; Colourless and odourless, slightly soluble in water
 Oxygen is manufactured by fractional distillation.
 Main uses of Oxygen; welding metals, as a chemical reagent in industries, in hospitals, space-
crafts and scuba-diving where it is used for breathing and respiration
 Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen,that forms in the upper atmosphere. It forms a protective layer
that keeps out harmful radiation
 Water is the oxide of hydrogen.
 Water turns white copper sulphate blue
 Nitrogen makes 80% of the atmosphere. It is very unreactive
 Nitrogen is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air
 Main uses of Nitrogen: refrigeration, particularly in machinery such as electrical transformers
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 Ammonia is a useful compound of Nitrogen. It is made by the Haber Process in which hydrogen
and nitrogen combine at a pressure of 200 atm and a temperature of 450oC. Ammonia can be
converted to nitrates by mixing it with air and passing the mixture over a platinum gauze
catalyst
 Nitrates are used as fertilizers
 Ammonia is a gas with a very unpleasant smell, and which dissolves readily in water to form
ammonium hydroxide
 The test for ammonia gas is that it turns moist red litmus paper blue
 Acids react with Ammonium Hydroxide to form Ammonium Salts. Ammonium Salts decompose
when heated to form ammonia
 Carbon exists in different forms called Allotropes. The 2 common allotropes being diamond and
graphite
 Carbon dioxide is colourless, odourless and heavier than air. It is slightly soluble in water and
turns moist blue litmus paper red
 Carbon dioxide turns clear lime water milky
 Carbon dioxide Uses; soft drinks, dry ice and photosynthesis
 Limestone is calcium carbonate. It is used to make cement, quicklime(calcium hydroxide) and

slaked lime(calcium oxide)
 Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, poisonous and does not dissolve in water. It is a
neutral oxide.
 Carbon monoxide Uses: It is the reducing agent in many furnaces
Topic 2.2- What are Non Metals?
Elements on the right side of the Periodic Table and have the following properties;
 Low melting points

 Low boiling points
 Lower densities than metals
 Electrical insulators
 Not ductile
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 Poor conductors of heat

 Brittle when solid
Examples;
 Water (H2O)
 Methane (CH4)
 Oxygen (O)
Topic 2.3- Hydrogen
Preparing and Testing for Hydrogen
Hydrogen puts out a burning split with a pop sound
The reaction summarized is
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq)
Industrial Preparation of Hydrogen
Method 1: Using Methane
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1. Methane is heated with steam at a high temperature (1000oC) in the presence of nickel to give a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
CH4 + H2O  CO + 3H2
2. Additional hydrogen is generated through another reaction at a temperature of (360oC)

CO + H2O  CO2 + H2
The waste product is carbon dioxide
Method 2: Electrolysis of Water
Hydrogen is produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.
Topic 2.4- Oxygen
It is the most common element in the earth’s crust. 50% of rocks are made of compounds of oxygen
Preparing Oxygen
In both situations, the oxygen is collected ‘over water’. This is a common way of collecting a gas that is
not soluble in water and has a similar density to air
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The chemical reactions that take place are as follows;
Potassium chlorate  potassium chloride + oxygen
2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s)
Hydrogen peroxide  water + oxygen
2H2O2  2H2O + O2
Industrial Manufacture of Oxygen
Fractional distillation of air is used. Nitrogen changes to gas at -196oC. Oxygen boils off next at -183oC
Topic 2.5- Ammonia
Ammonia is produced through the Haber Process.
The Haber Process
In the Haber process, nitrogen and hydrogen in the correct proportions (1:3) are pressurised to
approximately 200 atm and passed over a catalyst of Iron at a temperature of between 350°C and
500°C.
The reaction in the Haber process is:
Nitrogen + Hydrogen  Ammonia

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) ΔH = −92kJmol−1
The reaction is exothermic.
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Under these conditions the gas mixture leaving the reaction vessel contains about 15% ammonia, which
is removed by cooling and condensing it as a liquid.
The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are re-circulated into the reaction vessel to react together once
more to produce further quantities of ammonia.
The 15% of ammonia produced does not seem a great deal. The reason for this is the reversible nature
of the reaction. Once the ammonia is made from nitrogen and hydrogen, it decomposes to produce
nitrogen and hydrogen.
There comes a point when the rate at which the nitrogen and hydrogen react to produce ammonia is
equal to the rate at which the ammonia decomposes. This situation is called a chemical equilibrium.
Because the processes continue to happen, the equilibrium is said to be ‘dynamic’
Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia
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The Ammonia Molecule
Properties of Ammonia
The reason ammonia is so soluble in water is that some of it reacts with the water.
Ammonia solution is a weak alkali, although dry ammonia gas is not. This is because a little of the
ammonia gas has reacted with the water, producing ammonium ions and hydroxide ions.
The solution is only weakly alkaline because of the reversible nature of this reaction, which results in a
relatively low concentration of hydroxide ions
Ammonia gas dissolved in water is usually known as aqueous ammonia.
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Aqueous ammonia can be used to identify salts of Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Zn2+, Cr3+ and Ca2+ ions.
The colour of the precipitate or solution formed identifies the metal present
Topic 2.6- Carbon
Carbon is a non-metallic element which exists in more than one solid structural form.
Its allotropes are called graphite and diamond.
Each of the allotropes has a different structure and so the allotropes exhibit different physical properties
The different physical properties that they exhibit lead to the allotropes being used in different ways
Uses of Diamond
 Jewellery
 Glass cutters
 Drill bits
 Polishers
Uses of Graphite
 Pencils
 Electrodes
 Lubricant
Structure of Graphite
Within each layer, each carbon atom is bonded to three others by strong covalent bonds.
Each layer is therefore like a giant molecule.
Between these layers there are weak forces of attraction (van der Waals’ forces) and so the layers will
pass over each other easily.
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With only three covalent bonds formed between carbon atoms within the layers, there is an ‘unbonded’
electron
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Structure of Diamond
Each of the carbon atoms in the giant structure is covalently bonded to four others.
They form a tetrahedral arrangement similar to that found in silicon(iv) oxide.
Topic 2.7 Limestone and its Uses

Limestone is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Limestone has a variety of uses in, for example, the making of cement, road building, glass making and
the extraction of iron
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INSTRUCTIONS:
*Attempt the questions before looking at the answers*
1.
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ANSWERS
1 (a) (i) 78 (%) allow: 78–80

(ii) Any two of: carbon dioxide; argon; neon; xenon; helium; radon; water; not: hydrogen
(b) (i) decreases /gets less /gets lower/gets used up
(ii) increases /gets more/greater
2. (a) Ammonia is an alkaline gas and it reacts readily with dilute sulphuric acid to produce a
solution of ammonium sulphate.
(i) Describe the test you would carry out to confirm the presence of the sulphate ion.
Name of reagent used: …………………………….. [1]
Result of test: …………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(ii) Ammonia sulphate reacts with sodium hydroxide when heated. Write a balanced
equation for the reaction.
……………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Ammonia dissolves readily in water to form aqueous ammonia. Aqueous ammonia is used
to test for metal cations in solution.
(i) What would you observe if aqueous ammonia was added dropwise to a solution of
copper (II) sulphate CuSO4(aq)?
……………………………………………………………………………………[2]
(c) The diagram shows some of the essential reactions and industrial processes associated with
ammonia
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(i) Describe a chemical test for ammonia, giving the result of the test.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………[3]
(ii) Name the compound A.
………………………………………………………………............................................................[1]
(iii) Describe the production of ammonia in the Haber-Bosch process. Your answer should
include the name of the catalyst used, the approximate temperature and pressure and a
balanced, symbol equation. …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [7]
(d) Garden lawn fertiliser often contains ammonium nitrate in addition to iron (II) sulphate,
which is used to kill moss.
(i) Write a balanced, symbol equation for the reaction of ammonia and nitric acid to produce
ammonium nitrate.
………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(ii) Describe, giving practical details, how you would prove that lawn fertiliser pellets
contain iron(II) sulphate and not iron(III) sulphate. Give the expected
result………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [5]
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ANSWERS
(2)(a)(i)Name of reagent used: barium chloride [1 mark]

Result of test: white precipitate [2 marks]
(ii)(NH4)2 SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2 SO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O [2 marks]
(b)(i)Blue precipitate [2 marks]
(c)(i)Hydrogen chloride/concentrated hydrochloric acid [1] white[1]smoke/fumes/solid[1 mark]
(ii)Ammonium Chloride [1 mark]
(iii) The key points of this answer are:
nitrogen [1]hydrogen [1] catalyst = iron [1 mark],
temperature = 450oC [1], pressure = 200 atm [1 mark],
N2 + 3H2  2NH3 [2 marks]
Cool to liquify ammonia [1 mark]
Unreacted gases recycled [1 mark]
(d)(i) NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3 [2 marks]
(ii) Add water [1], add ammonia solution/NaOH solution [1], green[1], precipitate [1], red brown
precipitate indicates Fe3+ [1 mark]
3.
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ANSWERS
3(a) any two uses e.g. washing, drinking, sanitation, growing plants, etc.
(b) 100°C
(c) test add anhydrous / white copper sulphate or anhydrous / blue cobalt chloride result
copper sulphate goes blue/ cobalt chloride goes pink
(d) (i) test add (sodium/potassium/other suitable) hydroxide or add ammonia result
brown/red-brown precipitate
(ii) nitrogen, oxygen
(e) (i) to kill bacteria/germs/to disinfect the water
(ii) lime is alkaline to neutralise the acid/ chlorine/to increase the pH
(f) impure water contains some solids trapped on stones/ sand water drains through
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UNIT 3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Topic 3.1- Organic Chemistry: Key Points
 The element carbon forms many compounds found in living things. The study of these
compounds is called organic chemistry.
 Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon.
 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Therefore all carbon to carbon bonds are single.
 The general formula of alkanes: CnH2n + 2
 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one double carbon to carbon bond
 A homologous series is a series of compounds with the same functional group and similar
chemical properties
 Alkenes undergo addition reactions with reagents such as halogens, hydrogen, steam and
hydrogen halides, to form compounds in which the reagents have added onto the double bond
 Alkenes undergo addition polymerization at high temperatures and pressure, and in the
presence of a catalyst
 Alkanes and alkenes show structural isomerism (same empirical formula but different structure).
 Alkenes show positional isomerism (same empirical formula but different position of the double
carbon to carbon bond).
 Alkanes are made by fractional distillation of crude oil. They are used as fuel and as basic
chemicals from which many other organic chemicals are made
 Alkenes are made by cracking alkanes by heating alkanes at high temperatures in the presence
of a catalyst.
Topic 3.2- Alkanes

Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil belong to the family of compounds called alkanes. The molecules
within the alkane family contain carbon atoms covalently bonded to four other atoms by single bonds.
Because these molecules possess only single bonds they are said to be saturated, as no further atoms
can be added.
You will notice from the diagrams below that the compounds have a similar structure and similar name
endings. They also behave chemically in a similar way. A family with these factors in common is called a
homologous series. All the members of a homologous series can also be represented by a general
formula.
In the case of the alkanes the general formula is:
CnH2n+2 where n is the number of carbon atoms present.
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As you go up a homologous series, in order of increasing number of carbon atoms, the physical
properties of the compounds gradually change. For example, the melting and boiling points of the
alkanes shown in the following table gradually increase. This is due to an increase in the intermolecular
forces (van der Waals’ forces) as the size and mass of the molecule increases. Under normal conditions
molecules with up to four carbon atoms are gases, those with between five and 16 carbon atoms are
liquids, while those with more than 16 carbon atoms are solids.
The Names of Alkanes:
The name of an alkane is based on the latin names for the numbers.
meth- has one carbon atom i.e methane

eth- has two carbon atoms i.e ethane
prop- has three carbon atoms
but- has four carbon atoms
pent- has five carbon atoms
hex- has six carbon atoms
hept- has seven carbon atoms
oct- has eight carbon atoms
non- has nine carbon atoms i.e nonane
dec- has ten carbon atoms i.e decane
Topic 3.3- Isomers: Branched Chain Alkanes

More than one structural formula can represent a molecular formula. The structural formula of a
compound shows how the atoms are joined together by the covalent bonds. E.g, there are two different
compounds with the molecular formula C4H10.
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The structural formulae of these two substances along with their names and physical properties are
shown below.
These are known as isomers. Isomers are substances which have the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae.
The different structures of the compounds have different melting and boiling points. Molecule b
contains a branched chain and has a lower melting point than molecule a, which has no branched chain.
All the alkane molecules with four or more carbon atoms possess isomers.
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Topic 3.4- Making Alkanes
Crude oil, often called petroleum, can be distilled using the simple equipment shown below
in industrial manufacture of alkanes, the fractions with the lowest boiling points burn easily with clear
flame. The fractions with the higher boiling points need a wick to burn well and they have a smoky
flame. The following table shows the commercial names and properties of common fractions from crude
oil.
Boiling Range 20- 70oC 70- 120oC 120- 170 oC 170- 240 oC Over 240 oC (left behind
in heating tube)
Name of Petrol Naphtha Paraffin Diesel oil Bitumen
Fraction
Colour Pale yellow Yellow Dark yellow Brown Black
Viscosity Runny Fairly Runny Fairly Viscous Viscous Very Viscous
How does it Easily with clear Quite easily Harder to burn, Hard to burn, Very difficult to ignite
burn? yellow flame with yellow quite smoky smoky flame
flame, some flame
smoke
Number of 5-10 8-12 9-16 15-30 Over 25
carbon atoms in
the molecules
Uses Fuel for vehicles, Chemicals Fuel for Fuel for diesel Roofing, waterproofing,
chemicals heating, jet engines, trains roads
engines, and heating,
chemicals lubricants
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Topic 3.5- Chemical Behaviour of Alkanes

Alkanes are rather unreactive compounds. For example, they are generally not affected by alkalis, acids
or many other substances. Their most important property is that they burn easily.
Chlorine atoms react with methane molecules, and a hydrogen chloride molecule is produced along with
a methyl free radical.
chlorine + methane → methyl + hydrogen atom radical chloride

Cl(g) + CH4(g) → CH3(g) + HCl(g)
The methyl free radical reacts further.
methyl + chlorine → chloromethane + chlorine radical gas atom

CH3(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + Cl(g)
This chlorine free radical, in turn, reacts further and the process continues until all the chlorine and the
methane have been used up. This type of process is known as a chain reaction and it is very fast.
The overall chemical equation for this process is:
methane + chlorine → chloromethane + hydrogen chloride
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
This type of reaction is known as a substitution reaction.
Because we cannot control the chlorine free radicals produced in this reaction, we also obtain small
amounts of other ‘substituted’ products;
CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane)
CHCl3 (trichloromethane or chloroform) and
CCl4 (tetrachloromethane) – by further reactions such as those shown below.
chloromethane + chlorine →chloromethyl + hydrogen atom radical chloride

CH3Cl(g) + Cl(g) → CH2Cl(g) + HCl(g)
chloromethyl + chlorine →dichloromethane + chlorine radical gas atom

CH2Cl(g) + Cl2(g) → CH2Cl2(g) + Cl(g)
Many of these so-called ‘halogenoalkanes’ are used as solvents. For example, dichloromethane is used
as a solvent in paint stripper
Topic 3.6- Alkenes

This is another homologous series of compounds, with general formula:
CnH2n where n is the number of carbon atoms.
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The alkenes are more reactive than the alkanes because they each contain a double covalent bond
between the carbon atoms.
Molecules that possess a double covalent bond of this kind are said to be unsaturated, because it is
possible to break one of the two bonds to add extra atoms to the molecule.
All alkenes have names ending in -ene. Alkenes, especially ethene, are very important industrial
chemicals.
They are used extensively in the plastics industry and in the production of alcohols such as ethanol and
propanol
The first 3 alkenes:
Ethene has 2 carbon atoms

Propene has 3 carbon atoms
Butene has 4 carbon atoms
Isomer of Alkenes:
Alkenes show isomerism caused by branched chains (structural isomerism) and also another kind of
isomerism called positional isomerism.
The following shows the systematic names of the two isomers of butane. The numbers in front of the ‘-
ene’ is the number in the carbon chain where the double bond starts
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Where do we get Alkenes from?
Very few alkenes are found in nature. Most of the alkenes are obtained by breaking up larger alkane
molecules
This is usually done by a process called catalytic cracking.
In this process the alkane molecules to be ‘cracked’ (split up) are passed over a mixture of aluminium
and chromium oxides heated to about 500°C.
dodecane C12H26(g) (found in kerosene)  decane C10H22(g) shorter alkane + ethene C2H4(g) alkene
Another possibility is:
C12H26(g) → C8H18(g) + C4H8(g)
There is a further cracking process which is more versatile, called thermal cracking.
Thermal cracking is carried out at a higher temperature than catalytic cracking, 800–850°C. Larger
alkane molecules can be more successfully cracked using this process than by the catalytic method.
Note that in these reactions hydrogen may also be formed during cracking. The amount of hydrogen
produced depends on the conditions used.
Topic 3.7- Chemical Behaviour of Alkenes
The double bond makes alkenes more reactive than alkanes in chemical reactions.
For example, hydrogen adds across the double bond of ethene, under suitable conditions, forming
ethane
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The following table summarizes the properties of alkenes
REACTION Set fire to ethene Add some drops of Adds some drops of
bromine water to potassium
ethane then shake permanganate
solution and shake
OBSERVATION Burns with yellowish The brown bromine Solution turns
flame and the gas water turns colourless colourless (a little
produced turns lime should be added)
water milky;
EXPLANATION Ethene burns to form The bromine has The potassium
carbon dioxide and reacted with the permanganate has
water ethane reacted with the
ethane
Topic 3.8- Addition Reactions:

These are reactions where two or more molecules combine to form a larger one
 Hydrogenation
The conditions necessary for this reaction to take place are a temperature of 200 °C in the
presence of a nickel or platinum catalyst.
C2H4(g) + H2(g)  C2H6(g)
Hydrogenation reactions like the one shown with ethene are used in the manufacture of
margarines from vegetable oils.
Vegetable oils contain fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (C18H32O2).
These are unsaturated molecules, containing several double bonds. These double bonds make
the molecule less flexible.
Hydrogenation can convert these molecules into more saturated ones. Now the molecules are
less rigid and can flex and twist more easily, and hence pack more closely together.
This in turn causes an increase in the intermolecular forces and so raises the melting point.
 Hydration
Another important addition reaction is the one used in the manufacture of ethanol.
Ethanol has important uses as a solvent and a fuel.
It is formed when water (as steam) is added across the double bond in ethene.
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For this reaction to take place, the reactants have to be passed over a catalyst of phosphoric(v)
acid (absorbed on silica pellets) at a temperature of 300 °C and pressure of 60 atmospheres
(1 atmosphere = 1 × 105 pascals)
This reaction is reversible as is shown by the equilibrium sign.

The conditions have been chosen to ensure the highest possible yield of ethanol. In other words, the
conditions have been chosen so that they favour the forward reaction.
 Halogenation – a test for unsaturated compounds.
The addition reaction between bromine dissolved in an organic solvent, or water, and alkenes is
used as a chemical test for the presence of a double bond between two carbon atoms.
When a few drops of this bromine solution are shaken with the hydrocarbon, if it is an alkene,
such as ethene, a reaction takes place in which bromine joins to the alkene double bond. This
results in the bromine solution losing its red/brown colour.
If an alkane, such as hexane, is shaken with a bromine solution of this type, no colour change
takes place. This is because there are no double bonds between the carbon atoms of alkanes.
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An atom of bromine adds to each carbon at both ends of the double bond. All the halogens react
with alkenes this way.
 Polymerisation
Polythene is a plastic. It is made by heating ethene to a relatively high temperature under a high
pressure in the presence of a catalyst.
where n is a very large number
In polyethene the ethene molecules have joined together to form a very long hydrocarbon
chain. The ethene molecules are able to form chains like this because they possess carbon to
carbon double bonds.
Many other addition polymers have been produced. Often the plastics are produced with
particular properties in mind, for example PVC (polyvinyl chloride or poly(chloroethene)) and
PTFE (poly(tetrafluoroethene)). Both of these plastics have monomer units similar to ethene.
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If we use chloroethene, the polymer we make is slightly stronger and harder than poly(ethene)
and is particularly good for making pipes for plumbing.
The following table summarizes the reactions of alkenes
Reagent What is happening

Bromine water (Br2) An atom of bromine adds to each carbon at both ends of the double
bond. All the halogens react like this
Hydrogen (H2) An atom of hydrogen adds to each carbon at both ends of the double
bond. This is quite a difficult reaction requiring heat and a catalyst. It is
an important industrial reaction used, for example, to convert
vegetable oils into margarine
Hydrogen chloride(HCl) An atom of hydrogen adds to one carbon and an atom of chlorine adds
to the other carbon. The usual reagent used is not the gas hydrogen
chloride, but concentrated hydrochloric acid
Water (H2O) An atom of hydrogen adds to one carbon and the group –OH, called the
hydroxyl group, adds to the other carbon. This is what happens when
potassium permanganate solution is added to an alkene
Topic 3.10- Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids, Esters: Key Points

 Alcohols (alkanols) are compounds that have a carbon and hydrogen structure similar to
alkanes, and also contain a hydroxyl group. The general formulae of alcohols is
CnH2n +1 OH
 Alcohols show both positional and structural isomerism. Structural isomers have branched
carbon chains; with positional isomers, the hydroxyl group is different carbon atoms in the chain
 Alcohols can be made from alkenes by their reaction with steam and by the hydrolysis of esters.
Ethanol is made industrially by the fermentation of sugar using yeast
 Alcohols burn in air to give carbon dioxide and water. They can be dehydrated to give alkenes,
oxidised to carboxylic acids and they form esters when they react with carboxylic acids
 Ethanol is a useful fuel, solvent and disinfectant
 Carboxylic acids are compounds containing the –COOH group. The hydrogen atom in this group
can readily be ionised, and these compounds are acids. They are weak acids (pH mainly around
3) and react with metals, carbonates and alkalis in the same way that other acids do
 Carboxylic acids can be prepared from alcohols by heating the alcohol with an oxidizing agent
such as potassium permanganate or potassium dichromate
 Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form esters
 There are many carboxylic acids and they have many uses. Many are present in food or are used
in cooking. Soaps are salts of carboxylic acids
 Esters are made by heating carboxylic acids with alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst. They
are mainly liquids and usually have sweet smells
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 Esters are constructed from two alkyl groups joined with the ester ( -co – o- ) linkage. They
take their names from the alcohol and carboxylic acid from which they are made
 Esters can be hydrolysed to form a carboxylic acid and alcohol. Animal fats and vegetable oils
are examples of esters and these can be hydrolysed to make soaps, which are the salts of
carboxylic acids
 Esters are common in nature, often causing the taste and smell of foods, such as fruit
Topic 3.11 – Alcohols
The alcohols (alkanols) form another homologous series with the general formula
CnH2n+1 OH (or R— OH, where R represents an alkyl group)
All the alcohols possess an –OH as the functional group.
The following table shows the names and condensed formulae of the first four members along with
their melting and boiling points.
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The alcohols are named by reference to the corresponding alkane.
Isomers of Alcohols
C3H7 is propanol. There are 2 possible structures of propanol.
These two isomers are different because the –OH group is attached to a different carbon in the chain.
Isomerism can also be caused by branched chains. The following are all the possible isomers of pentanol,
C5H11
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Preparation of Alcohols
Alcohols can be made in the lab in 2 ways:
1. By the reaction between steam and an alkene
2. By the hydrolysis of esters
1. The Reaction between Steam and an Alkene
Ethene is heated to 300oC under pressure with steam and phosphoric acid. Most of the ethanol used in
industries is made this way
2. The Hydrolysis of Esters
The ethanol in wines and beers is made from sugars by fermentation. This is a process carried out by
organisms called yeast. The following equation represents the reaction
Sugar yeast
 Ethanol + Water
C6H12O6 (l)  2C2H5OH(l) + H2O(g)
Topic 3.12- Properties of Alcohols
-Alcohols have relatively high boiling points and relatively low volatility compared to other organic
compounds.
-Alcohol molecules are polar because of the presence of the –OH group
-Ethanol is by far the most important of the alcohols and is often just called ‘alcohol’.
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-It is a neutral, colourless, volatile liquid which does not conduct electricity. The more concentrated
forms of alcoholic drinks such as the spirits whiskey and brandy contain high concentrations of ethanol.
Combustion
Ethanol burns quite readily with a clean, hot flame.
ethanol + oxygen → carbon + water + energy dioxide
CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) + energy
As methylated spirit, it is used in spirit (camping) stoves. Methylated spirit is ethanol with small amounts
of poisonous substances.
It is also used as fuel.
Oxidation
Ethanol can be oxidised to ethanoic acid (an organic acid also called acetic acid) by powerful oxidising
agents, such as warm acidified potassium dichromate(vi), or potassium manganate(vii).
During the reaction the orange colour of potassium dichromate(vi) changes to a dark green as the
ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid.
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Other Reactions of Alcohols
Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
The oxidation of alcohols produces carboxylic acids.
All alcohols will react with an oxidizing agent to give a carboxylic acid. For example, butanol will give
butanoic acid
Topic 3.13 Carboxylic Acids

The carboxylic acids form another homologous series, with the general formula
CnH2n+1COOH where n = number of carbon atoms
All the carboxylic acids possess –COOH as their functional group
Carboxylic acids have strong smells
Each member of the series has one –CH2- more than the previous one
All carboxylic acids have a systematic name that ends in ‘oic acid’
The most common carboxylic acid is ethanoic acid. It is found in vinegar.
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Ethanoic acid affects indicators and will react with metals e.g magnesium.
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. Even though it is a weak acid, it will still react with bases to form salts. For
example, the salt sodium ethanoate is formed when ethanoic acid reacts with dilute sodium hydroxide
ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium ethanoate + water
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
Carboxylic acids will react with alcohols to produce an ester.
Therefore, ethanoic acid will react with ethanol, in the presence of a few drops of concentrated sulfuric
acid, to produce ethyl ethanoate – an ester.
This reaction is called esterification. Members of the ‘ester’ family have strong and pleasant smells. They
have the general formula
CnH2n+1 COOCxH2x+1
Uses of Carboxylic Acids
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Topic 3.14 Esters

Members of the ‘ester’ family have strong and pleasant smells. Many esters occur naturally and are
responsible for the flavours in fruits and the smells of flowers. They are used, therefore, in some food
flavourings and in perfumes
Esters are named after the acid and alcohol from which they are derived:
• name – alcohol part first, acid part second, e.g. propyl ethanoate
• formula – acid part first, alcohol part second, e.g. CH3COOC3H7
some examples of esters;
Hydrolysis of Esters
In hydrolysis reactions, the ester is split into the carboxylic acid and the alcohol parts of the molecule.
This is the reaction used to make soap.
Uses of Esters
- The solvent is nail vanish is a solvent called amyl acetate
- Manufacture of soap
- Animal fat and vegetable oils are made of esters
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UNIT 4 MACROMOLECULES
Topic 4.1- Macromolecules: Key Points
 Macromolecules are large molecules that contain a long chain of carbon atoms.
Some occur naturally, while others are synthetic plastics and fibres.
 Synthetic macromolecules are polymers such as ployethene, trylene and nylon. These are long
chains of small molecules called monomers, joined together end to end.
 Addition polymers are formed from alkenes using high pressure and a catalyst. Common
examples are polyethene, polyvinyl chloride and polypropylene
 Condensation polymers are formed from two different monomers that react, eliminating water
in the process. The polymer contains a chain of the monomers, one after the other. E.g nylon
and terylene. Nylon contains an amide link between the monomers. Terylene contains an ester
link between the monomers
 Thermoplastic polymers soften on heating and can be reused. Thermosetting polymers undergo
a chemical change when they are heated and will not soften when they are heated again.
Thermosetting polymers are hard polymers, and used to cast plastic objects such as electrical
goods.
 Most plastics are not biodegradable and can cause pollution if not recycled
 Examples of natural macromolecules are proteins; carbohydrates and fats. In proteins, the
monomer is one of 20 amino acids and they are linked together by amide bonds. Carbohydrates
are ploymers of glucose linked by a glycosidic bond formed by one oxygen atom. Fats are esters
made from fatty acids and an alcohol called glycerol
 Proteins, carbohydrates and fats can all be broken down by hydrolysis. This happens in our
bodies, usually with the help of enzymes. It can also be carried out in laboratories, and the
products of the hydrolysis can be identified using chromatography
 The hydrolysis of fats is an important commercial reaction called saponification. It is used to

make soap by hydrolysing fats or oils.
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Topic 4.2- Synthetic Polymers

Synthetic means these polymers are made by people. The molecules are called polymers because they
are made up of many small parts joined end to end like links in a chain. Each of the individual parts of
the polymer is called a monomer
Addition Polymers:
Polyethene is a very common material. The polymerization of ethene is an adittion reaction. The
equation below shows how two ethene molecules join together.
Common polymers are made from alkenes as shown below:
Condensation Polymers
Not all polymers are formed by addition reactions. Nylon is an example of a condensation polymer. It is
made by reacting two different chemicals together, unlike poly(ethene) which is made only from
monomer units of ethene.
Poly(ethene), formed by addition polymerisation, can be represented by:
–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–
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Terylene another condensation polymer, is a condensation polymer. It has two monomer units. A basic
representation of terylene:
–A–B–A–B–A–B–A–B–A–B–
A polyester is a long chain compound, containing alternately the alcohol part and then acid part of the
ester. How the parts combine to form a polyester is shown below.
Diol is the alcohol part and dicarboxylic acid is the acid part.
The link between the monomers is the ester link , -CO-O- . Many more links can form in the same way to
make long polymer chains.
The squares shown above represents the dicarboxylic acid and the diol is represented by a circle.
Terylene is a polyester made by condensation reactions. The monomers used are;

ethanediol (the diol) and terephtallic acid (the carboxylic acid)
The link between the monomers is the ester link –CO-O-
The following shows how terylene is formed
Nylon is another well-known condensation polymer. It is not a polyester but a polyamide. It has the –OH
group instead of an alcohol. They use a substance called an amine, -NH2 . However the reaction is the
same.
The structure of the polymer that is formed is almost the same as a polyester, but a nitrogen atom
replaces the place of the oxygen atom. This link is called an amide link: -CO-NH-
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Both terylene and nylon are used as fabrics.
Topic 4.3 – Natural Macromolecules
Proteins
Proteins are natural polymers with a polyamide structure. Proteins are made up of amino acids.
There are 20 different amino acids and they each possess two functional groups. One is the carboxylic
acid group, –COOH. The other is the amine group, –NH2
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Similar to nylon, proteins are polyamides, as they
contain the –CONH– group, which is called the amide or, in the case of proteins, the peptide link.
Proteins are formed by condensation polymerisation.
Protein chains formed by the reaction of many amino acid molecules have the general structure shown
below.
Further reaction with many more amino acids takes place at each end of each molecule to produce the
final protein
For a molecule to be a protein, there must be at least 100 amino acids involved. Below this number,
they are called polypeptides.
Water is produced during the creation of protein. Therefore, it is a condensation reaction. The
condensation is shown below
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Reactions of Proteins
Proteins can be broken down into the amino acids from which they were made. This is called hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the reverse reaction of condensation.
Condensation is the reaction in which two compounds join together with water as the only
by-product
Hydrolysis is the process in which a substance is broken down by heating it with water.
The water is usually made either acidic or alkaline, which makes the reaction proceed faster.
The following shows condensation and hydrolysis:
We can tell which amino acid is present in a protein. First, the protein is hydrolysed in acidic solution.
The mixture of amino acids is then separated using chromatography. The paper used in the
chromatography is covered in a locating agent that changes colour when amino acids react with it.
Another way of hydrolyzing a protein is to use an enzyme. Enzymes are also proteins.
Carbohydrates
These are substances that are usually made by plants. The name tells us that they contain the elements;
carbon(carbo-), hydrogen(hydr-), oxygen(-ate)
Starch, cellulose etc are carbohydrates. Starch and cellulose are both condensation polymers of glucose.
The structure of starch is shown below.
Fats and Oils (Lipids)
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Fats and oils are well-known macromolecules. We use them in cooking, and they are found in almost all
animals and plants.
Fats(Lipids) are esters.
All lipids are made from the same alcohol called glycerol, also called glycerine
Making Soap
Fats are esters. Fat is hydrolysed, in other words, saponified to break it down into glycerol and fatty
acids. The fatty acids in fats are used to react with other substances to make salts. These salts are
actually what we know as soap.
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Instructions:
*attempt to answer these questions before looking at the answers
1.
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ANSWERS
1. (a) B and D
(b)(i) Substance or group of substances with a specific boiling range or condensed at a similar
temperature
(ii) Distillation/fractional distillation/fractionation
(iii) Vaporised – change of state to gas
Condensed – change of state from gas to liquid
(iv)boiling point
(c)(i) high temperature
(ii) ethene/C2H4
(d) petrol  fuel for cars
lubricating fraction  waxes and polishes
paraffin(also called kerosene)  aircraft fuels
bitumen  making roads
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ANSWERS
2. (a)(i) C10H16
(ii) brown/orange/red to colourless
(iii) C = C bond / carbon – carbon double bond
(iv) carbon dioxide and water
3.
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ANSWERS
3.(a)(i) (group of) molecules with similar boiling points/ (group of) molecules with similar relative
molecular masses / molecules with limited range of boiling points / molecules coming off at the same
place in the fractionation column / owtte
(ii) C10H12
allowed: reasonable mixtures, e.g C7H16 + C3H6
(b) refinery gas: (fuel) for cars / (fuel) for cooking; cooking ;
gasoline: (fuel) for cars / mowers etc.
(c) unsaturated: contains double bonds / contains C = C bonds

hydrocarbon: containing carbon and hydrogen only
(d) (i) 1st box down ticked (catalytic addition of steam)

(ii) correct structure of the ethanol; bond between O-H
(e) monomers;
Polymers;
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4.
ANSWERS
4. (a) (i) correct formula of an isomer[1 mark]

CH3.CH2.CHBr.CH3 [1 mark]
or CH3.CH(CH3).CH2Br
or (CH3)3 CBr
(ii) any correct formula for a dibromomethane [1 mark]

(iii) butene
bromine
(b) correct formula CH3Cl showing 8e around C and Cl and 2e around
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5.
ANSWERS
5. (a) Any three from:

same general formula;
consecutive members differ by CH2;
similar chemical properties;
same functional group;
physical properties vary in a predictable way/give trend such as mp
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6.
ANSWERS
(a)(i) 100
(ii) addition or polymerisation
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ANSWERS
7. (a) (i) ester or polyester

(ii) fats or vegetable oils
(b)
(c) (i) carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
(ii)
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ANSWERS
8. (a) (i) addition or addition polymerisation
(ii) correct repeat unit showing branched CH3
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(e)
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ANSWERS
9. (a) addition: polymer is the only product/only one product

condensation: polymer and water formed/small molecule
(e) (i) (acidified) potassium manganate (VII)

allowed: oxygen/air/(acidified) potassium chromate(VI)
(ii) carboxylic acid
allowed: aldehyde/ketone
(iii) C4H8O2
allowed: C4H7OOH
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References
Pixabay.com
Physicsandmathstutor.com
Wikimedia Commons
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eskulu.com
ECZ GRADE 11 CHEMISTRY SUMMARISED
NOTES (FOR 5070 AND 5124) WITH QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS.
eskulu.com
G11 CHEMISTRY SUMMARIZED
0
ESKULU ZM 5/30/18
NOTES(5070 & 5124)
This document summarizes Chemistry (5070 & 5124)) notes according to the ECZ
(Examinations Council Syllabus).
The questions and answers are adapted from actual international past exam
papers.
Prepared by William N for eskulu.com
Contact +260978031524
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1. CLASSIFYING BY GROUPS ................................................................................... 4

1.1 Classifying by Periods ................................................................................... 6
2. Rules of Behavior ............................................................................................. 10
2.1 Empirical Formulae .................................................................................... 12
2.2 The Mole .................................................................................................... 16
2.3 Titrations .................................................................................................... 19
challenging questions I......................................................................................... 22
3. THE BEHAVIOUR OF GASES .............................................................................. 24
3.1 The Particles in a Gas ................................................................................. 24
3.2 Avogadro’s law ........................................................................................... 25
3.3 Boyle’s law and Charles’ law ...................................................................... 26
Molar Gas Volume ........................................................................................... 29
3.4 The Ideal Gas .............................................................................................. 30
Using Molar Volumes in Calculations ............................................................... 32
4. ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS ................................................... 34
Energy Diagrams .............................................................................................. 34
Energy Changes and Heat Content ................................................................... 36
Hess’s Law........................................................................................................ 37
4.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions ..................................................... 38
4.3 Activation Energy ....................................................................................... 39
Challenging Questions II....................................................................................... 40
5. RATE OF REACTION .......................................................................................... 42
5.1 Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction ....................................................... 42
5.2 Catalysts in Industry ................................................................................... 45
5.3 Reversible Reactions .................................................................................. 46
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6. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM ................................................................................... 47

6.1 What is Dynamic Equilibrium? ................................................................... 47
6.2 Industrial Applications................................................................................ 49
7. FUELS ............................................................................................................... 51
7.1 What is a Fuel? ........................................................................................... 51
7.2 Fossil Fuels ................................................................................................. 52
7.3 Fractional Distillation of Petroleum ............................................................ 52
Fractional Distillation in the Laboratory ........................................................... 53
7.4 Alternative Energy Sources ........................................................................ 55
7.5 Chemicals from Petroleum ......................................................................... 56
8. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION ........................................................................... 58
8.2 Electron Loss and Electron Gain ................................................................. 58
8.3 Reactions Involving Redox.......................................................................... 63
9. Electrolysis ....................................................................................................... 66
9.1 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes ............................................................... 66
9.2 Mechanism of Electrical Transfer ............................................................... 67
9.3 Examples in the laboratory ........................................................................ 69
9.4 The Faraday Constant ................................................................................ 70
10. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS ............................................................................... 71
10.1 Proton Donors and Acceptors .................................................................. 71
10.2 Salts and their Preparation ....................................................................... 71
10.3 Titrations .................................................................................................. 74
10.4 Hydrolysis of Salts .................................................................................... 76
10.5 Identifying anions ..................................................................................... 78
10.6 Identifying Cations ................................................................................... 79
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1. CLASSIFYING BY GROUPS
A vertical column of elements in the periodic table (Appendix I) is called a group.
GROUP I – the alkali metals
An example is the column containing lithium, sodium and potassium. If you look
again at table 1.5, you can see that each of these elements has one electron in its
outer most shell. This is true of all the elements in the group. The group is called
Group 1.
The reactions of these elements are controlled by this one outermost electron; it is
called the valency electron. For example all these elements in the group react with
water to form hydrogen gas. Here is the equation for the reaction of sodium with
water:
2Na + 2H2O H2 + 2NaOH
The compounds of Sodium are ionic, not covalent, so it is better to write:
2Na + 2H2O H2 + 2Na+ + 2OH-
From this ionic equation you can see that the atoms of sodium have each lost one
electron.
These are the characteristics of group behavior. Elements in a group have the
same reactions, but show a trend in their reactions. This may be a trend in vigour,
in speed, or in reaction type.
Group 7 – the halogens

From the table below we see that the element fluorine has seven electrons in its
outermost (L) shell. Counting from the left-hand side of the Periodic Table, fluorine
heads group 7.
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The other common members of the group are chlorine, bromine, iodine. Like the
Group 1 elements, all these have properties in common. They all:
 Are coloured,
 Have seven valency electrons,
 Form ionic, in preference to covalent, compounds,
 Form ions with a charge of minus one,
 Form colourless compounds,
 Act as oxidizing agents (in the right circumstances)
The elements show several trends in their properties. For example:
 Fluorine if the most reactive, iodine the least,
 Fluorine is very pale yellow; chlorine is yellow-green; bromine gas is orange;
iodine gas is deep purple,
 Fluorine and chlorine are gases; bromine is a liquid at RTP; iodine is a solid.
Here is the equation for the reaction between chlorine and bromide ions:
Cl2 + 2Br- (aq) 2Cl- (aq) + Br2 (g)
Group 8 (0) the Noble gases

In Grade 10 you learned that the elements helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon
are unreactive because they have full electron shells. They form a clearly defined
group of the Periodic Table. They have these properties:
 They form almost no compounds, either with each other or with other
elements.
 All are colourless.
 All are gases at RTP.
Because they have no chemical reactions, we find trends only in their
physical properties. For example the melting points and boiling points of
these elements increase as the relative atomic mass increases.
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1.1 Classifying by Periods

A Horizontal row in the Periodic table is called a period. The elements in any one
period all have different electron structures, so the chemical properties of any
one element differ from those of its neighbours. The electron structures change
regularly, by one electron for each element. All the elements in one period have
an electron core, which is the electron arrangement in the noble gas which
completed the previous period, with outer electrons in addition. So there are
some properties which show a clear trend as we go across a period. This time,
though, there are some which change sharply instead.
Changes in Period 2
The table below shows the second period of the Periodic table with two properties
of the elements.
changes in properties of the elements of period 2 in the Periodic Table
Elements in Period 2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
State at RTP (s) (s) (s) (s) (g) (g) (g) (g)
Usual valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Hydrogen
In our Periodic Table we have placed hydrogen at the top of group 1. This is because
hydrogen, like the Group 1 metals, has one electron in its outermost shell (the K
shell). It forms, as do the metals, ionic compounds containing an ion with a single
positive charge.
Some people put hydrogen at the top of Group 7 because it is one electron short
of a noble gas structure (He) and it can also form an ion with a single negative
charge. To get round this problem, we can draw the position of hydrogen as shown
in figure 1.3.
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Li F
There is no right or wrong way to place hydrogen; it is a matter of your own

preference! But if you place hydrogen above lithium, it is usual to show a small gap
between the two.
 Elements with similar outer shell electron structures form groups in the
Periodic Table. They have similar chemical properties. Each property shows a
trend from one element to the next
 Elements with the same electron core form a period in the Periodic Table.
Across a period a property may change sharply or make up a trend
 The number of shells containing electrons is equal to the number of the
period in which the element is placed.
 The number of electrons in the outermost shell is equal to the number of the
group in which the element is placed.
The metals make up most of the elements. The non-metals are clustered together
in the top right-hand corner of the Periodic Table. Some elements for example
silicon (Si), seem to have properties between those of metals and those of non-
metals.
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They are often called metalloids and lie on the dividing line between the two
extremes. Place an element in the Periodic Table and you know at once what its
character will be
Metal oxides, nitrates and carbonates
A similar pattern is found when we examine the oxides of the elements. Oxides of
metals are basic; they react with acids to give a salt and water. Here is the equation
for the reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid:
MgO + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O
The oxides of non-metals are acidic; in water they react with bases to give a salt
and water. Here is the equation for the reaction between carbon dioxide and
sodium hydroxide:
2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O
Some oxides will react with acids and react with bases. Fresh aluminium oxide
reacts with hydrochloric acid to give aluminium chloride
Al2O3 + 6HCl 2alCl3 + 3H2O
But it also reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to give a soluble compound,
sodium aluminate:
Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O
Such oxides are called amphoteric oxides.
A few common oxides have neither acidic nor basic properties. They do not react
with either bases or acids to form a salt. They are called neutral oxides. Three
common examples are water (H2O), nitrogen monoxide (NO) and carbon monoxide
(CO). Nitrogen and carbon both form other oxides which are acidic.
Summary
 The elements are arranged in order of their atomic number (Z) to form the
Periodic Table.
 Vertical columns in the Periodic Table are called groups.
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 Horizontal rows in the Periodic Table are called periods.

 Each element in a group has the same arrangement of electrons in its
outermost shell hence elements in a group have similar chemical properties.
 Properties of elements in a group frequently show a trend
 Properties of elements in a period may show a trend or change abruptly.
 The position of an element in the Periodic Table can be used to predict its
properties and those of its compounds.
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2. RULES OF BEHAVIOR
If matter is made of atoms, then compounds are formed when atoms join together.
But they can only do this in a limited number of ways. Think about copper oxide.
We can find out by experiment that this compound contains only copper and
oxygen. The atoms might join together in various ways, for example:
Cu O or Cu O Cu or O Cu O
When we get a bottle of copper oxide from the shelf perhaps it contains a mixture
of all these different materials. Below is a picture of two bottles of copper oxide.
One compound is black and the other is red. It seems likely that each compound is
not a mixture, but just one of the possible atomic combinations.
Dalton said, “All samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the
same proportions by mass.” Remembering that all atoms of one element have
the same mass, this means that all samples of a pure compound, however they
are made, contain the same elements in the same atomic ratio. This is called the
law of constant composition.
Experiment: To find the composition of black copper oxide

Black copper oxide can be reduced to metallic copper by warm ammonia gas. We
can weigh a container, weigh the same container with some dry copper oxide, pass
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ammonia gas over the warmed copper and weigh the tube after the reaction is
over.
Requirements
Flat-bottomed or round-bottomed flack, drying tower, glass tubing, perforated test
tube, small length of rubber tubing, clip.
Caution
There is little risk in this experiment if you do it carefully. However ammonia gas is
very irritating to the eyes and lungs. Only do this experiment where there is good
ventilation.
Method
Set up the apparatus as below. The container for the copper oxide can be a test
tube with a hole blown in it or a length of glass tubing. It should have a loose plug
of fibre near one end. When the apparatus is set up follow these steps:
1. Weigh the empty, dry container.
2. Add a little dry copper oxide and reweigh. Insert the loose fibre plug
3. Warm the flask to start the production of ammonia and after one minute
begin to warm the copper oxide in the tube. When the ammonia reaches the
oxide the reaction will begin. Notice the colour changes.
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Explanation
The ammonia gas converted the copper oxide into copper. The oxygen from the
oxide was lost as water from the heated tube. Heat was produced in the reaction.
Through the early years of the nineteenth century chemists did a large number of
experiments like this one and found that the law of constant composition was
indeed true. This in turn meant that Dalton’s atomic theory was also conformed.
2.1 Empirical Formulae
Percentage composition
To find out the formula of a substance we often begin by finding out which
elements are present and in what quantities. It is useful to express the composition
in percentage terms. We imagine that we start with 100 mass units of the
compound and find out how many of those 100 parts come from each element.
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For example a compound contains only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. We discover
that 20g of the compound contained 10.4g of carbon and 2.61g of hydrogen. To
find the percentage composition of the compound we follow these steps.
1. 20g contained 10.4g carbon therefore 1g contained (10.4g/20g) x 1g carbon
and 100g contained 100g carbon x (10.4/20) that is 52g carbon. Therefore
the compound contains 52 percent of carbon by mass.
2. Similarly we find that the percentage of hydrogen is 100g x (2.61/20) namely
13.05g, or 13.05 percent hydrogen by mass.
3. Therefore since there is only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen present, the
percentage of oxygen is 100 – (52 + 13.05) namely 34.95 percent by mass.
From Percentage Mass to Formulae
If we know the relative atomic masses of the atoms in a compound and its
percentage composition by weight, we can work out how many atoms of each type
are present. This is how to do it.
1. Divide each percentage weight by the relative atomic mass of the atom.
2. Divide each of these answer by the smallest of them
3. The numbers you get are the numbers of each type of atom in the
compound.
Example
In an analysis of black copper oxide, the percentage of copper was found to be 79
percent therefore the percentage of oxygen was (100 - 79) = 21 percent. From
appendix 1 we see that Ar for oxygen is 16 and Ar, for copper is 63.5.
Atoms present are Cu O
Percent of each 79 21
1. Divide by Ar: 79/64 = 1.24 21/16 = 1.31
2. Divide by the smaller: 1.24/1.24 = 1.00 1.31/1.24 = 1.06
3. But atoms must be there whole numbers! The nearest whole numbers are:
Copper = 1,
Oxygen = 1.
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So the atoms are present in the ratio 1:1. Now we can write a formula for the
compound; it is Cu1O1 or simply CuO.
The idea of molecules; molecular formulae
A molecule is the smallest particle of the substance capable of independent
existence.
Now we know that many materials, not just gases, exist as molecules. Any covalent
compound is made up of molecules. The molecules are made up of atoms tightly
bound together. The molecules thus formed are usually less tightly bound to each
other.
When we heat some alcohol molecules come apart from each (vaporize) without
the individual atoms coming apart (decomposing). To decompose the molecules (to
make the atoms separate from each other) we have to make the vapour much
hotter.
In the last section we saw how to calculate the ratio of the number of atoms in a
compound. In the example, the formula was CuO. Figure 2.4 shows several
different molecules all having this atom ratio.
All the molecules in figure 2.4 have the same atom ratio. The formula CuO, which
shows this ratio, is called the empirical formula. The formula which gives a picture
of the real molecule is called the molecular formula.
The empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms
present. The molecular formula shows the actual number of each atom present.
In black copper oxide the empirical formula and the molecule formula and the
molecule formula are the same. But in ethane they are not. The molecular formula
of ethane is C2H4. The empirical formula is CH2.
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Percentage Composition
Sometimes we need we need to state, in quantitative terms, how a substance is
made up. A convenient way of doing this is to use the percentage composition by
mass.
To find the percentage composition by mass of a compound we follow these steps.

1. We need to know the formula and the values of the relative atomic mass (Ar)
for each element.
2. We then work out the relative molecular mass (Mr) by multiplying the value
of Ar for each element by the number of atoms of that element in the formula
(X) and adding together the values X for each element.
3. Express the value X for each element as a percentage of Mr.
Example
To calculate the percentage composition by mass of sodium nitrate we follow these
steps
1. Sodium nitrate has a formula NaNO3 and values of Ar are NA 23, N 14, O 16.
2. Mr = 23 + 14 + (3 x 16) = 85
3. Na = (23/85) x 100 = 27 percent; N = (14/85) x 100 = 16.5 percent
O = ((3 x 6)/85) x 100 = 56.5 percent
Example
To calculate the percentage by mass of aluminium in aluminium nitrate:
1. Aluminium nitrate has the formula Al (NO3)3 and values of Ar are Al 27, N 14,
o 16.
2. Mr = 27 + (3 x 14) + (3 x 16)) = 213.
3. Al = (27/213) x 100 = 12.7 percent
When we go to the market to buy eggs, we do not buy one egg at a time. Instead
we buy a unit of eggs. The word “unit” is used to mean a quantity of eggs, in fact a
bag of ten eggs. In chemistry we use the word “mole” to mean a quantity of a
chemical substance. One mole is a very large number, it is:
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602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 (6.022 x 1023) particles
A mole is a quality of a substance. One mole of a substance is 6.022 x 1023 particles
of that substance. There are 6.022 x 1023 particles per mole. The symbol for a
mole is mol.
Although the number is large, because the particles – atoms and molecules – are
very small, one mole of a chemical is about a small handful, smaller in size than a
unit of eggs. The mole is a very useful quantity. Most quantitative work in chemistry
uses moles as we will discover later on in this unit.
Examples
1 mol of copper atoms contains 6.022 x 1023 copper atoms.
1 mol of sugar molecules contains 6.022 x 1023 sugar molecules.
1 mol of eggs would contains 6.022 x 1023 eggs.
 6.022 x 103 is called the Avogadro number or Avogadro constant
 The symbol for the Avogadro constant is L
 In calculations we often use the approximate value 6 x 103
 The number of particles equals the number of moles multiplied by 6 x 103
 When using moles, always state which particles are involved.
2.2 The Mole

Using Moles
Before the mole was thought of, the manufacture of chemicals was a hit-and miss
affair. Raw materials were mixed in quantities which gave a good result but not
necessarily the best or cheapest result.
To make cement, we mix one bucketful of cement with four bucketsful of sand and
add enough water to make a slippery paste. Water does not cost very much so if
we add a little too much no harm is done. But suppose that we want to make
copper nitrate to sell. We need to be more accurate.
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Example
Suppose we have some copper, how much nitric acid will we need? Nitric acid is
expensive so we don’t want to waste it. First we write down a balanced equation
to represent the reaction.
Cu + 4HNO3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
We see from this that one atom of copper reacts exactly with four molecules of
nitric acid. Two atoms of copper would react exactly with eight molecules of nitric
acid and ten molecules of copper would react exactly with 10 x 4 molecules of
nitric acid. 6 x 1023 atoms of copper would react exactly with 4 x (6 x 1023)
molecules of nitric acid.
One mole of copper atoms would react exactly with four moles of nitric acid
molecules. The highlighted numbers in the equation tell us how many atoms and
molecules are involved.
They also tell us how many moles of each reactant are needed.
Converting Moles to Mass
Avogradro’s number (L), 6.023 x 1023 , is the number of atoms of hydrogen
which weigh 1.000g. So L hydrogen atoms, have a mass of (weigh) one gram
To convert from moles to grams, multiply the number of moles by the relative
particle mass.
Grams = moles x relative particle mass
Converting Mass to Moles
Two moles of helium weigh 8g. Looking at this from another angle, if we know
that the relative mass of an atom is four, and we know that we have 8g of that
atom, then we can see that we have two moles of the atom
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
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Calculating Reaction Quantities

Examples
The following reaction starts off with 1000 tonnes of copper. Work out exactly
how much nitric acid is required.
Cu + 4HNO3  Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
Example. Method – 1
From the equation we see that 1 mol of copper reacts with 4 mol nitric acid
1000 tonnes = 1000 x 106 g
Ar for copper = 63.5, therefore copper weighs 63.5g/mol
𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔 =
𝟔𝟑. 𝟓𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓
There is 1.575 x 107 mol copper so he will need:
4 x 1.575 x 107 mol of nitric acid = 6.30 x 107 mol of nitric acid
Mr for nitric acid = (1 + 14 + 48) = 63, therefore nitric acid weighs 63g/mol
𝒈
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒅 = 𝟔𝟑 × (𝟔. 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 )
𝒎𝒐𝒍
= 𝟑𝟗𝟔𝟗𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔
Example. Method – 2
1 mol reacts with 4 mol nitric acid.
1 x 63.5g copper reacts with 4 x 63g nitric acid
63.5 parts by mass of copper react with 4 x 63 (252) parts by mass nitric acid
63.5 tonnes of copper react with 252 tonnes nitric acid
Therefore:
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1 tonne copper reacts with 252/63.5 tonnes nitric acid**

1000 tonnes copper react with 1000 x (252/63.5) tonnes nitric acid
= 3968 tonnes
The two answers are not exactly the same because the figures have been rounded
up throughout the calculations.
NB: It is usually better to use moles
Quantity and Concentration
The concentration of a solution is either the mass of solute it contains or the
number of moles of solute it contains divided by the volume of the solution:
concentration = mass/volume (usually g/dm3) or

concentration = moles/volume (usually mol/dm3)
2.3 Titrations
You can use indicators to find out whether a substance is acid or alkaline.
Now we will use indicators to find the concentration of a solution.
Experiment: To Find the Concentration of a Solution
Aim
To find the concentration of an alkali.
You have to react a fixed volume of the alkali with an acid solution whose
concentration you know exactly. Then the concentration of the alkali is calculated.
This is called titration.
Requirements
Burette and stand, pipette (10, 20 or 25cm3), an acid/base indicator (methyl
orange, phenolphthalein or bromothymol blue, preferably not litmus or any
universal indicator)
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Procedure
1. Use a small funnel to fill the burette with acid; there is no need to fill to the
0.0 line; anywhere in the graduated part will do.
2. Use the pipette to transfer 25.0cm3 of alkali solution into the beaker
3. Use the glass rod to put one drop of indicator into the alkali. If the colour is
not deep enough, add another drop.
4. Copy the table below into your note book.
5. Read the level of the acid in the burette. Read the bottom of the liquid
meniscus as shown above.
6. Add acid to the alkali roughly 1 cm3 at a time, swirling the liquid in the
beaker to mix it after every addition, until the indicator changes colour.
7. Read the level of the liquid in the burette.
8. Work out what volume of acid was used.
9. Start again! But this time add 1cm3 less acid than was needed, all in one go.
Mix the liquid very thoroughly.
10. Now add acid from the burette one drop at a time until the indicator just
changes. This is called the end-point.
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11. Read the burette again.

12. Work out the exact volume of acid needed for the reaction.
13.Make sure that you have noted your results as shown below.
Concentration of acid (mol/dm3)
Volume of alkali taken (cm3) 25.0
First burette reading (cm3)
Second burette reading (cm3)
Third burette reading (cm3)
Fourth burette reading (cm3)
Accurate volume of acid needed is
(cm3)
14. Write down the equation for the reaction, for example:
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
15. From the concentration of the acid work out how many moles of acid you
added (call this A moles)
16. From the equation, work out how many moles of alkalis are needed to
react with A moles of acid (B moles)
17. B moles of alkali must have been in the 25cm3 of alkali with which you
began.
18. How many moles of alkali would be in 1.0cm3 of solution?
19. How many moles of acid would be in 1000cm3 of solution (in 1dm3 of
solution).
20. Write down the concentration of the alkali in mol/dm3
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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS I
Instructions: try to attempt the following before checking the answers.
1. 33 mL of 3 M Hydrochloric acid is titrated with sodium hydroxide to form water
and sodium chloride. How many mols of sodium hydroxide are consumed in this
reaction?
a. 3 mol b. 10 mol c. 33 mol d. 100mol
answer: d. 100mol
2. 50 mL of 0.5M barium hydroxide are required to fully titrate a 100 mL solution
of sulfuric acid. What is the initial concentration of the acid?
a. 50 M b. 5 M c. 100 M d. 25M
answer: d. 25M
3. An experiment was done on the reaction of copper oxide (CuO) with methane
(CH4).
(a) The equation for this reaction is shown below.

4CuO(s) + CH4(g) → 4Cu(s) + 2H2O(g) + CO2(g)
The water and carbon dioxide produced escapes from the test tube. Use
information from the equation to explain why.
........................................................................................................................ [1]
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(b) (i) Calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of copper oxide (CuO).
Relative atomic masses (Ar):
O = 16; Cu = 64.
Relative formula mass (Mr) =.......................................................................... [2]
(ii) Calculate the percentage of copper in copper oxide.
Percentage of copper = .................................. %

(iii) Calculate the mass of copper that could be made from 4.0 g of copper oxide
Mass of copper = ............................................. g

answers:
3. (a) because they are gases ignore vapours / evaporate / (g) allow it is a gas 1
(b) (i) 80 / 79.5 correct answer with or without working = 2 marks ignore
units if no answer or incorrect answer then evidence of 64 / 63.5 + 16 gains 1
mark 2
(ii) 80 / 79.87 / 79.9 / 79.375 / 79.38 / 79.4 correct answer with or without
working = 2 marks if no answer or incorrect answer.
(iii) 3.2 correct answer with or without working = 1 mark
allow (ecf)
4 x ((b)(ii)/100) for 1 mark if correctly calculated
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3. THE BEHAVIOUR OF GASES

3.1 The Particles in a Gas
Experiment: To estimate the separation between the particles in a gas.
Requirements
A polythene bag (sandwich bag), alcohol, electric kettle, teat pipette, sellotape or
clip, tongs.
Inside the hot kettle the liquid alcohol changes state. The particles move further
apart as they vaporise. Alcohol has a boiling point of 78C so it condensed back to
liquid as soon as you took it out of the hot steam. You might find the result of
your calculation surprising.
Despite the huge change in the volume the

particles only move apart by less than ten
times their own size. But there are some
equally surprising consequences!
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3.2 Avogadro’s law

When Avogadro suggested that elements could exist as molecules, rather than
single atoms, he was trying to support an idea which he had put forward several
years before but which no one believed.
Avogadro had suggested that equal volumes of all gases contained equal numbers
of particles. It was well known that when gases reacted together, they did so in
volumes which were either equal or simple multiples of each other. For example
hydrogen and chlorine react together in equal volumes to make hydrogen
chloride. It seemed obvious that:
one hydrogen particle + one chloride particle

= one hydrogen chloride particle
So if there were L particles in one volume, this would be the same as saying that:
one volume of hydrogen + one volume of chlorine

= one volume of hydrogen chloride
But we know they make two volumes of hydrogen chloride! So each particle of
hydrogen and each particle of chlorine must contain two atoms each to give two
particles of hydrogen chloride. The particles are molecules, not atoms. So now we
can say that:
Equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal
numbers of molecules. This is called Avogadro’s Law.
If we use L (the Avogadro constant) as the number of particles whose volume we

measured, then, because L is the number of particles in one mole, we can say that
one mole of any gas, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, will
occupy the same volume. This volume is called the molar volume Vm.
When we have considered what happens to the particles of a gas as it is heated,

cooled, or squeezed, we shall be in a position to ask what that volume is.
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3.3 Boyle’s law and Charles’ law

The gas particles in the box on the left-hand side of Figure 3.3 are all moving. They
move in straight lines unless they hit each other or they hit the wall of the box.
When they hit the wall they bounce off. It is as though each wall is being
continuously struck by thousands of tiny hammers. The walls are being
continuously pushed outwards by the gas molecules. We call this the pressure of
the gas.
If we were to squirt more gas into the box, so that the number of gas molecules
was doubled (as in the box on the right hand side of Figure 3.3) then the walls
would be hammered twice as often – the pressure would be doubled.
This is the same as saying that the concentration of gas particles in the box has
been doubled.
Instead of doubling the amount of gas in the box, we could have halved the
volume of the box as shown in Figure 3.4. the pressure of the gas in the small box
in Figure 3.4 is exactly the same as it was in the large box on the right-hand side of
Figure 3.3 with double the number of particles because the concentration of
particles is the same in both.
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So when the volume was halved, the pressure doubled. If the volume had been
made one tenth of the original, the pressure would have gone up by a factor of
ten. When the volume increases, the pressure decreases and vice-versa.
The volume and the pressure of the gas are inversely proportional to each other.
This was first pointed out by Robert Boyle. It is called Boyle’s law.
Boyle’s law states that if the temperature is constant, the volume and pressure
of a gas are inversely proportional to one another, in short form:
P 1/V
Increasing the concentration of a gas in a box is not the only way of increasing its
pressure. If we could increase the speed of the molecules v, then they would hit
the box walls harder, because their kinetic energy (mv2) would be greater. We can
do this by heating the gas to a higher temperature.
Nearly one hundred years after Boyle stated his law, Charles discovered that
when a gas is heated, the change in pressure is related to the change in
temperature in a simple way. If the temperature increases, the pressure also
increases.
Charles’ law states if the pressure of a gas is constant, the volume of the gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature, in short form:
VT
Notice that in Charles’ law, it is the absolute temperature which matters.

Absolute temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) where:
T(K) = T() + 273
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Example
The temperature in a room is 25. The atmospheric pressure on that day is 1.0 x
105 Pa. a chemist collects 600cm3 of a gas in a balloon and puts it in a refrigerator
at 4. What will be the volume of the gas?
The pressure in the refrigerator will be the same as in the room. Only the
temperature has changed.
Original temperature = (25 + 273) K = 298 K

Final temperature = (4 + 273) K = 277 K
The gas is colder, the temperature has gone down, and so the volume will go
down; the new volume is:
(600cm3 x 277 K/298 K) = 557.7cm3
Example
A chemist collects two samples of gas. Each has a volume of 1000cm3. He stores
one in a glass gas jar with a sealed lid. He stores the other in a balloon. The
atmospheric pressure on that day is 0.98 x 105 Pa. The next day the temperature
has not changed but the pressure has risen to 1.01 x 105 Pa. What will be the
volume of gas in each of the containers?
The volume of the gas jar will not change because the jar cannot change and a
gas takes the volume of its (rigid) container. The volume of the gas in the balloon
changes because the container is not rigid; the pressure has gone up so the
volume will go down. The new volume is
(1000 cm3 x 0.98 x 105) Pa/(1.01 x 105)Pa = 970.3cm3
Exercise
1. A gas has a volume of 2.00dm3 at a pressure of 1 x 105Pa. what will be its
volume at the same temperature, at a pressure of 3 x 105 Pa?
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2. 150cm3 of oxygen are heated from 25 to 45, at atmospheric pressure. What is

the new volume of the gas?
3. A certain mass of gas is found to have a volume of 15.00dm3 at a temperature
of 25 and a pressure of 1.00 x 105 Pa. what is the volume of the gas at 0 and 5 x
104 Pa?
Hint: Ask yourself each time “will the volume get larger or smaller?” Then you will
know if you have got the numbers the right way up!
Molar Gas Volume

Because the volume of a fixed mass of gas varies with its pressure and
temperature we cannot use Avogadro’s law to say “One mole of any gas will have
the same volume”. One worker might measure that mole under conditions
different from those chosen by someone else.
So scientists have chosen a set of standard conditions which everyone can use.
Standard conditions for the measurement of gas volumes are a pressure of 105 Pa
and a temperature of 273 K. Under these conditions one mole of any gas occupies
22.4dm3. These conditions are called standard temperature and pressure (STP).
STP: Standard pressure = 105 Pa

Standard temperature = 273 K
Molar gas volume = 22.4 dm3
Very few measurements are actually taken at 273 K so for many purposes we use
not STP but RTP (room temperature and pressure). At RTP the molar volume of a
gas is taken as 24.0dm3.
RTP: Room pressure = 105 Pa
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Room temperature = 298 K

Molar gas volume = 24.0 dm3
3.4 The Ideal Gas

If it is true that for a fixed mass of gas:
p 1/V
then it would follow that:
p = k/V
where k is a constant and so:
pV = constant
A graph of pV against p for any gas at constant temperature should be a

horizontal straight line. Instead these lines are curved, as shown below.(Note
that the curves are exaggerated to show the effect.)
For some gases pV is usually smaller than Boyle’s law would predict (the gas is
taking up less space than the law suggests). The differences are not great but they
are very important in practice. What can be the explanation?
If Boyle’s law was accurate, if the pressure of a gas was increased to infinity the
volume would be zero. But the volume could never be zero, because the
molecules take up some space.
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So when a gas takes up more space than we expect, it is because of the volume of
the molecules themselves. The space between them obeys Boyle’s law, but not
the gas itself!
When two molecules come together, they usually attract one another. The
molecules of polythene, for example, must have something holding them
together, or polythene would be a gas.
When sulphur dioxide gas is compressed it turns into a liquid because the
molecules, when they get close enough, attract each other so strongly that the
kinetic energy (mv2) of the particles is not enough to make them separate again.
Although these forces (usually called van der Waals’ forces) are only weak even
when the molecules are touching each other, they do still have some effect in the
gas. They pull the molecules of the gas just a little closer together than would
otherwise be the case. So the gas has a slightly smaller volume than Boyle’s law
suggests. As the pressure goes up the volume decreases, the molecules get closer
together and this effect increases.
These two effects work against one another. Which one wins depends on the gas
and the pressure. So sometimes the product pV is smaller than we expect and
sometimes larger. If the gas is at low pressure – the molecules are far apart from
each other – then these effects are not noticeable. We say that the gas is
behaving like an ideal gas. For an ideal gas we can combine Boyle’s and Charles’
laws together:
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If pV = constant,
and p = constant x T
then pV = constant x T
As usual, it is sensible to work with one mole of gas. When we do, the constant in
the equation is called the molar gas constant. The molar gas constant has the
symbol R and its value is 8.314 J K-1 mol-1. The gas law becomes, for one mole of
an ideal gas:
pVm = RT
Using Molar Volumes in Calculations

From the equation for any reaction we know how to work out the quantities
involved by mass or by moles and how to convert from moles to volumes. This
means that we can work out what volumes of gas are produced, or used up, in
any reaction.
Example
Nitrogen and hydrogen react to make ammonia. Ammonia is a gas at RTP. The
equation for the reaction is:
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
From this equation, using values of Ar from Appendix I, we see that:

 28g of nitrogen reacts with 6g of hydrogen to give 34g of ammonia.
 One molecule of nitrogen reacts with three molecules of hydrogen to give two
molecules of ammonia.
 One mole of nitrogen reacts with three moles of hydrogen to give two moles
of ammonia.
 At RTP, 24dm3 of nitrogen reacts with 72dm3 of hydrogen to give 48dm3 of
ammonia.
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We can use this information to answer several different types of questions. For
example, suppose that we wanted to know what is the maximum volume of
ammonia which can be made, at RTP, from 56g of nitrogen, here is how we would
work it out:
56g of nitrogen = 56g/28g/mol = 2 mol

1 mol nitrogen yields 2 mol ammonia. (1 x 2)
2 mol nitrogen yields 4 mol ammonia. (2 x 2)
1 mol gas at RTP occupies 24dm3.
4 mol occupies (4 x 24) dm3 = 96dm3
Notice that this tells us nothing about the conditions needed to do the reaction,
how fast the reaction will happen, or how much gas might be lost.
Example
Supposing 6dm3 of ammonia were lost and only 90dm3 of ammonia were
collected, what was the yield of the reaction? In this case, as we expected to
collect 96dm3, the percentage yield is (90dm3/96dm3) x 100 = 93.75%
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4. ENERGY CHANGES IN
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
In every chemical change there is a change of temperature and a flow of heat into
or out of the reacting system.
Experiment:
To observe changes in temperature in chemical reactions,
Requirements:
Anhydrous calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, test tubes.
Both the compounds used are ionic solids. When the solids dissolve in the water,
firstly, the ions of the solid become separated from each other. Bonds are broken.
Secondly, the water molecules form bonds with the cations forming new
chemicals Ca(H2O)n2+ and NH4(H2O)m+.
Energy Diagrams
In the diagram below, the height above the baseline represents the energy
content of the system. The higher the system is in the diagram, the more energy it
contains. The separate atoms are high up the scale; the bonded atoms are low
down. The separate atoms contain more energy than the bonded atoms.
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If the atoms are to end up in exactly the same state as they began, the loss of
energy from the atoms as the bond forms must exactly equal their gain in energy
as the bond is broken.
Energy is released into the surroundings when bonds form. Energy is gained from
the surroundings when bonds are broken.
Overall changes
In a chemical change, the starting materials (reactants) are used up and new
substances (products) are formed. Bonds in the reactants are broken, and bonds
in the products are formed.
Example
Think about the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. Showing the bonds, we
can write:
2(H–H)(g) + OO(g) 2(H–O–H)(g)
As the reaction goes on, H–H and O=O bonds are broken and bonds between
oxygen atoms and hydrogen atoms are formed (H–O–H). energy has to be put
into the system to break the old bonds, but energy is given out of the system as
the new bonds are formed.
Measurements of the energies involved show that 436kJ of energy are needed
when one mole of hydrogen molecules is broken into atoms and 498kJ of energy
are needed when one mole of oxygen molecules is broken into atoms. When one
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mole of water is formed from hydrogen and oxygen atoms, 463kJ of energy are
liberated. We can draw an energy diagram for these changes.
The diagram below shows that when one mole of water (in the gaseous state) is
formed from its elements, more energy is given out than has to be put in.
Energy Changes and Heat Content

Energy changes in chemical reactions affect heat content. That is why we measure
them by observing changes in temperature. To show the energy changes, in an
equation, we use the symbol H where means “the change in” and H means “heat
content”.
Note that the H is in italics to distinguish it from the symbol for hydrogen (H).
(Another word for “heat content” is enthalpy, but you do not have to remember
this word at this grade.)
When heat energy is added to a system, to break bonds, H is positive (+ve). When
heat energy is lost from a system because bonds are formed, H is negative (-ve).
Example
In the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, it shows that 482kJ are lost from
the system for every mole of oxygen used. So we can write either:
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2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) – 482 kJ

or:
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) + H; H = – 482 kJ/mol
H = heat content of products minus heat content of reactants. When the heat
content goes up, H is positive. When it goes down, H is negative.
Hess’s Law
It states that the overall energy change in converting reactants to products is the
same no matter what route the change takes.
The value of H for a reaction is a useful figure; it is measured per mole of reactant
under standard conditions, and is called the standard molar heat of the reaction.
The standard conditions are usually 298 K and 1.01 x 105 Pa (1 atmosphere).
The standard molar heat of a reaction is the heat change per mole of the reaction
as specified by a balanced chemical equation. The heat change must be measured
under standard conditions.
For example we can make copper(II) oxide in several ways; we can heat copper
metal in oxygen gas:
Cu + O2 CuO + H1
or we can dissolve copper metal in nitric acid to make copper nitrate, then heat
he copper nitrate strongly:
Cu + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2 + H2
Cu(NO3)2 CuO + O2 + 2NO2 + H3
also: 4HNO3 2H2O + 4NO2 + O2 + H4
Using Hess’s law, we can say that:

H1 = H 2 + H3 – H4
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4.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

Exothermic reaction is one in which heat is given out from the chemicals to the
surroundings. (The prefix exo means outside).
Example
Consider the reaction between solid carbon and carbon dioxide to form carbon
monoxide:
C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)
The energy formed in breaking and forming the bonds is shown below.
Step Energy (kJ/mol)
Vaporise C(s) 715
Break each (of two) carbon–oxygen bonds (in 804
CO2)
Form carbon–oxygen -1076
More energy is required on the left-hand side of the reaction equation, namely;
{715 kJ/mol + (2 x 804 kJ/mol)} = 2323 kJ/mol
Than is liberated by forming two moles of carbon monoxide:

(2 x 1076 kJ/mol) = 2152 kJ/mol
H is +171 kJ/mol. We can show this in the equation:

C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g); H = +171 kJ/mol
Heat has to flow into the system for the reaction to proceed. This is an
endothermic reaction. This particular reaction occurs in the special conditions of
the blast furnace. (The prefix endo means within).
Note: Negative H implies an exothermic reaction. Positive H implies an

endothermic reaction.
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Spontaneous and non-spontaneous changes

If something is hotter than its surroundings, it will lose heat. This happens without
us having to do anything about it. Processes like this are called spontaneous
processes. These processes happen without any external help or influence. Most
exothermic reactions are spontaneous. Once they begin, they go on.
Most endothermic processes are not spontaneous. They cannot go on unless

something drives them. Photosynthesis is an example of an endothermic process
because it needs sunlight to occur.
Some endothermic processes are spontaneous. For example ammonium chloride

dissolves spontaneously in water.
4.3 Activation Energy

The figure below shows how the heat content of a reacting system varies with
time, from start to finish. Part (a) shows an exothermic reaction, in which the
overall heat content falls. Part (b) shows an endothermic reaction in which the
overall heat content goes up.
In both cases the

reacting system
needs to gain
energy first,
before the final
products can be
formed. It is as
though the
system has to climb up an energy hill before it can slide down the other side. The
additional energy is called the energy of activation for the reaction.
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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS II
Instructions: attempt the following questions before checking the answers.
1 (a) Marble chips react with hydrochloric acid to produce carbon dioxide. The
equation for the reaction is CaCO3 + 2HCl o CaCl2 + H2 O + CO2 Which one of
these changes would decrease the rate of this reaction?
A. use hydrochloric acid which is more dilute.
B. use smaller sized marble chips.
C. use marble chips which have a larger surface area.
D. use a larger volume of the hydrochloric acid.
(b) Explain why increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the rate of
the reaction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c)(i) The rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide can be increased by
adding a catalyst. Which of these graphs shows the mass of the catalyst during
the reaction?
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(ii) The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, H2 O2 , produces oxygen and water.

Give the balanced equation for this reaction.
....................................................................................................................................
(d) Explain, in terms of the energy involved in the breaking of bonds and in the
making of bonds, why some reactions are exothermic.
Answers:
3(a) A use hydrochloric acid which is more dilute
3(b) An explanation linking two of M1 {particles/reactants/collisions} have more
energy (1 mark) M2 more frequent collisions (1 mark) M3 more
{productive/successful/effective} collisions (1 mark)
(c)(i) C
(c)(ii) 2H2O2→ 2H2O + O2 (2 marks) all formulae correct (1 mark) balancing
correct formulae(1 marks)
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5. RATE OF REACTION
The rate of a reaction is stated in terms of grams per second (g/s), or moles per
second (mol/s) of reactant used up or products produced.
Because the rate of a reaction often changes as time goes on, we may plot a
graph of amount of substance against time. The slope of this graph gives the rate
of the reaction, just as the slope of a distance against time graph gives the rate
(speed) of a moving object.
5.1 Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction

Two chemicals can react together when their particles hit one another. Anything
which changes the rate at which particles collide will change the rate at which
they react. Speeding up the collision rate will speed up the reaction, and slowing
down the collision rate will slow the reaction down.
Not every collision will result in a reaction. Unless the particles collide there will
be no products. In some collisions there will not be enough energy to break the
original chemical bonds and so no new substances can be made. Anything which
changes the amount of energy needed to activate the reaction will also change
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the rate of reaction, because a different fraction of the collisions will be

successful.
We can illustrate this by thinking about a reaction between two compounds A–B
and C–D which react according to the equation:
A–B + C–D A–C + B–D
In this reaction energy will be needed to break the bonds between A and B and
those between C and D are formed. Any excess energy will be given off as heat.
This is shown below.
Not all the colliding particles have the same energy. Some particles are always
travelling more quickly than others. In a gentle collision the total energy is not
enough to force A–B and C–D into a state from which A–C and B–D can form.
The diagram below shows how the energies of the collisions are distributed. A
few have only small energies; most have energies near the average; and some
have very large energies indeed.
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In the diagram above, the shaded area shows the proportion of collisions which
have energies above the energy E shown by the vertical line. Diagram (a) is at a
low temperature, and diagram (b) is at a higher temperature. The value of E is the
same in both. As the temperature goes up, the proportion of collisions whose
total energy is above E goes up.
If E is the energy needed to allow the reaction to continue, then at the higher
temperature, more reactions become possible. E is called the energy of
activation.
When the temperature goes up, there are more collisions in a fixed time. When
the temperature goes up, a larger fraction of the collisions give a reaction.
The rate of reaction is controlled by these factors.

a) The concentration of the reactants: The more concentrated the solution is,
the closer the reacting particles are. The closer together the particles are, the
more often they will collide. So the more concentrated the solution, the faster
the rate. The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of
the reactant. This is true for every reactant. In general we can say that the rate
of a reaction is proportional to the product of the concentration of the
reacting substances.
b) Surface area (particle size): The more finely divided a solid reactant is, the
more surface area it exposes and the more quickly it reacts.
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c) Temperature: The rate of a chemical reaction increases with increasing

temperature.
d) Gas pressure.
e) Presence of a catalyst: A catalyst is a substance which changes the speed of a
chemical reaction but is unchanged in mass at the end of the reaction. Most
catalysts speed up the rate of reactions. Some however, slow down the rate of
reaction.
5.2 Catalysts in Industry
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A catalyst provides an alternative reaction path with a lower activation energy.
5.3 Reversible Reactions

Example: Copper (II) Sulphate crystals contain water chemically bonded to the
copper ions. The formula of the crystalline material is CuSO45H2O. When you heat
the crystals gently, the bonds between the water and the copper ions are broken
and the water is driven off as water vapour.
This vapour condenses on the cold parts of the test tube and appears as a
colourless liquid. If you collected enough of it you could boil it and measure the
boiling point to show that it was indeed water. The solid residue is still copper (II)
sulphate (unless you have heated it too strongly) but it is white, not blue. It is
called anhydrous copper (II) sulphate because it now has no water in it.
When the water mixes once more with the anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, the two
recombine, giving the original blue hydrated material. Because this is the reverse
of the first reaction and the first one was endothermic (took in heat), this is an
exothermic reaction (it gives out heat).
The reactions you have done are two parts of one reversible reaction.
The direction of change of a reversible reaction can be controlled by changing the

conditions.
We can write one equation which shows both forward and reverse reactions by
using a special symbol.
CuSO4H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O
All reactions are reversible to some extent.
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6. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
6.1 What is Dynamic Equilibrium?
Look at the graphs above. If, after time t, the rate of the forward reaction (A) is
higher than the rate of the backward reaction (B), more products are being
formed than are being converted back into limestone. So the amount (and the
surface area), of the limestone must go on falling, and the rate of the forward
reaction falls with it.
But less quicklime and carbon dioxide are being reconverted than are being
formed, so the rate of the backward reaction must still go up. This is true as long
as A is greater than B. Therefore as the forward rate falls and the backward rate
goes up the two rates must get closer and closer together.
Eventually the two rates will become equal. When this happens, the products are
being formed at the same rate as they are being reconverted. The reactants are
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being used up at the same rate as they are being re-formed. So the
concentrations of the reactants and the products no longer change. It is as
though the reaction has stopped, though in reality the forward and the backward
reactions are still going on.
When this happens, and no further change can be detected in the system a state
of dynamic equilibrium has been reached.
A reacting system is said to be in dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the

forward reaction is equal to that of the backward reaction. In a reacting system
which is in dynamic equilibrium no further change can be detected.
This does not mean that when a system is in dynamic equilibrium the products
and reactants are present in equal amounts or concentrations. Look at the
diagram below which shows graphs of rate against time for three separate types
of reaction.
The first case (a) shows a reaction in which the forward reaction goes on very
quickly but the backward reaction goes on slowly. In this case the reactants are
used up almost entirely long before the reverse reaction can have much effect.
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The system comes to equilibrium but the reactants have almost gone and only
products are present in any concentration.
The second case (b) shows a reaction in which the forward and backward
reactions have nearly the same rate throughout. This time there will be similar
concentrations of reactants and products in the equilibrium mixture.
The third case (c) shows the opposite of (a). The backward reaction is fast, and so
the reactants are re-formed almost as soon as they are used up. When
equilibrium is reached, there will only be small concentrations of products in the
mixture.
An equilibrium mixture may contain mostly reactants, or a mixture of both.
6.2 Industrial Applications

Sulphuric Acid Production – The Contact Process
Sulphuric acid is made from sulphur. Sulphur dioxide SO2 is made by burning the
sulphur or by roasting a sulphide mineral such as iron pyrites in air. The sulphur
dioxide is then oxidised to form sulphur (VI) oxide SO3. Sulphur (VI) oxide is a white
solid at room temperature but at the temperature of the Contact process it is a
gas.
The gas can be dissolved in water but the reaction is so violent that instead it is
dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to give an oily, super-concentrated
product called oleum H2S2O7. Water is then added to the oleum giving sulphuric
acid.
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The equations for the Contact process reactions are:
1) S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

2) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g); H-ve
3) H2O(l) + 2SO(g) H2S2O7(l)
4) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l)
It is exothermic. It must use a catalyst that passes through a converter containing

vanadium (v) oxide V2O5. In this process, a high yield is produced by high pressure
and low temperature.
Ammonia Production – The Haber Process

Nitric acid and nitrates are important in the manufacture of fertilisers and
explosives. It can be made from ammonia which in turn can be made from
nitrogen and hydrogen.
The Haber process for ammonia manufacture is based on the reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g); H-ve
This reaction is also exothermic – it gives out heat as it goes.
Nitrogen is obtained from the air, while Hydrogen is obtained from methane
(natural gas).
The three conditions needed for this process are;
 A catalyst of pure iron with a trace of added aluminium oxide.
 A temperature of about 400C
 Pressure of 250 atmospheres.
In the Haber process a high equilibrium yield is produced by low temperature and
high pressure.
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7. FUELS
7.1 What is a Fuel?
It is a substance which burns in air to provide us with useful energy.
Carbon burns in air to form either carbon monoxide (if the air supply is limited,
which is known as incomplete combustion) and carbon dioxide (if the air is
plentiful, which is known as complete combustion). The equations are:
2C + O2 2CO incomplete combustion
C + O2 CO2 complete combustion
What makes a Fuel Good?

 It’s availability.
 Yield as much heat as possible.
 Avoidance of unpleasant fumes when it is burnt.
 Easy to handle.
 Be cheap.
Heat of Combustion
The heat of combustion of a fuel is the total amount of heat released when one
mole of the fuel is completely burned in air or oxygen.
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Heats of combustion
Substance Heat of Heat of combustion
combustion (kJ/g)
(kJ/mol)
Carbon (s) 394 32.8
Coal (s)* 280 23
Ethanol (l) 1370 29.8
Hydrogen (g) 286 143.0
Propane (g) 2200 50.0
Wood (s)* 540 18
*Average values.
7.2 Fossil Fuels

These are fuels that were formed a long time ago and cannot be replaced. They
are finite resources.
Burning fossil fuels adds carbon dioxide to the air. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse
gas – it helps to trap heat which would otherwise leak out into space by radiation.
The use of fossil fuels causes climatic change.
7.3 Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with small amounts of other
substances. Crude oil cannot be used in its natural state as it comes from the
Earth. It must be separated into fractions each containing a much smaller range
of compounds. The range chosen depends on the intended use of the fuel. The
separation is done by fractional distillation. A fraction consists of a mixture of
chemicals with similar boiling points.
In distillation, a liquid is heated to its boiling point to turn it into a vapour. The
vapour is collected and cooled to turn it back into a liquid. In the process any
material, dissolved in the liquid, which cannot easily be vaporised, is left behind.
Simple distillation is used to purify a liquid by removing non-valuable impurities.

The liquid being purified turns into vapour; the impurities do not.
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In fractional distillation we heat a mixture of two or more volatile liquids, each

with its own boiling point and then cool the vapour progressively. The liquids with
high boiling points condense before the liquids with low boiling points. The liquids
are separated.
Fractional Distillation in the Laboratory
The diagram above shows the laboratory apparatus for fractional distillation. A
long tube, packed with small pieces of glass, is fitted vertically between the top of
the flask and the condenser. This is called the fractionating column. As the flask is
heated the vapour rises up the column and condenses.
If the flask is not heated very strongly the temperature of the top of the column
(heated by the condensing vapour) never reaches the boiling point of the liquid
and no vapour gets to the outlet.
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As the flask is heated more strongly more vapour condenses in the fractionating
column, which heats up from the bottom upwards. The part near the flask is
always hotter than the part near the top. A temperature gradient has been set up
in the column.
Eventually the temperature at the top of the column rises enough that light
molecule vapour flows out and down to the condenser. However the temperature
in the lower part of the column is below the boiling point of the heavier molecules
so they condense there and drop back into the flask as shown in the diagram.
When all the light molecules have been distilled over nothing more happens until
extra heat is supplied to the flask when the column heats up further and the next
liquid can be distilled off. Eventually only one liquid is left in the flask.
Fractional Distillation in Industry

Fractional distillation is also used in the petroleum industry to separate the main
constituents of crude oil, on a larger scale.
The oil is vaporised and the vapour passed into a fractionating column. This is like
a laboratory column but is made in such a way that liquids of different boiling
points collect in trays in the column and the gas continually bubbles through
these liquid fractions. The arrangement of trays and the bubble caps which cover
them.
The gas from the top of the column contains ethane, propane and butane. It is
used as a fuel either directly or liquefied. Some is used to produce ethene (C2H4)
which is a valuable synthetic chemical.
The naphtha is mainly used to produce synthetic chemicals.

The petrol contains molecules with five to ten carbon atoms. It is used directly as
a fuel for cars and vans and also after the process of cracking to make other
chemicals.
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The kerosene (paraffin) fraction contains hydrocarbons with eleven and twelve
carbon atoms and is used as aviation fuel and for domestic heating systems.
The residue is used to make bitumen which is used to surface roads and make
waterproofing materials.
7.4 Alternative Energy Sources

As resources diminish and people become more aware of the effects on their
environment which burning fossil fuels can have, other sources of energy are
being developed.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear fission is now widely used. The light isotope of uranium (235U) is unusual.
If it is struck by a neutron it breaks up into smaller nuclei and gives out more
neutrons. This is called fission. Each of the neutrons can then go on to strike more
nuclei and cause more fissions. In every fission a tiny amount of mass is lost. This
mass is actually turned into energy. This differs from a conventional chemical
reaction in which the total mass remains the same.
The law of conversation of mass states that in a chemical reaction matter is

neither created nor destroyed. However, when a heavy nucleus splits into lighter
nuclei some matter is converted into energy.
Every time a 235U nucleus breaks up energy is released because the bonds which
hold the components of the fission fragment nuclei together are stronger than
the bonds which held the components of the uranium nucleus together.
The amounts of energy which are released are enormous because the relationship
between mass lost and energy produced is:
E = mc2
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where E is the energy released (in joules), m is the mass lost (in kilograms) and c is
the velocity of light (in metres per second).
Chemical Energy Sources

Chemically, several alternative sources are available.
Coal can be gasified. In one process the coal is heated, in the absence of air, to
produce useful chemicals, hydrogen gas and methane. The charred residue – coke
– is then heated with steam at a high temperature, to form a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen:
C + H2O CO + H2
Some countries now produce fuels from biomass. Biomass includes all plant and
animal material. For example sugar can be grown as an energy crop. It can be
fermented to give ethanol:
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Animal waste can be digested, in the absence of air and in the presence of
bacteria which decompose it, to form methane. Produced in this way methane is
called biogas.
7.5 Chemicals from Petroleum

Some of the products from the fractional distillation of crude oil are not directly
marketable. They can be changed into different more marketable molecules by
cracking. In steam cracking the unwanted fraction is heated and mixed with
steam. The mixture is passed into a furnace. At high temperatures the molecules
decompose and a mixture, consisting mostly of ethene and propene, is produced.
Ethene and propene are valuable synthetic chemicals. For example they form the
basis (the feedstock) for making plastics by polymerisation.
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Catalytic cracking is a process applied to the heavier fractions. The large

molecules are heated strongly. They break up into fragments. In the presence of a
suitable catalyst the fragments join up again into smaller, more valuable
molecules. Heavy oils, for example, can be changed into petrols by this process.
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8. OXIDATION AND
REDUCTION
8.1 Oxygen and Hydrogen
Oxygen is a reactive element. Most metals and most non-metals, except the noble
gases, combine with oxygen to form one or more oxides.
A substance is oxidised when oxygen is combined with it or when hydrogen is

removed from it. A substance is reduced when hydrogen is combined with it or
when oxygen is removed from it.
Examples of oxidation and reduction include:

Magnesium is oxidised since it has combined with oxygen.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
Copper (II) oxide is reduced since it has lost oxygen.

CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
Sulphur is reduced since it has combined with hydrogen

8H2 + S8 8H2S
In the decomposition of ammonia, ammonia is oxidised since it has lost hydrogen.

2NH3 N2 + 3H2
8.2 Electron Loss and Electron Gain

According to the definition a substance is oxidised when it reacts with oxygen to
form its oxide, for example when magnesium burns in oxygen:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

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the product, magnesium oxide, is ionic. We could write an ionic equation (without
state symbols, to be clearer):
2Mg + O2 2Mg2+ + 2O2- (1)
Magnesium will burn in chlorine. The product is magnesium chloride. It is also

ionic. The ionic equation for the reaction (again leaving out the state symbols) is:
Mg + Cl2 Mg2+ + 2Cl- (2)
In each of the reactions the magnesium atoms have lost electrons and become
positively charged ions. If the first case is called oxidation then the second must
be called oxidation also.
The electrons which have been lost from the magnesium atoms have been
transferred to the other reagent (the oxygen in one case, the chlorine in the
other).
It is as though the two reagents competed for the electrons and the magnesium
lost. Losing electrons is called being oxidised; gaining electrons is called being
reduced.
This leads to a new definition of oxidation and reduction. A substance is oxidised

when it loses one or more electrons. A substance is reduced when it gains one or
more electrons.
Silver metal reacts with sulphur to form black silver sulphide. (This type of
reaction, which makes the silver lose its polish, is called tarnishing.) the equation
for the reaction is:
2Ag(s) + S(s) Ag2S(s)
or ionically:
2Ag + S 2Ag+ + S2-
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The silver atoms have been oxidised because they have lost electrons. The
sulphur atoms have been reduced because they have gained electrons.
In these reactions there is no overall loss or gain of electrons. The electrons

removed from one reagent must be added to another one.
There cannot be an oxidation reaction unless something is reduced at the same

time, and vice-versa. So this type of reaction is often called a redox reaction.
Redox is short for reduction – oxidation. Oxidation and reduction must take place
together.
In a redox reaction the reagent which causes the oxidation is called the oxidising
agent. The reagent which causes the reduction is called the reducing agent. Note
that because the oxidising agent causes the oxidation causes the oxidation
(removes electrons) it itself is reduced because it accepts them. Similarly the
reducing agent gives up electrons and is itself oxidised.
Oxidation Reduction
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
Oxidising agent Reducing agent
Gains electrons, is reduced Loses electrons, is oxidised
Halogens can react with each other’s ions. These reactions can be done by
dissolving the reagents in water and mixing the solutions.
Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine

Fluoride ion - x x x
Chloride ion  - x x
Bromide ion   - x
Iodide ion    -
Look at the reaction between chlorine gas and bromide ions. We can write an
ionic equation for this reaction:
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Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
The chlorine gas has gained electrons from the bromide ions. The bromide ions
have lost electrons and become bromine. This means that the chlorine gas acted
as an oxidising agent.
But when bromine gas was tested against chloride ions, there was no reaction.
Bromine, although a strong enough oxidising agent to oxidise iodide ions, was not
a strong enough oxidising agent to take electrons from the chloride ions. From the
table above you can see that only fluorine can do that. Therefore fluorine is a
stronger oxidising agent than bromine. Some oxidising agents are stronger than
others.
The halogen order of their oxidising power is as follows:
Iodine Bromine Chlorine Fluorine

Least powerful  Oxidising agent  Most powerful
Investigating the reducing power of some metals

Three metals are used namely; copper, iron and magnesium
Adding electrons to hydrogen ions produces hydrogen atoms which bond
together to make hydrogen gas. The hydrogen ions are reduced by the metal
atoms.
Magnesium and iron reduce the hydrogen ions to hydrogen. The equations for
the reactions are:
Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2(aq)

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(aq)
With iron and with magnesium a colourless gas is given off. This gas is hydrogen.
With copper metal no gas is given off. There is no reaction. Therefore copper is a
worse reducing agent than either iron or magnesium.
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The reaction with magnesium is much more vigorous than the reaction with the
iron. This suggests that magnesium is a more powerful reducing agent than iron.
The three metals can be written in order of their reducing power, as follows:
Magnesium Iron Copper

Most powerful  Reducing agent  Least powerful
The reactivity series of the metals towards water

Metal Reducing power
Sodium Best reducing agent
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Worst reducing agent
Metals and Their ores

Name of ore Metal Contained Metal Compound Metal Ion(s)
Cinnabar Mercury Mercury (II) sulphide Hg2+
Zinc blende Zinc Zinc sulphide Zn2+
Haematite Iron Iron (II) oxide Fe3+
Chalcopyrite Copper Copper (II) iron (II) Cu2+Fe2+
sulphide
Bauxite Aluminium Aluminium oxide Al3+
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Redox Processes in Metal Production

Metal compound Reducing Process Reduced Oxidised
agent product product
Mercury (II) None Heat in air Mercury Sulphur
sulphide dioxide
Zinc sulphide Carbon Heat Zinc Carbon
dioxide
Iron (III) oxideCarbon Heat Iron Carbon
monoxide dioxide
Copper (II) Sulphur in Heat with Copper Sulphur
sulphide the ore oxygen dioxide
Aluminium oxide Electrons Electrolysis Aluminium Oxygen
(from oxide (becomes
ions) CO2)
8.3 Reactions Involving Redox

Corrosion
Corrosion occurs when a metal is oxidised. In some cases the corrosion is only a
nuisance when silver tarnishes in an atmosphere containing sulphur.
2Ag(s) + S(g) Ag2S(s)
The silver sulphide is black but can be removed by polishing the metal with a mild
abrasive.
In other cases corrosion leads to severe weakening of the metal and is both
difficult and expensive to prevent. An example is the rusting of iron. When iron
rusts it forms a compound which is a mixed oxide-hydroxide.
Experiment: To investigate the rusting of iron

Requirements
Clean iron plate about 10cm square, dilute salt solution, ferroxyl indicator, dilute
solutions of sodium hydroxide and iron (II) sulphate.
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After a while the plate looks like the

one shown above. The red areas
indicate the presence of an alkali
namely the presence of excess
hydroxide ions in the solution. The
2+
blue areas indicate the presence of iron (II) (Fe ) ions in the solution. The brown
ring formed last. It is rust, formed by the other two ions coming together.
Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2

this is then oxidised further:
Fe(OH)2 + OH- Fe(OH)3
Brown solid
Rusting of iron needs moisture and oxygen. At first iron atoms pass into solution
as Fe2+ ions quite randomly. Random blue areas are seen. The electrons are
liberated from the iron atoms:
Fe Fe2+ + 2e- (1)
The electrons travel to the outside of the drop where oxygen from the air is
available. They react with water and oxygen to make negatively-charged
hydroxide ions.
2H2O + O2 4e- 4OH- (2)
After a short time reaction 1 only goes on in the centre of the drop of solution, in
places away from the oxygen. Reaction 2 can only go on at the edges of the drop,
where oxygen is available.
The production of rust goes on between these two other areas. It needs both Fe2+
and OH- ions. Anything which will stop either reaction 1 or reaction 2 will prevent
the rust forming. Rusting needs oxygen (to form OH- ions), a clean iron surface (to
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release iron ions) and water (to transport the ions). Removing any one of these
will stop rusting.
Corrosion Prevention
1. Painting – paint prevents the access of water and oxygen as long as the paint is
not scratched. If the paint is scratched, rusting is rapid because the rust forces
its way under the exposed edges of the paint and pushes it off.
2. Oil or grease.
3. Rust preventer – usually a solution containing phosphate ions which form
insoluble iron phosphates on the metal surface and stop iron ions passing into
solution. This can be used as a primer under paint, or where paint has become
scratched and is being repaired.
4. Galvanising – this means that the iron is dipped into molten zinc so that a thin
layer of zinc is deposited on the iron surface. Zinc is more easily oxidised than
iron so the electrons needed to form the hydroxide ions come from the zinc,
not the iron.
5. Sacrificial protection- using another metal to protect the other from rusting.
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9. ELECTROLYSIS
9.1 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes
Electrolytes are very often salts. A salt is formed when some or all of the
hydrogen atoms of an acid are replaced by a metal. Salts are made up of an array
of positively charged metal ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions)
arranged in a crystal lattice. The relative numbers of cations and anions make the
lattice electrically neutral.
For example sodium chloride, NaCl is made up of sodium ions, Na+ and chloride
ions, Cl-. In sodium chloride the ions are present in equal numbers (1:1).
Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 is made up of sodium ions, Na+ and sulphate ions,SO42-.
In sodium sulphate there are two sodium ions to one sulphate ion (2:1).
The ions in a solid salt cannot move. If the salt is melted or made into a solution,
the ions separate from each other. In molten salt the ions stay close together but
in solution they become separated by large numbers of solvent molecules. (See
diagram below.)
When an electric current flows through a liquid, producing a chemical change, the
process is called electrolysis. The electrode connected to the positive side of the
DC supply is called the positive electrode or anode; the electrode connected to
the negative side of the DC supply is called the negative electrode or cathode.
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9.2 Mechanism of Electrical Transfer

When two electrodes are placed in an electrolyte and connected to a DC source,
an electric field is produced. The ions in the liquid interact with the electrical field
and experience a force accelerating them towards the electrode of the opposite
sign and repelled by the electrode of the same sign. The current pushes the
electrons around the circuit.
As the ions move towards the electrodes they have to push through the solvent
molecules which surround them. Small ions can move faster through the solution
than big ions.
When a positive ion reaches the negative electrode (cathode) it takes electrons
away from the electrode. When a negative ion reaches the positive electrode it
gives up electrons into the electron holes on the positive electrode (anode). In
both cases the ions lose their overall charge and become neutral. As many
electrons are taken from the negative electrode (cathode) as are given to the
positive electrode (anode).(See the next figure)
When the ions have lost their charge at the electrodes they may become atoms
which are stable, like the copper atom below. They may become atoms (or groups
of atoms) which are not stable and react further. The chlorine atoms shown
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forming below are an example. Chlorine atoms cannot exist alone. They combine
to form chlorine gas.
Each half of an electrolytic cell can be regarded as separate from the other. The
reaction which takes place at an electrode is called a half-cell reaction.
The half-cell reaction which occurs at the negative electrode (cathode) involves
the donation of electrons from the cathode to the ions reacting. This is a
reduction reaction. The ion reacting at the cathode is reduced. At the positive
electrode (anode) the ion gives up electrons to the electrode. This is an oxidation
reaction. The ion reacting at the anode is oxidised.
The overall chemical changes which take place during electrolysis can be found by
adding together the reactions which go on at the separate electrodes. So for the
example above:
At the negative electrode (cathode):

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s)
At the positive electrode (anode):

2Cl- 2e- Cl2(g)
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Overall:
Cu2+ + 2Cl- Cu(s) + Cl2(g)
Electrolytic and metallic conduction

In an electrolytic cell the current is carried through the cell by ions of both
charges. At the electrodes, chemical changes take place. In metallic conduction
the current is carried everywhere in the circuit by electrons. There are no
chemical changes in the metallic conductor. In both cases there is heating effect.
9.3 Examples in the laboratory

Experiment 1: To observe the products of the electrolysis of water
At the negative electrode, hydrogen gas was produced. When ignited the gas
burns with an almost invisible flame. In this experiment there is always some air
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in with the hydrogen and the gas mixture burns very quickly with a shrill “pop”.
This is used as a test for hydrogen.
At the positive electrode, oxygen gas was produced. Air contains only 20 per cent
of oxygen – enough to allow a charred splint to glow. In the pure gas the higher
concentration of oxygen makes the glowing splint burn much more quickly and it
burns into flame again. This is used as a test for oxygen.
The water has been electrolysed into hydrogen and oxygen:
2H2O 2H2O2
9.4 The Faraday Constant

The coulomb (C) is the unit of electrical charge. When an electrical current of one
ampere (A) flows for one second, one coulomb of charge flows round the circuit:
Coulombs = amperes x seconds

1C = 1As
Just as we can have one mole of atoms or ions or molecules so we can have one
mole of electrons. Knowing the charge on one electron (1.602 x 10-19C) and the
value of the Avogadro constant we can calculate the charge on one mole of
electrons.
The charge on one mole of electrons is equal to the charge on one electron
multiplied by the Avogadro constant, namely:
1.602 x 10-19 C x 6.022 x 1023 = 9.65 x 104C
This quantity, the amount of charge carried by one mole of electrons, is called the
Faraday constant (F).
Electrolysis is used in aluminium production and in electroplating.
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10. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

10.1 Proton Donors and Acceptors
Acids react with bases to give a salt and water only. Salts are substances formed
when the hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by metal ions or by ammonium
ions from a base:
acid + base salt + water
An acid can only exist in aqueous solution. It is the solution which is acidic rather
than the parent compound even though we speak loosely of nitric acid or
sulphuric acid.
An acid is a proton donor. A base is a proton acceptor.
10.2 Salts and their Preparation

Salts
A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by
metal ions or by ammonium ions.
Each acid gives rise to a series of salts named by the anion which they contain.
 Hydrochloric acid gives chlorides (sodium chloride, ammonium chloride).
 Nitric acid gives nitrates (barium nitrate, copper nitrate).
 Sulphuric acid gives sulphates (silver sulphate, iron (II) sulphate).
 Phosphoric acid gives phosphates (sodium phosphate, ammonium phosphate).
Salts which contain no replaceable hydrogen are called normal salts. Salts which
contain replaceable hydrogen are called acid salts (because when that hydrogen
is replaced they are acting like an acid).
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Methods of salt preparation

There are a number of different methods of salt preparation. Most (but not all)
involve the reaction between an acid and a base. These are shown below.
Methods of salt preparation from acids and bases

Acid Base Notes
Dilute mineral acid (*) Metal Not all metals react
Dilute mineral acid (*) Insoluble metal oxide or -
hydroxide
Dilute mineral acid (**) Alkali Includes ammonium
salts
Mineral acid (**) Metal carbonate Gives off carbon
dioxide
Concentrated mineral Any of the above May be vigorous, not
acid normally used
The steps involved depend largely on the solubilities of the reagents and
products.
In general terms they are as follows.
1. (a) Neutralise the acid with an excess of the other reactant and filter off any
excess solid reagent (marked * in the table),
(b) exactly neutralise the acid with the other reagent, (** in the table).
2. Evaporate the solution to the crystallisation point.
3. Cool to produce crystals of the salt.
4. Filter, wash and dry the crystals.
Salt Preparation by Neutralising an Acid with a Metal

When a metal reacts with an acid the atoms of the metal become ions, and the
hydrogen ions from the acid become hydrogen atoms which join together to form
hydrogen molecules. The hydrogen comes off as a gas. Most metals have a
valency of two; we can use the symbol M for any metal and write a general
equation:
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M(s) + 2H+(aq) M 2+(aq) + 2H

H + H H2
Preparation of a Crystaline Salt by Neutralising an Acid with Excess Base

Information
Copper (II) oxide reacts with dilute sulphuric acid according to the rquation:
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Explanation
As the oxide dissolves, the solution changes colour. The blue colour of the Cu2+(aq)
ion appears. If the crystals, which contain water of crystallisation, had been
evapourated to dryness, the water would have been driven off and some
decomposition would have taken place. The copper(II) oxide had all been
removed in the filter and the only other product of the reaction was water so
there was no need to rinse the crystals.
Salt Preparation by Precipitation (Double Decomposition)

Insoluble salts can be made by mixing solutions containing their separate ions.
They process is called double decompostiotion.
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Pb(NO3)2 + H2SO4  PbSO4 + 2HNO3

Pb+ + 2NO3- + 2H+ + SO42-  PbSO4(s) + 2H+ + 2NO3-
10.3 Titrations
To get more accurate results of a quantity of a salt we perform a titration.
Using a Titration to Prepare a Salt
Requirements:
Hydrochloric acid (1.0 mol/dm3), sodium hydroxide solution (about 2 mol/dm3)
bromothymol blue or other suitable indicator, pipette of suitable volume (10, 20,
or 25cm3), burette and stand, dropper, conical flask or beaker (about 100cm3).
Method: (Refer to page XXXX)
1. Titrate 20cm3 of base solution with acid.
2. Note the volume of acid needed.
3. Work out the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution.
4. Work out the volume of base solution you will need to give the desired mass of
salt.
5. From your titration value, work out what volume of acid will be needed exactly
to neutralize this volume of base.
6. Mix the two solutions and evaporate until crystals begin to form
7. Set the dish aside to crystalise, then filter off the product.
*Use titration to prepare a salt when both acid and base are soluble in water.*
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Calculation Method for Titrations

1. Calculate the number of moles of acid added from the volume used and known
concentration.
2. From the equation for the reaction work out how many moles of alkali will
react with this number of moles of acid.
3. Work out the concentration of alkali solution.
Example
This is based on using a 20cm3 pipette. The volume of acid required is shown in
the table below.
Rough titration First accurate Second accurate
titration titration
Starting volume 0.4 22.4 0.6
(cm3)
Final volume 22.4 42.0 20.2
(cm3)
Added 20.0 19.6 19.6
Volume(cm3)
1. Volume of acid needed is 19.6cm3. Concentration of acid is 1.0mol/ dm3.

19.6
Therefore moles of acid are × 1.0𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3
1000𝑑𝑚3
= 0.0196𝑚𝑜𝑙
2. The equation is:
2NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + 2H2O
so one mole of acid reacts with two moles of alkali so (0.0196 x 2) mol of
alkali were present
= 0.0392 mol alkali
3. The volume of alkali was 20cm3 so 1 cm3 of alkali contained (0.0392/20) mol,
therefore
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1000cm3 (1dm3) contained

(0.0392/20) mol x 1000
= 1.96mol
The value of Mr for NaOH is
(23 + 16 + 1) = 40
Therefore 1 mol NaOH contains 40g.
1.96mol contains 1.96g X 40g/mol
= 78.4g
and the concentration is 78.4g/dm3
10.4 Hydrolysis of Salts

Reactions with Water
Water is a reactive chemical. A reaction involving splitting a chemical has a name
ending –lysis; when this is done by water the process is called hydrolysis.
Acids and bases react to form salts and water. This process can be reversed.
When this happens we say that the salt has been hydrolysed.
Hydrolysis is the reaction of an ion or a molecule with water. When crystals of a
salt are dissolved in water the salt may be hydrolysed. As a result, the solution
may be acidic, neutral or alkaline.
Equilibrium in Hydrolysis Reactions
Weak acids and alkalis ionise to only a small extent when in solution in water.
Most of the dissolved material is in the form of molecules.
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Weak Strong
Acid CH3COOH(aq) HCl(aq)
Ethanoic Acid Hydrochloric acid
in solution CH3COOH H+, Cl-

Alkali NH3(aq) NaOH(aq)
Ammonia solution Sodium Hydroxide Solution
in solution NH4OH Na+, OH-
Strong acid, weak base:

H+ + A- + BOH ⇌ B+ + A- + H2O
Weak acid, strong base:
HA + B+ + OH- ⇌ B+ + A- + H2O
Strong acid, strong base:
H+ + OH- ⇌ H2O
Weak acid, weak base:
HA + BOH ⇌ BA + H2O
These are reversible reactions. To see the effect of dissolving the salt in water look
at each one in turn from right to left. (in reverse)
The salt of a strong acid and weak base reacts with water to give an acidic
solution because of the ionised acid and the unionised base.
The salt of a weak acid and strong base reacts with water to give an alkaline
solution because of the ionised base and the unionised acid.
The salt of a strong acid and strong base reacts with water to give a neutral
solution because of the equal number of H+ and OH- ions.
We cannot give any predictions about the salt of a weak acid and a weak base.
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10.5 Identifying anions

Test Reagent Positive observation
Carbonate (CO3 2-)
add dilute hydrochloric Dilute hydrochloric acid Colourless gas which first
acid to solution of CO3 turns lime water milky
and then clear again
Chloride (Cl-)
Add an equal volume of Silver nitrate White precipitate (which
dilute nitric acid solution(about 0.1 turns purple in the light)
mol/dm3)
Nitrate (NO3-)
To solid salt add sodium Devarda’s alloy (or Colourless gas which
hydroxide solution and aluminium powder) turns damp red litmus
heat gently paper blue (the gas is
ammonia)
Sulphate (SO42-)
Add an equal volume of Barium chloride solution White precipitate
dilute nitric acid (to (about 0.1 mol/dm3)
prevent precipitation of
barium cabonate)
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10.6 Identifying Cations
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References
pixabay.com
physicsandmathstutor.com
Curriculum development Centre’s chemistry 10 – macmillan Zambia
Scullion Family chemistry material

Wikimedia Commons
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eskulu.com
ECZ GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY SUMMARISED NOTES
(FOR 5070 & 5124) WITH QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS.
eskulu.com
G12 CHEMISTRY 0
SUMMARIZED
ESKULU ZM 4/30/18
NOTES(5070 & 5124)
This document summarizes Chemistry (5070 & 5124)) notes according to the ECZ (Examinations Council
Syllabus).
The questions and answers are adapted from actual international past exam papers.
Prepared by William N for eskulu.com
Contact +260978031524
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Contents
1. NATURE OF MATTER ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 The three states of matter .................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 The Kinetic Theory .............................................................................................................................. 7
1.3 The Kinetic Theory and The States of Matter ................................................................................... 13
2. SOLUTIONS AND CRYSTALS ..................................................................................................................... 17
2.1 Solutions............................................................................................................................................ 17
2.2 Crystals .............................................................................................................................................. 20
exam type questions with answers I ...................................................................................................... 22
3. SEPARATION TECHNIQUES ...................................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Criteria of purity ................................................................................................................................ 23
3.2 Methods of purification .................................................................................................................... 26
Exam type questions with answers II ......................................................................................................... 41
4. The Language of Chemistry ..................................................................................................................... 44
4.1 Physical and chemical changes ......................................................................................................... 44
4.2 Elements, Mixtures and Compounds ................................................................................................ 45
4.3 Symbols, valencies, formulae and equations.................................................................................... 47
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................................... 57
5.1 The composition and characteristics of atoms ................................................................................. 57
5.2 Relative atomic and molecular masses ............................................................................................. 64
6. BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF MATTER ................................................................................................ 66
6.1 Bonding of atoms .............................................................................................................................. 66
6.2 Ionic bonding..................................................................................................................................... 67
6.3 Covalent bonding .............................................................................................................................. 73
6.4 Metallic bonding ............................................................................................................................... 76
Exam type questions with answers III ................................................................................................... 77
7. ACIDS, BASES AND ALKALIS ..................................................................................................................... 81
7.1 Acids .................................................................................................................................................. 81
7.2 Bases and alkalis ............................................................................................................................... 85
7.3 pH scale and classification of oxides ................................................................................................. 90
exam type questions with answers IV ................................................................................................... 93
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8. INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ............................................................................................. 98

8.1 Organic and inorganic compounds ................................................................................................... 98
8.2 Hydrocarbons .................................................................................................................................... 99
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1. NATURE OF MATTER
1.1 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It exists in three states;
 Solids.
 Liquids.
 Gases.
STATE SHAPE VOLUME

Solid Has a definite shape. Has a fixed volume.
Liquid No definite shape. Takes shape of the Has a fixed volume.
containing vessel.
Gas No definite shape. It easily spreads and No fixed volume.
fills up the space available in a
container.
CHANGE OF STATES
MELTING
This is the changing of a substance from a solid into liquid. The temperature at
which a substance melts is called its melting point.
When a liquid changes into a solid it is said to have solidified.
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EVAPORATION (VAPORISATION)
This is the change of liquid to gas/vapour. Evaporation of water takes place even
at room temperature. Heating speeds up the process of evaporation. The
temperature at which a substance boils is called its boiling point.
Factors that affect the rate of evaporation;

 Surface area.
 Humidity.
 Wind current.
CONDENSATION
This is the process of vapour changing to a liquid.
SUBLIMATION
As ammonium chloride was heated, there were dense white fumes in the beaker.
The solid ammonium chloride changed directly into gas without forming a liquid.
On reaching the cold surface of the flask above the beaker the gaseous
ammonium chloride turned directly into solid.
The ice-cold water provides the cold surface which cools the gaseous ammonium
chloride.
Ammonium chloride is said to sublime.
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Sublimation is the change from solid to gas, or gas to solid, without forming a
liquid.
Other substances which sublime are Iodine and Ammonium sulphate.
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1.2 THE KINETIC THEORY

It states that matter is made up of small discrete particles.
DIFFUSION
This is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration, resulting in an even distribution of particles.
a.)Diffusion in gases
Requirements
Beakers, porous pot, hydrogen supply, glass tubing, coloured water, clamp and
stand.
Explanation
As the hydrogen is generated into the inverted beaker the level of coloured water
in the glass tubing steadily falls. This suggests that the pressure in the porous pot
is greater than the pressure in the atmosphere.
This excess pressure pushes down the column of water in the tube.
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WHAT CAUSED THIS EXCESS PRESSURE?
The particles of the hydrogen gas must have crossed the walls of the porous pot,
explaining the bubbling which is observed in the beaker. The porous pot contains
tiny holes in its walls. It is through these tiny holes that the hydrogen particles
passed.
The hydrogen particles in the porous pot created the excess pressure. They must
have moved from outside the porous pot to the space inside it.
This means that the particles of hydrogen are not stationary. They are in motion.
They moved from an area where they are in high concentration to an area where
they are in low concentration.
b.)Diffusion in Liquids
Requirements
Potassium dichromate (VI), Beaker, Water.
Explanation
As the crystal dissolves the colour slowly spreads through the liquid. Due to the
effect of gravity the colour first covers the bottom.
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It then slowly rises up through the liquid. Eventually the colour distributes itself
evenly throughout the liquid.
What do you learn from this? The colour shows the presence of particles of
potassium dichromate (VI). It is potassium dichromate (VI) particles which slowly
move from where they are in high concentration to where they are in low
concentration. This is diffusion in liquids. The particles first cover the bottom as
they are pulled by the force of gravity. Then they slowly move upwards and reach
all other areas.
Particles in liquids and gases are in continuous motion. The continuous motion
of one set of particles within another produces uniform mixing of gases or
liquids. Diffusion in liquids is much slower than that in gases.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water particles across a membrane from an area

where they are in high concentration to an area where they are in low
concentration.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

The rate of diffusion is the amount of gas or liquid diffusing in a unit of time. It is
affected by several factors. These factors include temperature, size of the
particles and differences in the concentration of particles.
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TEMPERATURE
The rate of diffusion increases as the temperature increases. Particles of liquids
and gases are in constant motion. This means they possess kinetic energy.
Heating increases the kinetic energy of the particles. With increased kinetic
energy the particles move at higher speeds.
PARTICLE SIZE
Requirements
Beaker, porous pot, carbon dioxide supply, glass U-tube, coloured, clamp and
stand.
Explanation
You should have observed that at the beginning the coloured water was at the
same level in both arms of the U-tube. This shows that the pressure in the porous
pot is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
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After some time, as the carbon dioxide is introduced into the beaker inverted
over the porous pot, the level of coloured water in the arm leading to the porous
pot rises and it falls in the other arm.
These results suggest that after about 20 minutes the pressure in the porous pot
falls to become less than the atmospheric pressure. Hence the rise in the level of
coloured water in the U-tube in the arm leading to the porous pot.
What causes this fall of pressure in the porous pot? The porous pot has very tiny
holes. Through these tiny holes carbon dioxide diffuses into the pot and air
diffuses out. The fall in pressure in the porous pot suggests that more air diffused
out than carbon dioxide diffused in during 20 minutes.
This means that the rate of diffusion of air is greater, the mass is also greater and
so is the weight.
Air particles are smaller than those of carbon dioxide. Generally when the size of
the particles is greater, the mass is also greater and so is the weight.
Note: Particles which are heavier move more slowly. Those which are lighter
move more quickly. Accordingly, those particles with higher speeds diffuse
faster and vice versa. Thus, the smaller the particles the faster the rate of
diffusion.
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If carbon dioxide were substituted with hydrogen in the experiment the results
would be reversed. This is because hydrogen particles are lighter than those of air
and diffuse faster.
CONCENTRATION
Diffusion is faster if there is a large difference in the concentration of particles
between two points
BROWNIAN MOTION
Requirements
Glass cell, source of smoke, lamp, microscope, lens.
Explanation
When you look through the microscope you can actually see bright specks
undergoing random motion at high speed. The specks, seen under reflected light,
do not maintain any particular direction. The random motion is due to collisions
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with air particles. The air particles knock the specks of smoke one way, then
another and so on.
This is called Brownian motion.

Brownian motion is a term used for the continuous random motion of particles,
particularly particles of gases and liquids.
PARTICLES AND THE KINETIC THEORY

These are the main points of the kinetic theory;
 The particles of which matter is made up of are in constant motion.
 The particles exert strong forces upon each other when they are in contact;
attractive forces hold the particles together and repulsive forces cause the
particles to move apart.
 The physical state assumed by a substance at ordinary conditions, that is,

whether it is solid, liquid or gas, depends mainly on the strength of the
forces holding the particles together.
 Particles of different substances have different sizes and different masses;

in general larger particles have higher mass and smaller particles lower
mass.
 The speed of motion of the particles increases as the temperature increases

and decreases as the mass increases.
1.3 THE KINETIC THEORY AND THE STATES OF

MATTER
SOLIDS
In solids the particles are closely packed together. The attractive and repulsive
forces counterbalance and the particles vibrate about their fixed positions. So
solids have a definite shape and fixed volume.
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LIQUIDS
In liquids, particles are generally slightly further apart than in solids. They can
move freely over short distances. The attractive forces are not strong enough to
hold the particles together.
A liquid can therefore flow and take the shape of the containing vessel.
A liquid has a fixed volume but no definite shape.
GASES
In gases, particles are much further apart than in solids or in liquids. They move at
very high speeds in the available space. The forces between them are negligible.
Gases have no definite shape and no definite volume.
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Note: Both gases and liquids have the ability to flow which means they can both
be described as fluids.
Property Solids Liquids Gases

Shape Have a definite shape. Have no definite Have no definite
shape. Take the shape shape. Spread to fill
of the container. space available.
Density Have higher densities Have higher densities Have densities less
than those of gases. than those of gases. than solids and
liquids.
Volume Have a definite Have a definite Volume depends on
volume. volume. size of container.
MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION
Heating a solid substance causes its particles to gain kinetic energy. As a result,
the particles vibrate faster and faster. They eventually break free from their
average fixed positions and start moving randomly just like the particles in a
liquid. Hence, the distance between the particles increases and the solid melts to
form a liquid.
The temperature at which this occurs is the melting point of the solid.
When a liquid is cooled it loses heat to the surroundings. This means, in effect,
that the kinetic energy of its particles decreases. This leads to a decrease in the
random motion of the particles and a corresponding decrease in the distance
between the particles. Eventually the attractive forces between the particles
become strong enough to hold them in a regular pattern.
Thus the substance solidifies.
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EVAPORATION AND BOILING
When a liquid is heated its particles gain kinetic energy and so they move faster
and faster. Some particles near the surface gain enough energy to break away
from the attractive forces of the other particles to the extent that they escape
into the air. This is evaporation. Eventually a temperature is reached at which so
many particles try to escape from the liquid so rapidly that bubbles of gas begin to
form inside the liquid. This is called boiling. The temperature at which this occurs
is the boiling point of the liquid.
Note: Liquids with high boiling and melting points have strong attractive forces
between the particles. Liquids with low melting and boiling points have weak
forces between the particles. These liquids easily evaporate and are said to be
volatile.
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2. SOLUTIONS AND CRYSTALS

2.1 SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS IN WATER
Requirements
Finely crushed blue copper (II) sulphate crystals, test tube, water, and spatula.
Method
Shake up a little finely crushed copper (II) sulphate with some water in a test tube.
Explanation
When blue copper (II) sulphate is shaken up with water in a test tube, the water
turns blue and the crushed copper (II) sulphate crystals are no longer visible.
The copper (II) sulphate dissolved in the water. It is said to be soluble in water.
The substance which dissolves, in this case copper (II) sulphate, is known as a
solute. The liquid in which it dissolves is known as a solvent. A solute is therefore,
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a substance which dissolves in a given solvent. A solvent is a substance in which

substances dissolve. A solution is formed when a solution dissolves in a solvent. A
solution is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture of two or more substances.
Solutions in which water is the solvent are known as aqueous solutions.

Chalk does not dissolve in water so it is said to be insoluble. The cloudy mixture of
chalk powder and water is called a suspension.
A suspension is a liquid containing small particles of solid which are spread

throughout the liquid. The particles settle down to the bottom of the container on
standing, due to the force of gravity.
Fine sand and starch powder also behave like chalk powder when shaken up with
water. These mixtures of sand and starch powder with water are non-uniform
mixtures.
Some solvents and some of their uses

Solute Solvent Use of solution
Iodine Ethanol As antiseptic on cuts and wounds
Rubber Petrol/benzene Mending tyre tubes
Paint Turpentine/kerosene Thinning paint
Pigment Water Making dyes
Caution: THESE ARE FLAMMABLE.

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MISCIBLE AND IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS

Miscible liquids are liquids that mix with each other completely. Water and
ethanol are completely miscible; therefore, they form a uniform mixture.
Liquids which do not mix with each other are known as immiscible liquids.
Examples of immiscible liquids are water and cooking oil and water and kerosene.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN WATER

The solubility of a gas in water depends on the:
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Nature of the gas
PRESSURE
An increase in pressure makes the gas more soluble.
TEMPERATURE
Gases, unlike solids, are generally more soluble in cold water. Therefore, their
solubility increases with a decrease in the temperature of the water. In fact, most
gases can be completely driven out of solution by boiling.
NATURE OF THE GAS

Most gases are soluble in water to some extent. Some, however, are more soluble
than others. As a general rule, gases that are acidic or alkaline are very soluble in
water. Examples of such gases are ammonia (alkaline), hydrogen chloride (acidic)
and sulphur dioxide (acidic). Neutral gases are only slightly soluble in water.
Examples of such gases include oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and helium.
SATURATED AND UNSATURATED SOLUTIONS

An unsaturated solution is one which is able to dissolve more solute at that
particular temperature.
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A saturated solution is one which cannot dissolve any more solute at that
particular temperature. Excess solute is present.
In most cases when a saturated solution i warmed, it becomes unsaturated and is

able to dissolve more solute. For example common salt is more soluble in hot
water than in cold water. This is true for many solid solutes. They are more
soluble in hot than in cold solvents. Examples of such substances include
potassium nitrate and potassium chloride. Some substances, however, are less
soluble in hot water. Examples include calcium sulphate and all gases.
2.2 CRYSTALS
A crystal is a solid that consists of particles arranged in an orderly and repetitive
manner resulting in a regular shape. Crystals are formed from saturated solutions.
The process of crystal formation is known as crystallisation.
Crystallisation takes place when a saturated solution is cooled, when it is

evaporated to dryness by heating or when it is allowed to evaporate slowly at
room temperature. When a saturated solution evaporates, the remaining solution
cannot hold all the solute in solution. The excess solid, therefore, settles out as
crystals.
When a saturated solution is heated to cooled fast, fairly good-sized crystals with
well-defined shapes are formed.
When a saturated solution is heated to dryness, evaporation is very fast. The

crystals formed are small and their shape is not well-defined. Gentle heating
should be used because hot liquid spurts out of the evaporating dish if it is heated
strongly. This is also called spitting.
When a saturated solution is allowed to evaporate slowly at room temperature,

the crystals formed are large and have a well-defined shape. A loose paper cover
is necessary to slow down evaporation and to prevent dust particles from
entering the solution.
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Dust particles would interfere with the process of crystallisation as the solute
would be deposited on the dust particles resulting in imperfect crystals being
formed.
HOW TO GROW CRYSTALS OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE

Requirements
Copper (II) sulphate, a small crystal of copper (II) sulphate, water, string, glass rod,
beaker.
Explanation
After a number of days, the small crystal becomes bigger. This is because as the
solvent evaporates, the solute gets deposited on all sides of the crystal. The shape
of the crystal, however, does not change. It just becomes more clearly defined. A
large crystal has, therefore, grown from a small crystal hanging in a saturated
solution. The small crystal is known as a seed crystal.
Once again, dust must be kept out of the solution to prevent unwanted
crystallisation that is crystals forming in solution other than on the seed crystal.
Crystals of many other substances can be grown in the same way.
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EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS I

*Attempt the following questions before looking at the answers*
ANSWERS
1. D
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. b
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3. SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
Certain methods are used to determine the purity of the products and to purify
those which are found to be impure. These methods are called separation
techniques.
3.1 CRITERIA OF PURITY

This refers to those physical properties which are characteristic of a pure
substance. Impure substances show variations in physical properties.
MELTING POINT
Pure substances have sharp melting points. During melting the temperature
remains constant. If there is any change in temperature during melting, it will be a
small change of between 0.5-2°C. Within this range the substance should melt
completely.
Usually a temperature – time graph is plotted. This is done by obtaining

temperature readings at different time intervals until the temperature rises some
5-10°C above the constant temperature. Such a graph will clearly show the
melting point of a substance. The figure below shows the melting point graph for
the pure substance, naphthalene.
MELTING POINT OF A PURE SUBSTANCE

The graph suddenly levels out and then sharply rises. This shows that the melting
point is sharp and indicates that the substance whose melting point is being
determined is pure.
Pure naphthalene melts at 80°C.
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MELTING POINT OF A MIXTURE

This shows that impurities affect the melting point of substances. In general,
impurities lower the melting point of substances. An impurity may also prolong
the period of melting so that, instead of a rapid change, melting is slow and over a
range of temperature.
BOILING POINT
This is the temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure of a liquid equals
the external atmospheric temperature. As a result, bubbles form in the liquid and
the temperature remains constant until all the liquid has evaporated.
As the boiling point of a liquid depends on the external atmospheric pressure,
boiling points are usually quoted for standard atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg).
Boiling points of some liquids

Substance Boiling point (°C)
Acetone 56
Ethanol 78
Benzene 80
Water 100
Toluene 111
Acetic acid 118
Tartaric acid 170
Glycerol 290
If the temperature of a boiling liquid is the same as the known temperature of the
vapour, then the liquid is pure. In general impurities raise the boiling point of a
liquid.
DENSITY
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Density is measured in
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).
mass
Density =
volume
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The density of a pure substance (solid, liquid or gas) is always constant. If the
density of the substance being determined is of the same value as that of the
pure substance, then the substance whose density is being determined is pure.
However, if the value obtained is different from that of the pure substance, then
the substance is impure. Impurities in substances lower or raise their densities.
This mainly depends on the nature and quantity of the impurities.
MELTING AND BOILING POINTS OF AN UNKNOWN SUBSTANCE
Densities Of Some Substances
Substance Density (g/cm3)

Ethanol 0.789
Water 1.0
Silicon 2.33
Zinc 7.14
Iron 7.86
Copper 8.92
Silver 10.5
Mercury 13.6
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3.2 METHODS OF PURIFICATION

SEPARATING SOLIDS FROM LIQUIDS
Filtration
Separating A Solid From A Liquid By Filtration
The method used to separate chalk from its suspension is called filtration.
Filtration is a method of separating solid particles from a fluid using a filter. The
substance which remains on the filter paper is called a residue and the clear liquid
collected after filtration is called a filtrate.
Filtration is also used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the contact process.
Sulphur dioxide, mixed with an excess of air is purified by filtration to remove
particles of dust and other impurities. Another important use of filtration is the
purification of water at the water works.
PURIFICATION OF WATER AT THE WATER WORKS

Water which is for human consumption is mainly obtained from rivers and lakes.
The water from these sources contains impurities. The mineral matter dissolved
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in it, bacteria and suspended impurities are the main types of impurity found in
the water.
Suspended impurities are removed by filtration. This is achieved by passing the

water through large filter beds made from layers of gravel and sand. The figure
below shows a model of a sand filter.
Filtration does not remove all the suspended impurities. The excess impurities
which seep through the layers of gravel and sand are removed by adding
aluminium sulphate. This causes coagulation (sticking together) of the suspended
matter and the formation of a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide which settles
out. This is a physical process called sedimentation. In order to kill bacteria, water
is sterilised by means of chlorine. Where dissolved mineral matter is injurious to
health, it is also removed. In cases where the water is acidic, lime is added to
neutralise the acid.
DECANTATION
When sand and water are shaken thoroughly, a cloudy suspension is produced.
On standing, the solid particles of sand settle down leaving a clear liquid on top.
When solid impurities in liquids settle down, the liquid can, with care, be poured
off, leaving the solids at the bottom of the container. This method is called
decantation.
One application of decantation is the separation of wine from its sediments.
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SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the term used to describe the settling down of the solid
particles in a liquid to produce a flocculent leaving a clear liquid on the top which
can be tapped off.
SEPARATING A MIXTURE BY SEDIMENTATION
Centrifuge in use
The contents of the first four test tubes do not settle down after standing for five
minutes. However the contents of the test tubes after rotating for five minutes in
a centrifuge settle down leaving a clear liquid on top. This process is called
centrifugation.
Sedimentation – test tubes on standing for five minutes
In a centrifuge, tubes containing the suspension are spun round very fast in a
metal box, so that all the solid particles are flung into a compact heap at the
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bottom of the test tubes, leaving a clear liquid on top which can then be
decanted.
The clear liquid is called the centrifuge. Centrifugation quickens sedimentation.

Centrifugation has the advantage of being faster and easier to perform and the
residue is more readily available.
Centrifugation is used in hospitals to separate the red corpuscles from the plasma
in blood.
SEPARATING LIQUIDS FROM LIQUIDS

Separating Immiscible Liquids Using A Separating Funnel
When the separating funnel is shaken vigorously the oil seems to mix with the
water. On standing, the oil and water separate forming an upper layer of oil and a
lower layer of water. With a mixture of two liquids which do not mix completely,
such as oil and water, decantation could be used to separate the mixture but the
more accurate method of separating such a mixture is by using a separating
funnel.
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A separating funnel is a piece of apparatus which is used to separate mixtures of

liquids which do not mix completely (immiscible liquids). The denser liquid forms
the lower layer and is drained off first. The remaining liquid can then be
transferred into another container.
METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES OF SOLIDS
Sublimation
Separating A Mixture Of Iodine And Common Salt By Sublimation
Separating two solids by sublimation
When a mixture of iodine and common salt is heated, the iodine changes from
solid to vapour. The vapour sublimes on the cold surface of the glass filter funnel
and the solid reappears.
It is carried out in a fume cupboard to avoid vapours of iodine spreading into the
air. Iodine vapour is poisonous.
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Iodine is separated from common salt. Heating for a long time completely
separates the two substances.
This separation is possible because one of the substances in the mixture sublimes.
This process is normally used to separate substances which sublime from those
which do not.
Ammonium chloride, naphthalene, ice below 0°C and solid carbon dioxide (dry
ice) are other examples of substances which sublime.
FLOATATION
Separating A Mixture Of Sawdust And Copper Turnings By Floatation
The sawdust floats while the copper turnings sink to the bottom of the beaker.
The sawdust can be recovered and the water decanted in order to obtain the
copper turnings. In this way sawdust is separated from copper turnings.
This method of separating mixtures is used when one component of a mixture is

denser than the liquid and the other is less dense than the liquid. Sawdust being
less dense will float and the copper turnings being denser will sink. This method
of separating mixtures is called floatation.
MAGNETISM
Separating Iron Fillings From Sawdust By Magnetism
The magnet attracts iron fillings only, leaving particles of sawdust in the petri dish.
Iron fillings have been separated from sawdust by magnetism. Hence a magnet
can be used to separate mixtures of substances if one component of the mixture
is magnetic and the other one non-magnetic.
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DISTILLATION
OBTAINING PURE WATER FROM POTASSIUM MANGANATE (VII)

SOLUTION
Distillation
The water boils and evaporates forming vapour, leaving behind potassium
manganate (VII). The water vapour passes into the condenser where it is cooled
and turned back to water which drips into the collecting beaker. Water is
separated from potassium manganate (VII) solution.
This process is called distillation. Distillation is the process of vaporising a liquid

and then condensing vapour.
The colour of the solution in the distillation flask is still the same, or even darker
after heating has stopped, because the potassium manganate (VII) does not distil.
The colourless liquid collected after distillation is called distillate.
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If boiling is likely to be irregular (a phenomenon called bumping), a few granules

of porcelain must be put in the flask to reduce bumping. They are known as anti-
bumping granules.
SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF ETHANOL AND WATER
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Fractional distillation
Ethanol has been separated from water. Ethanol and water have different boiling
points. Ethanol boils at 78°C while water boils at 100°C (at standard atmospheric
pressure). Therefore when the temperature reaches 78°C ethanol, which is more
volatile than water, boils off first. As the vapour passes through the glass beads in
the fractionating column, water vapour condenses and returns to the flask. Only
the ethanol vapour reaches the top of the fractionating column and enters the
liebig condenser where it condenses. The liquid ethanol finally collects in the
conical flask. Ethanol from the condenser when put in the spirit lamp and ignited,
burns. The other liquid, water, which remains in the round-bottomed flask, does
not burn.
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This process of separating a mixture of liquids is called fractional distillation.

This separation of a mixture of liquids depends on the difference in the boiling
points. As the temperature begins to rise beyond the boiling point of ethanol we
stop collecting the distillate to avoid collecting water.
It should be noted that the thermometer is placed at the top of the fractionating
column so that it registers the temperature of the ethanol vapour.
Fractionating column and liebig condenser

The fractionating column is a long tube filled with small glass beads. The glass
beads provide a large surface area for condensation to allow efficient separation
of the components in their mixture.
The liebig condenser is kept in the slanting position to avoid the distillate formed
by condensation from running back into the fractionating column; and also to
ensure that cold water completely surrounds the inner glass tube where the
vapour passes in order to provide maximum cooling and avoid loss of vapour.
Some industrial applications of fractional distillation:

 Separation of various components of crude oil.
 The manufacture of spirits such as whisky, rum, gin and brandy.
 Separation of liquid air into nitrogen and oxygen.
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SEPARATING SUBSTANCES BY EVAPORATION
OBTAINING A SOLUTE FROM ITS SOLUTION
The steam bath method of heating is preferred to avoid spitting of the salt which
would occur if direct heating was used.
In order to separate crystals of common salt from solution we evaporate the
solution to dryness. Solids which are soluble in water can be obtained from the
resulting solutions by using this method, known as evaporation.
SEPARATING MIXTURES OF SUBSTANCES BY PAPER

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is a technique for separating mixtures of solutes using a solvent

and a separating medium. In the case of paper chromatography the separating
medium is paper.
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SEPARATING DYES IN INK BY RADIAL PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
RADIAL PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
The particles in ink are separated from the spot in the centre and form coloured
concentric rings. This separation is called radial paper chromatography.
If the outside ring is yellow, it shows that the yellow substance is the most soluble
in the solvent. When the ethanol drips onto the ink spot, it dissolves the yellow
substance most easily and carries it the furthest way. The ethanol eventually
separates all the colours, resulting in the formation of coloured concentric rings.
Result of radial paper chromatography
ASCENDING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

The solute compounds are carried along by the solvent being continuously
absorbed by the paper and redissolved. Compounds that are strongly absorbed
tend to lag behind; compounds weakly absorbed are carried along more rapidly
by the advancing solvent. The solute compounds eventually become separated at
different levels forming coloured bands. This is called ascending paper
chromatography.
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Result of ascending paper chromatography
DESCENDING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Result of Descending Paper Chromatography
The solvent moves downwards, this is called descending paper chromatography.

The solvent descends the strip of filter paper resulting in the separation of the
components of chlorophyll. The polythene bag keeps the air saturated with
solvent vapour to reduce the evaporation of the moving solvent.
Descending paper chromatography has an advantage because as the solvent
flows down the paper by capillary action, it is aided by gravity. This speeds up the
rate of movement of particles and the coloured bands are thus formed much
more easily and faster than in ascending paper chromatography.
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FACTORS AFFECTING CHROMATOGRAPHY

Speed of the moving solvent (also known as the moving phase) depends on;
 The separating medium (also known as the stationary phase),
 The surface tension of the solvent,
 The viscosity of the solvent.
The more soluble particles in a particular solvent move faster with the solvent as
it soaks throughout the filter paper. Hence the particles move at different speeds
and so they gradually become separate.
In general, all types of chromatography involve two phases, namely the stationary
phase and the moving phase.
An absorbent material provides the stationary phase. If the stationary phase is

paper, it is called paper chromatography. The absorbent material in this case is
paper. The piece of paper used in chromatography and showing the results of the
separation, is called a chromatography.
However, paper is not the only stationary phase to be used in chromatography. A

glass tube or column packed with absorbent material, like alumina, is an
alternative that is used in descending column chromatography.
Chromatography also requires the moving phase which is the solvent. Essentially
the separation depends on the competition between the moving phase and the
stationary phase for molecules of the mixture being tested.
Rf VALUE
Rf value is the distance travelled by a given component divided by the distance
travelled by the solvent front.
WORKING OUT Rf VALUE

For example the Rf value for component A above can be shown as:
𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴

Rf (component A) = =
𝑌 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡
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For a given system of component, solvent and separating medium, at a given

temperature, the Rf value is a characteristic of the component and can be used to
identify the component whether it is on its own or in a mixture with other
substances.
APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
It can be used to identify substances. To do this, drops of several different
solutions are usually spotted on the filter paper along a line. Some of the
solutions contain known substances and others contain unknown substances. The
unknown substances are the ones to be analysed.
The figure below shows a filter paper with two spots with mixtures 1 and 2 and
three spots of known substances A, B and C. Substances A, B and C were chosen
because the mixtures 1 and 2 are suspected to contain the substance A, B or C.
After the paper has been prepared in this way, its lower end is dipped in the
solvent in a chromatography tank, taking care that the spots do not come into
direct contact with the solvent.
An experiment to identify two unknown substances by paper chromatography
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CHROMATOGRAPHY SHOWING THE RESULTS OF THE IDENTIFICATION
The paper might look like that.

The results show that the known substances are present in the unknown
substances and that the unknown substance 1 is a mixture of A and C, and the
unknown substance 2 is a mixture of A and B.
Some mixtures contain colourless substances and they produce colourless

chromatograms. The colourless components may be detected by viewing the
chromatogram under ultraviolet radiation when they may fluoresce or by
spraying the chromatogram with a substance that reacts with the components to
give them colour.
Some other applications of chromatography include:

 Identifying the flavouring components in foodstuffs,
 Separating pigments from plants,
 Separating antibiotic drugs from their growing media,
 Separating amino acids from proteins.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PURITY OF SUBSTANCES

Purity of substances such as food, drugs and water is of vital importance because
very small amounts of impurities may cause serious illness or death. The
companies processing food and manufacturing drugs check regularly to ensure
that their products are pure.
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EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS WITH

ANSWERS II
*Attempt the following questions before looking at the answers:*
1.
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(a)
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(b)
ANSWERS
1. (i) Liebig condenser.
(ii) 99.
(iii) Limonene floats on water / on top of the water.
2. C.
3. (a)
(i) fuel or making esters or antiseptic or ethanoic acid or vinegar or thermometers.
(ii) does not dissolve or does not contain dyes.
(iii) two of these;
to develop it or locating agent sample are colourless
to make them visible
(iv) any two of these;
only one spot
same position or Rf value compare with glucose
(b) C.
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4. THE LANGUAGE OF
CHEMISTRY
4.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
PHYSICAL CHANGES
Freezing, evaporation, condensation and sublimation are examples of changes of
state. Such changes are called physical change. A physical change is one which no
new substance is formed. They can easily be reversed, for example water can
change into ice and ice back into water.
When sulphur is heated, no new substance is formed. Sulphur melts, but the
molten sulphur changes back into solid on cooling. Other examples of substances
which undergo physical changes on heating are iodine, which sublimes, and
candle wax which melts and then solidifies on cooling.
CHEMICAL CHANGES
When paper burns in air, it changes into an entirely different substance-ash. This
is an example of a chemical change. A chemical change is one which a new
substance is formed. In many chemical changes, energy is given out or absorbed.
This is usually in the form of heat or light. Chemical changes cannot easily be
reversed. It is not possible to change the ash back to paper by any known means.
Magnesium changes into a white ash when it burns. This new substance is formed
as a result of magnesium chemically combining with the oxygen of the air. Since
the magnesium combines with the oxygen of the air to form white ash, we can
say that the composition of the new substance is different from that of
magnesium. The two substances differ in their physical and chemical properties.
Other examples of substances which undergo chemical changes on heating are
mercuric oxide and copper (II) carbonate. Mercuric oxide forms oxygen and
mercury, and copper (II) carbonate forms copper oxide and carbon dioxide.
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Physical Change Chemical Change

No new substance is formed. A new substance is formed.
Usually the change is reversible. Usually the change is not easily
reversible.
Usually no change is given out or Usually energy is given out or taken in.
taken in.
The mass of the substance remains The mass of the new substance is
the same. different from that of the starting
substance.
4.2 ELEMENTS, MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

ELEMENTS
An element is a pure substance which cannot be split up into two or more other
simpler substances by chemical means. Magnesium and oxygen are examples of
elements.
MIXTURES
A mixture is a substance which consists of two or more substances not chemically
combined. It is often easy to separate a mixture into its components because
each component keeps its own properties. In a mixture, the particles of each
substance remain separate and the number of each can vary.
Examples of mixtures include; iron and sulphur together, air, sugar solution and
brass. Air is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other gases. Sugar
solution is a mixture of sugar and water. Brass a mixture of zinc and copper.
COMPOUNDS
The new substance formed when iron chemically combines with sulphur is called
iron (II) sulphide.
A compound is a substance which consists of two or more elements chemically

combined. The properties of a compound are different from those of the
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individual elements. This is because a chemical change has taken place. In a

compound, the particles of the elements are combined chemically in a fixed ratio.
It is often difficult to separate a compound into its constituent elements.
Some examples of common compounds are water, common salt and sugar. Water
consists of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, common salt consists of sodium
and chlorine and sugar consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Differences between mixtures and compounds

Mixture Compound
The substances in a mixture can be The elements in a compound cannot
separated by physical means. be separated by physical means.
Energy is not usually given out or Energy (heat, light or sound) is usually
absorbed when mixing occurs. given out when a compound is formed.
The properties of a mixture (density, The properties of a compound are
colour e.t.c) are an average of those quite different from those of the
of the substances in it. elements in it.
The composition of a mixture is The composition of a compound is
variable. The substances can be fixed. The elements are combined in
present in any proportions by mass. definite proportions by mass.
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4.3 SYMBOLS, VALENCIES, FORMULAE AND

EQUATIONS
ATOMS
If an element is repeatedly divided, a tiny particle which is difficult to split up
would eventually remain. Such a particle is called an atom. An atom is the
smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical change.
MOLECULES
Gases and liquids normally occur as molecules. A molecule is the smallest particle
of an element or a compound which exists independently, that is in a free state.
Molecules can be thought of to be of three types. The first type consists of those
elements in which a single atom forms the molecule. These molecules are called
monoatomic. Examples of elements which form molecules from single atoms are
gases such as helium, neon and argon which are known as the noble gases.
The second type of molecule consists of atoms of the same element combined
together. These molecules are called diatomic. Single atoms of these elements do
not occur in a free state. Examples of elements, each of which has two of its
atoms combined to form a molecule, include oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and
chlorine.
The third type of molecule consists of atoms of different elements combined

together. Here the atoms form molecules of compounds. Examples of such
molecules include carbon dioxide, water and sugar.
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SYMBOLS
A chemical symbol of an element is a letter or letters derived from the name of
the element. It represents one atom of the element.
A symbol is, in some cases, the first letter of the English name of the element
written in capital form. Examples of such are:
Boron B Hydrogen H Oxygen O

Carbon C Iodine I Phosphorus P
Fluorine F Nitrogen N Sulphur S
Others consist of two letters. Each symbol of these consists of a capital of the first
letter and a small letter from the name of the element. Examples are:
Aluminium Al Calcium Ca Neon Ne

Argon Ar Chlorine Cl Silicon Si
Barium Ba Magnesium Mg Zinc Zn
Bromine Br Manganese Mn Zirconium Zr
VALENCY (COMBINING POWER)

The names of compounds can only be written in short hand if the combining
power of the elements is known. The combining power is known as the valency.
The valency of an element may be defined as the number of hydrogen atoms

which will combine with or displace one atom of the element. It is usually a small
whole number and indicates an element’s power of combining with other
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elements to form compounds. Hydrogen is assigned a standard valency of one, so

it then becomes easy to work out the valencies of the other elements.
For instance, since one atom of chlorine will combine with one atom of hydrogen
to form the compound hydrogen chloride, the valency of chlorine is one. Similarly,
two atoms of hydrogen will combine with one atom will combine with one atom
of oxygen to form water and so the valency of oxygen is two.
Some elements, however, have variable valencies. They have different valencies
under different conditions. Copper and iron exhibit variable valencies. The valency
of copper can be one or two and the valency of iron can be two or three. For this
reason, when copper and iron form compounds, the valency of the copper or iron
is indicated in brackets in the name of the compound. For instance, copper
combines with oxygen to form copper (I) oxide and copper (II) oxide. Iron
combines with chlorine to form iron (II) chloride and iron (III) chloride.
Valencies of common elements

Valency Metals Non-metals
Name Symbol Name Symbol
1 Potassium K Chlorine Cl
Silver Ag Hydrogen H
Sodium Na
Copper(I) Cu
2 Barium Ba Oxygen O
Calcium Ca Sulphur S
Copper(II) Cu
Iron(II) Fe
Lead(II) Pb
Magnesium(II) Mg
Mercury Hg
Zinc Zn
3 Aluminium Al Nitrogen N
Iron(III) Fe Phosphorus(III) P
4 Lead(IV) Pb
5 Phosphorus P
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RADICALS
A radical is a group of atoms which is present in several compounds but is
incapable of independent existence. The sulphate radical is one example.
All sulphates contain the sulphate radical, SO4. The sulphate radical has a valency
of two. Some compounds containing the sulphate radical are:
Sodium sulphate Na2SO4

Iron (II) sulphate FeSO4
Zinc sulphate ZnSO4
Copper (II) sulphate CuSO4
Radicals and their valencies

Radical Formula Valency
Ammonium NH4
Chlorate ClO3
Chloride Cl
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 1
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4
Hydroxide OH
Nitrate NO3
Nitrite NO2
Carbonate CO3
Oxide O
Sulphate SO4 2
Sulphide S
Sulphite SO3
Phosphate PO4 3
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The ammonium radical, NH4 forms compounds similar to the compound of

potassium and sodium.
CHEMICAL FORMULAE
A chemical formula consists of a symbol or symbols showing the number of atoms
in one molecule of an element or a compound. There are basically two types of
formula. One represents one molecule of an element and the other represents
one molecule of a compound.
Most of the elements that are gases consist of molecules each containing two
atoms. The molecules of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine are all of this
type. One molecule of each of these elements is represented by the symbol of the
element with, at the bottom right-hand side of the symbol, a small subscript digit
showing the number of atoms in the molecule.
HYDROGEN
 H represents one atom of hydrogen.
 H2 represents one molecule of hydrogen with two atoms combined.
 2H represents two separate atoms of hydrogen.
 2H2 represents two molecules of hydrogen each containing two atoms.
NITROGEN
 N represents one atom of nitrogen.
 N2 represents one molecule of nitrogen with two atoms combined.
 3N represents three atoms of nitrogen.
 3N2 represents three molecules of nitrogen each containing two atoms.
The same system is used to represent a molecule of a compound.
MOLECULES OF COMPOUNDS
 H2O represents one molecule of water in which two atoms of hydrogen are
combined with one atom of oxygen.
 2CO2 represents two molecules of carbon dioxide each having one atom of
carbon combined with two atoms of oxygen.
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 3CaCO3 represents three molecules of calcium carbonate each having one

atom of calcium combined with one atom of carbon and three atoms of
oxygen.
 4Na2SO4 represents four molecules of sodium sulphate each having two atoms
of sodium combined with one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen,
The large digit in front of the formula is used to show the number of molecules of
a compound or element involved in a reaction. This digit is a multiplier for the
whole formula and not just for the first element in the formula, for example
4Na2SO4 contains:
Na 4 x 2= 8 atoms
S 4 x 2= 4 atoms
O 4 x 4= 16 atoms
WRITING FORMULAE
Writing correct formulae for substances is simple when the valencies of the
elements and radicals are known. Any formula can be written by following three
simple steps. For example the formulae for calcium chloride and sodium
carbonate may be written by following these steps.
1. Write the symbols for the combining elements and radicals.

Ca Cl Na CO3
2. Write the valency of each element or radical at its top right-hand side.
Ca2 Cl1 Na1 CO32
3. Rewrite the symbols and formulae and exchange the valencies of the
combining elements and radicals by writing them at the bottom right-hand
side of the element or radical. If the number is ‘1’ do not write it.
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Ca2 Cl1 becomes CaCl2

Na1 CO32 becomes Na2CO3
Sometimes formulae can be written in the simplest way e.g. in the case of calcium
and oxygen which have a valency of two. It would be written as Ca2O2 but it has a
common factor of two so the formula will be CaO, which is used for calcium oxide.
In some formulae, radicals can be written in brackets followed by a small

subscript digit. This is how the formula for calcium hydroxide is written in three
simple steps:
1. Ca − OH
2. Ca2 − OH1
3. Ca(OH)2
Two hydroxide (−OH) groups are present in calcium hydroxide. To make this
clear the –OH group is placed in brackets followed by a small subscript ‘2’ at the
bottom right-hand side of the brackets. Ca(OH)2 is the same as CaO2H2 as the
subscript ‘2’ multiplies everything inside the brackets. Ca(OH)2 shows more
clearly than CaO2H2 that two hydroxide groups are present in the formula which is
why we write it this way.
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical changes, which are usually called chemical reactions, can be
represented by equations. An equation is a chemical sentence which describes
what is going on in a chemical reaction. The substances that take part in a
reaction are called reactants and are written on the left-hand side of the
equation. The new substances formed by the reaction are called products and are
written on the right-hand side of the equation.
reactants form products

A + B → C + D
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The plus sign on the left-hand side of the equation means ‘reacts with’ and on the
right-hand side it means ‘and’. The reactants and products are separated by an
arrow → which means ‘to form’. Of course a reaction takes place only if the
conditions, for example temperature, are suitable.
STATE SYMBOLS
For completeness there is a need to show the physical states of the substances
involved in a chemical reaction. This is done by placing a small letter or letters in
brackets after the name of each substance in the equation.
Solids have (s) written after them. If a substance is a liquid, (l) is put after it,
and if it is a gas, (g) is used. If a substance is dissolved in water (aq) is the
symbol used. It stands for ‘in aqueous solution’. These letters, used to denote
the physical states of substances are known as state symbols.
WORD EQUATIONS
Equations may be written in words. Such equations are called word equations.
For instance, the word equation, including state symbols, for a reaction may be
written as: ‘iron(s) + sulphur(s) → iron(II) sulphide(s)’.
This equation is a short way to describe the reaction ‘solid iron reacts with solid
sulphur to form solid iron(II) sulphide’. All chemical reactions can be represented
by word equations. Word equations can be written for all the reactions referred
to so far in this unit, as follows:
 magnesium(s) + oxygen(g) → magnesium oxide(s)
 mercuric oxide(s) → mercury(l) + oxygen(g)
 dilute hydrochloric acid(aq) + iron(s) → iron(III) chloride(aq) + hydrogen(g)
 hydrogen(g) + oxygen(g) → water(g)
 dilute hydrochloric acid(g) + iron(II) sulphide(s) → iron(II) chloride(aq) +
hydrogen sulphide(g) + sulphur(s) + water(g)
 hydrogen sulphide(g) + oxygen(g) → sulphur(s) + water(g)
EQUATIONS USING SYMBOLS

Word equations such as these are not complete because they do not show the
actual numbers of atoms involved in a chemical reaction. If we were to write the
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numbers of atoms in words the word equations would become rather long so
instead of using words, chemical symbols and formulae may be used. This is a
more convenient and shorter way to describe a chemical reaction and it is also
more complete as it shows the actual numbers of atoms involved in the chemical
reaction.
The reaction ‘hydrogen burns in oxygen to produce water vapour’ may be written
using symbols and formulae:
H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g)
This equation may be illustrated in a diagram to show clearly the numbers of

hydrogen and oxygen atoms on both sides of the equation:
H−H + O−O → H−O−H
Both the equation and the diagram may appear to be a complete way of
describing the reaction, but this is not so. Let us look at the numbers of the
hydrogen and oxygen atoms on the left-hand and right-hand sides of the
equation:
left right
number of hydrogen atoms 2 2
number of oxygen atoms 2 1
Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction so all the atoms

present at the beginning of a reaction must still be there at the end. No new
atoms can appear and none can disappear.
This means that the number of each kind of atom in a chemical reaction must be
the same on the left and on the right-hand sides of the equation. So our equation
is unbalanced and we must think again.
BALANCING EQUATIONS
The number of hydrogen atoms should equal on both sides of the equation.
Similarly, the number of oxygen atoms should be equal on both sides of the
equation. This is achieved by writing whole number multiples in front of the
symbols and formulae as fractions of atoms and molecules do not exist. The
complete equation for the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen becomes:
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2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
The equation has four hydrogen and two oxygen atoms on the left-hand side and
on the right-hand side.
This process of making the number of each type of atom equal on both sides of
the equation is called balancing the equation.
The balanced equation may also be illustrated as shown below:
H−H H−O−H
+ O−O →
H−H H−O−H
The numbers of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on the left-hand and right-hand
sides of the equation can again be compared with ease, as follows:
left right
number of hydrogen atoms 4 4
number of oxygen atoms 2 2
The following steps are used to write chemical equations for example the reaction
between magnesium and oxygen to produce magnesium oxide.
1.Write the correct symbols and formulae for the reactions and products.
Mg + O2 → MgO
2. Count the numbers of each type of atom on both sides of the equation and
then write the smallest whole number multiple in front of the symbols and
formulae in order to balance the equation. Since we have two oxygen atoms on
the left-hand side and need two on the right-hand side, we must have two
magnesium atoms and two molecules of magnesium oxide.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
3. Check that the number of each type of atom is equal on the left and right-hand
sides of the equation.
left right
Mg 2 2
O 2 2
4. To complete the picture, indicate the state of each substance in the equation.
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s)
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
5.1 THE COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF ATOMS
PARTICLES IN AN ATOM
Atoms are made up of three fundamental particles. These are the proton, the
neutron and the electron.
An atom has a central body, the nucleus which is made up of protons and
neutrons.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus like planets around the sun. The paths taken
by electrons are referred to as shells.
Each of the three fundamental particles of an atom differs from the others by
possessing certain characteristics in terms of mass and electrical charge.
The proton has a unit positive electrical charge and a mass of 1. The neutron has
no charge and its mass is almost equal to that of a proton such that it is also taken
as being 1. The electron has a unit negative charge and has approximately 1840
electrons have the same mass as one proton, electrons are said to have negligible
mass.
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Characteristics of atomic particles

Particle Mass (a.m.u.) Charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 Neutral
1
Electron -1
1840
The value of 1 for the mass of a proton or neutron is an arbitrary unit known as
the atomic mass unit (a.m.u.). It represents the relative masses of the proton,
neutron and electron and therefore is a ratio. It has no unit.
Atoms are electrically neutral. They have no overall charge. This is because the
number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons.
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

The atoms of each element have a characteristic number of protons in their
nucleus. The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number (Z) of the
element.
Since atoms are electrically neutral, the atomic number is also equal to the
number of electrons around the nucleus of an atom:
atomic number= number of protons= number of electrons
It is also very useful to remember that protons and neutrons have almost equal
masses. Protons and neutrons make up most of the mass of an atom, which
means the greater part of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
The greater the number of protons and neutrons in an atom, the greater the mass
of the atom. The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called the
mass number (A) of the atom.
If the number of neutrons is represented as N, the mass number of an atom can

be calculated using the formula:
A=Z+N
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or:
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
EXAMPLE
Sodium has atomic number 11. If sodium has 12 neutrons, calculate the mass
number of sodium.
A =Z+N
= 11 + 12
= 23
The mass number of sodium is 23.

The atomic numbers and mass numbers of the first 20 elements are shown below.
Atomic and mass numbers

Element Atomic number (Z) Mass number (A)
Hydrogen 1 1
Helium 2 4
Lithium 3 7
Beryllium 4 9
Boron 5 11
Carbon 6 12
Nitrogen 7 14
Oxygen 8 16
Fluorine 9 19
Neon 10 20
Sodium 11 23
Magnesium 12 24
Aluminium 13 27
Silicon 14 28
Phosphorus 15 31
Sulphur 16 32
Chlorine 17 35
Argon 18 40
Potassium 19 39
Calcium 20 40
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Nuclides
The atomic number and mass number of an atom are sometimes written together
with the symbol of the element. This represents a nuclide.
A nuclide consists of a symbol with the atomic number in front of the symbol and
just below it and the mass number also in front and just above the symbol. Thus
a nuclide is represented as AZX where X is the symbol of the element.
For instance, the sodium and magnesium nuclides may be written as:
23 Na and
11
24
12 Mg
respectively.
ISOTOPES
These are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons. Hence isotopes have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers.
The mass number of an isotope is usually quoted to distinguish it from other

isotopes. The two isotopes of chlorine-35, which has 18 neutrons and chlorine-37,
which has 20 neutrons.
Many elements occur with several isotopes. Carbon has three isotopes namely,
carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14. The carbon-12 isotope has six protons and
six neutrons in its nucleus, the carbon-13 has six protons and seven neutrons in its
nucleus and the carbon-14 isotope has six protons and eight neutrons in its
nucleus.
Three isotopes of hydrogen are known to exist. These are hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2
and hydrogen-3. The hydrogen-1 isotope, also called ordinary hydrogen, has one
proton and no neutrons. The hydrogen-2 isotope, also called deuterium, has one
proton and one neutron in its nucleus. Deuterium combines with oxygen to form
a compound called heavy water. The third isotope of hydrogen, hydrogen-3,
which is also called tritium, has one proton and three neutrons in its nucleus.
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USES OF ISOTOPES
Isotopes have a wide range of uses. Hydrogen isotopes are important in the study
of nuclear energy. Some isotopes are artificially made by firing neutrons or
protons at elements.
These usually emit radioactive rays and are called radioisotopes. They are used
as tracers to investigate such things as the flow of liquids in chemical plants and
for the study of wear of machines.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM

Electrons are arranged in a definite pattern in an atom. They lie along rings or
shells around the nucleus. The shells are assigned the letters K, L, M, and so on.
Forces of attraction exist between the electrically charged protons and electrons.
These are called electrostatic forces and they prevent the electrons from drifting
away from the rest of the atom.
The electrostatic forces of attraction in an atom increase as the distance between

the nucleus and electrons decreases. Those nearest to the nucleus are held
strongly and are very stable so more energy is required to pull these electrons
away from the nucleus.
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Shells of electrons have different levels of energy. So these electron shells are
called energy levels.
Generally, the maximum number of electrons that can fill a shell is given by the
formula 2n2 where n is the number of the shell.
Numbers of electrons in shells K, L and M

Letter of shell K L M
Number of shell 1 2 3
2n2 2 x 12 2 x 22 2 x 32
Maximum number of 2 8 18
electrons
An easier way to draw electron shells is by drawing electron configuration

diagrams. They can also be written numerically.
STRUCTURES OF NOBLE GASES

The elements helium, neon and argon are called noble gases. They have one
similarity which is that each atom of these elements has a completely filled
outermost shell.
Noble gases are highly unreactive as a result of this stability.
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Electronic configuration for the first 20 elements

Element Symbol Atomic number E.C
HYDROGEN H 1 1
HELIUM He 2 2
LITHIUM Li 3 2,1
BERYLLIUM Be 4 2,2
BORON B 5 2,3
CARBON C 6 2,4
NITROGEN N 7 2,5
OXYGEN O 8 2,6
FLUORINE F 9 2,7
NEON Ne 10 2,8
SODIUM Na 11 2,8,1
MAGNESIUM Mg 12 2,8,2
ALUMINIUM Al 13 2,8,3
SILICON Si 14 2,8,4
PHOSPHORUS P 15 2,8,5
SULPHUR S 16 2,8,6
CHLORINE Cl 17 2,8,7
ARGON Ar 18 2,8,8
POTASSIUM K 19 2,8,8,1
CALCIUM Ca 20 2,8,8,2
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5.2 RELATIVE ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASSES

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (AR)
The relative atomic mass Ar of an element is the number of times that the mass
1
of one atom of the element is greater than the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
12
For instance, the relative atomic mass of oxygen is 16 and this means that oxygen
1
has a mass 16 times heavier than of the mass of carbon. Notice that as the
12
relative atomic mass is a ratio it has no units. Most elements are composed of
two or more naturally-occurring isotopes. Some isotopes of a given element are
more abundant than others.
For example, chlorine contains approximately 75 per cent of an isotope with mass
number 35 and approximately 25 per cent of an isotope with mass number 37.
Consequently the relative atomic mass of a sample of chlorine is:
75 25
x 35 + x 37 = 26.25 + 9.25 = 35.5
100 100
So the relative atomic mass of chlorine given in tables is 35.5. Clearly, this value is
closer to 35, the mass number ofchlorine-35, which is the more abundant isotope.
Similarly, the relative atomic mass of naturally-occurring carbon which is

composed mainly (98.89 per cent) of carbon-12 and 1.11 per cent of carbon-13 is:
98.89 1.11
x 12 + x 13 = 12.01
100 100
RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS (MR)

The relative molecular mass (Mr) of an element or compound is the mass of one
1
molecule of that element or compound compared with of the mass of an atom
12
of carbon-12.
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To find the relative molecular mass, the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in
the formula are added up.
Calculating relative molecular mass

Name of compound Formula Relative molecular mass (Mr)
Hydrogen chloride HCl 1xH = 1x 1 = 1
1 x Cl = 1 x 35.5 = 35.5
36.5
Water (hydrogen oxide) H2O 2xH =2x1 = 2
1xO = 1 x 16 = 16
18
Carbon dioxide CO2 1x C = 1 x 12 = 12
2xO = 2 x 16 = 32
44
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 2 x Na = 2 x 23 = 46
1xC = 1 x 12 = 12
3xO = 3 x 16 = 48
106
Aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3 2 x Al = 2 x 27 = 54
3xS = 3 x 32 = 96
12 x O = 12 x 16 = 192
342
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6. BONDING AND STRUCTURE

OF MATTER
6.1 BONDING OF ATOMS

Atoms combine with each other by forming bonds and this combination is known
as bonding.
WHY DO ATOMS FORM BONDS?

Atoms of some elements have incompletely filled outermost shells, and as a
result, these atoms are unstable and therefore, reactive. They react with one
another in order to acquire full outermost shells like those of the noble gases.
Atoms of elements can acquire a full outermost shell by losing or gaining

electrons and also by sharing electrons when they react with each other. When an
atom loses or gains electrons it becomes an ion.
ELECTRONS AND VALENCY OF ELEMENTS

The number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is closely related to
the valency of an element.
For example, the electronic configuration of the element sodium (Na) is 2,8,1. The
valency of this element is 1, because it has only one electron in the outermost
shell. Magnesium (Mg) has the electronic configuration 2,8,2 and its valency is 2.
Sometimes the valency of an element may be equal to the maximum number in a

shell minus the number of the outermost electrons. For example, Oxygen has six
electrons in its outermost shell (2,6). It has a valency of (8-6) = 2.
The valency of an element determines the number of bonds that an element can
form.
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6.2 IONIC BONDING

STRUCTURE OF SODIUM CHLORIDE
Sodium has the electronic configuration 2, 8, 1. It has one electron in its
outermost shell. It can attain a full outermost shell by losing this single electron to
another atom. When this happens, a sodium ion is formed.
The ion is positively charged and has the symbol Na+. The formation of the sodium
ion can be expressed as the ionic half reaction:
Na – e → Na+
An example showing a gain of electrons is chlorine. This element has the

electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.It can attain a full outermost shell by gaining one
electron from another atom. When this happen it becomes a chloride ion. It is
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negatively charged because it has one more electron than proton. Its symbol is Cl-
Na+ and Cl- are charged particles because they have unequal numbers of protons
and electrons. They are now ions and are formed by lose or gain of electrons.
The sodium ion (Na+) and the chloride ion (Cl-) are unreactive because they have
full outermost shells. But because they are charged, an electrostatic force of
attraction is created.
This results in an electrovalent or ionic bond between the two oppositely charged
ions. An electrovalent bond, is therefore, formed by the transfer of electrons. It
takes place between metals and non-metals. The metal loses electrons while the
non-metal gains electrons.
When sodium and chlorine combine, they form NaCl. There is one sodium ion for
each chloride ion hence the compound is neutral. This reaction can be expressed
by the ionic equation:
Na+ + Cl- → NaCl
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STRUCTURE OF MAGNESIUM OXIDE

During reaction, magnesium loses its two outermost electrons to form a
magnesium ion with a charge of +2. Oxygen gains the two electrons lost by
magnesium to fill its outermost shell. An oxide ion with a charge of -2 is formed.
The oppositely charged ions attract each other and form a neutral compound,
magnesium oxide. This compound has the formula MgO.
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Magnesium oxide.
STRUCTURE OF CALCIUM CHLORIDE

Calcium loses two electrons in the outermost shell. These two electrons are
gained by two chlorine atoms because each chlorine atom can gain only one
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electron to form a chloride ion. Each calcium atom reacts with two chlorine atoms
to form calcium chloride, CaCl2.
Calcium chloride
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IONIC LATTICES
Sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and calcium chloride are examples of ionic
compounds. These have giant ionic structures or lattices. In the sodium chloride
lattice, each sodium is surrounded by six chloride ions while each chloride ion is
also surrounded by six sodium ions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC/ELECTROVALENT COMPOUNDS

 They are made up of positively charged and negatively charged ions.
 In aqueous solution and in molten state, they conduct electricity.
 They are soluble in water but are insoluble in organic solvents such as ethanol.
 They are non-volatile and are generally solids at room temperature.
 They have high melting and boiling points.
 The high melting and boiling points are due to the strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between the ions. Breaking such strong bonds requires great
energy. Because of these high boiling and melting points some of these
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compounds are used in industry to line furnaces, for example calcium oxide,
which has a melting point of 2614°C.
Melting points and boiling points of some ionic compounds

Compound Melting point °C Boiling point °C
Sodium iodide 647 1227
Magnesium chloride 714 1407
Sodium chloride 801 1467
Lithium fluoride 867 1667
6.3 COVALENT BONDING

This is the type of bond formed by the sharing of electrons. It is also known as a
molecular bond. It consists of a shared pair of electrons and is formed between
non-metallic elements which share one or more pairs of electrons.
The covalency of an atom is the number of electrons it shares with other atoms.
SOME COVALENT MOLECULES AND HOW THEY ARE FORMED
HYDROGEN
A hydrogen atom has only one electron. When two hydrogen atoms combine,
they share electrons. It has the formula H2.
The shared pair of electrons in a hydrogen molecule can also be shown as:
H:H or H−H
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WATER
Water has the formula H2O. In each molecule, an oxygen atom shares electrons
with two hydrogen atoms so that all atoms obtain full outermost shells.
A molecule of water can also be shown as:

H : O : H or H−O−H
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon atom acquires a full outermost shell by sharing electrons with two oxygen
atoms. Since each covalent bond consists of two pairs of electrons, a double
covalent bond is formed.
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A molecule of carbon dioxide can also be shown as:

O :: C :: O or O = C = O
Two pairs of electrons are shared between a carbon atom and each oxygen atom.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

 They are made up of molecules.
 They have low melting and boiling points.
 The low melting and boiling points are due to the fact that the forces holding
the molecules together are weak. Hence not much energy is required to
separate them.
 They are usually insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents such as
petrol and ethanol.
 They do not conduct electricity in solid or molten state.
 They are volatile.
Melting and boiling points of some covalent compounds

Compound Melting point °C Boiling point °C
Oxygen -218 -183
Chlorine -101 -35
Water 0 100
Naphthalene 80 218
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6.4 METALLIC BONDING

Atoms of metals acquire a full outermost shell by losing electrons. Sodium atoms,
for example, lose a single electron from the outermost shell. When a large
number of sodium atoms lose these electrons, the result is many free electrons.
The sodium ions which are positively charged, repel each other but they are held
together by the negatively charged free electrons between them. The attractive
forces between the electrons and the sodium ions are greater than the repulsive
forces between the sodium ions.
The electrons are free to move anywhere in the metallic lattice. They are said to
be delocalised. The attraction between the electrons and the positively charged
ions is known as metallic bonding.
Note: The presence of free electrons makes metals good conductors of electricity.
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EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS III

*Attempt the following questions before looking at the answers.*
1. (a) Magnesium is an element. It has an atomic number of 12 and the main
isotope of magnesium has a mass number of 24.
(i) Define the term “atomic number”

_______________________________________________________ [1]
(ii) What are isotopes?
_______________________________________________________[2]
(iii) How many neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom of

magnesium?
________________________________________________________[1]
(b) Graphite, like calcium oxide, has a high melting point yet its structure is
very different from calcium oxide. Describe the bonding in graphite.
_______________________________________________________ [3]
(c) (i) Barium is a typical Group II element. Complete the table below to show
the formulae of the compounds named. [3]
Name Of Compound Formula of Compound
Barium Oxide
Barium Chloride
Barium Sulphate
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(ii) Using your knowledge of the Periodic Table, predict whether

barium will react more vigorously or less vigorously than calcium.
Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________ [2]
(iii) Write a balanced, symbol equation to show how barium reacts with
cold water.
______________________________________________________ [2]
d) Carbon and silicon are elements in group IV of the Periodic Table.
They have similar properties and form compounds with similar formulae.
Methane and silane are compounds of the group IV elements with
hydrogen.
(i) Suggest a formula for silane.
______________________________________________________ [1]
(ii) Draw a diagram to show how atoms of carbon and hydrogen bond to
form a molecule of methane. Only outer shell electrons need to be
shown.[4]
(iii) Describe the structure of quartz.
______________________________________________________ [2]
(iv) Describe fully why quartz has a high melting point.[3]
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ANSWERS
1.(a)(i)Number of protons (in the nucleus)
(ii) Atoms of the same element/same atomic number of protons [1] with
different mass numbers/different numbers of neutrons [1]
(iii) 12
(b) Layered structure [1] each carbon covalently bonded [1] to three [1] other
carbon atoms weak forces between the layers [1] Max [3] / [4].
For a diagram only the marks can be awarded for two or more layers [1] two or
more hexagons [1] labelled weak bonds drawn between the layers
(c)(i)
Name Of Compound Formula of Compound
Barium Oxide BaO
Barium Chloride BaCl2
Barium Sulphate BaSO4
(ii) Barium will react more vigorously [1] (than calcium). Barium is below
Ca in Group II/the reactivity increases as the group is descended [1]
(iii) Ba + 2H2O → Ba(OH)2 + H2 [2]
(d)(i) SiH4
(ii) 1 C and 4 H atoms [1]
4 electrons in outer shell of C atom [1]
1 electron in outer shell of each H atom [1]
2 electrons in each bond [1]
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(iii) Each silicon atom bonded to 4 oxygen atoms [1] each oxygen atom
bonded to 2 silicon atoms [1] (Max [2])
(iv) Large amount of energy [1] needed to break [1] strong bonds[1]
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7. ACIDS, BASES AND ALKALIS

7.1 ACIDS
An acid is a substance which, when dissolved in water, produces hydrogen ions
(H+) as the only positively charged ions. It is the hydrogen ion that gives an acid its
properties. They have a sour taste.
For example, when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, it produces hydrogen

ions (positively charged) and chloride ions (negatively charged). This can be
shown by:
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
The aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride in this equation, is called hydrochloric

acid. It takes the form of ions. The process in which ions are formed is referred to
as ionisation.
Common acids
Name of acid Formula
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Phosphoric (V) acid H3PO4
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Each acid in the table ionises in aqueous solution producing hydrogen ions and
negatively charged ions
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THE EFFECT OF DILUTE ACIDS ON INDICATORS

Blue litmus paper and methyl orange, turn red in dilute acids, bromothymol blue
turns yellow whereas phenolphthalein becomes colourless. Substances such as
these, which show particular colour change in an acidic or alkaline medium are
called indicators.
The indicators show characteristic colour changes, in solutions of different acids.
The colours described are the characteristic colours of the indicators in dilute
solutions of acids. Blue litmus paper turns red in ethanoic acid.
Acids found in some common substances

Name of substance Acid contained
Orange juice Citric acid
Lemon juice Citric acid
Lime juice Citric acid
Grape juice Tartaric acid
Sour milk Lactic acid
Rancid butter Butanoic acid
Vinegar Ethanoic acid
Olive oil Oleic acid
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
A strong acid is one which ionises completely in aqueous solution. In this case
ionisation is complete:
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
A weak acid, on the other hand is one which is partially ionised in aqueous
solution. In such a case the ionisation is reversible and this is indicated by the sign
⇌
The sign in the equation below means an aqueous solution of ethanoic acid
consists of molecules and ions at the same time. That is ethanoic acid is a weak
acid.
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH2COO-(aq)
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Other examples of weak acids are carbonic acid (H2CO3), phosphoric (v) acid
(H3PO4) and organic acids in general.
BASICITY OF AN ACID
The basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions that can be formed from
one molecule of that acid. The basicity of sulphuric acid is two since two hydrogen
ions are formed when one molecule of sulphuric acid ionises in solution.
Basicities of common acids

Acid Formula Basicity
Hydrochloric acid HCl 1
Nitric acid HNO3 1
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH 1
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 HNO3 2
Carbonic acid H2CO3 2
Phosphoric (V) acid H3PO4 3
TYPES OF ACIDS
There are two classes. These are mineral acids and organic acids.
Mineral acids are prepared from minerals obtained from the earth. Some
examples include hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acid.
Organic acids are prepared from organic sources such as plants. Vinegar contains
ethanoic acid and this gives vinegar its characteristic smell and taste. It is used as
an antiseptic and for flavouring and preserving foods.
DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF DILUTE ACIDS ON METALS

When zinc or magnesium metal was added to the acids, there was a vigorous
reaction and a gas was given off. On testing with a burning splint, a ‘pop’ sound
was produced indicating that the gas given off was hydrogen.
When copper metal was added to the acids, however, there was no reaction and
no gas was given off. As a result no ‘pop’ sound was produced when a burning
splint was brought near the mouth of the test tube.
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From these results, it can be seen that some but not all metals displace hydrogen
from dilute acids, for example, copper metal does not. It depends on the
reactivity of the metals.
The reactive metals for example sodium, magnesium, aluminium and zinc
displace hydrogen from acids. The less reactive metals such as copper, mercury
and silver do not displace hydrogen from acids.
The reaction which takes place between zinc metal and dilute hydrochloric acid
can be represented by the following equation:
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(aq)
This reaction can be rewritten, as follows, to show the ions present in solution
and how they interact:
Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) → Zn2+( aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + H2(aq)
If we leave out ions that appear on both sides of the equation, we remain with
the following equation:
Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + H2(aq)
This is called the ionic equation of the reaction. An ionic equation of a reaction is
very useful because it shows only the particles taking part in the reaction. Those
ions which do not take part in the reaction (the Cl- ions in this case) are called
spectator ions.
The reaction between magnesium metal and dilute hydrochloric acid can be
written as follows:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The ionic equation for this reaction is:
Mg(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + H2(g)
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EFFECTS OF ACIDS ON CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES

The addition of dilute hydrochloric acid to calcium carbonate or sodium hydrogen
carbonate causes effervescence to take place. This is the name of the effect when
a gas is produced very fast with the formation of many bubbles. The gas produced
is carbon dioxide which extinguishes a lighted splint and turns lime water milky.
The reactions taking place can be represented by the following equations:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ionically these can be written as:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NaHCO3(s) + H+ (aq) → Na+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Any carbonate or hydrogen carbonate will give a similar reaction with a dilute
acid, which is they will produce carbon dioxide. This reaction is used as a test for a
carbonate or a hydrogen carbonate. It is also a common method for preparing
carbon dioxide in the laboratory.
7.2 BASES AND ALKALIS

Sodium hydroxide is used in industry for making soap and plastics. It is also used
to remove fat and oil from ovens in our homes. Calcium hydroxide can be used to
purify sugar in industry.
A base is a compound which consists of oxide (O2-) or hydroxide (OH-) ions. A base
reacts with an acid to form a compound, called a salt, and water only. Bases are
oxides and hydroxides of metals. An alkali is a compound which, when dissolved
in water, forms hydroxide ions (OH-) as the only negatively charged ions.
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CLASSIFYING SUBSTANCES AS BASES AND ALKALIS

The elements display different properties on being held in a bunsen flame.
Magnesium and calcium burn easily in air to form their respective oxides.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
Zinc, iron, lead and copper do not burn. (However, it must be noted that they do
form oxides but by other methods.)
The oxides of magnesium and calcium dissolve slightly in water to form their
respective hydroxides.
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
These solutions feel soapy and turn red litmus blue. The hydroxides of zinc, iron,
lead and copper also exist, but are insoluble in water.
All metallic oxides and hydroxides are bases because of the ions they contain.
However, some bases are soluble in water whilst others are insoluble. Soluble
bases are called alkalis.
The common alkalis and their ionisation in aqueous solution are:
Potassium hydroxide KOH(aq) → K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Ammonia solution NH4OH(aq) → NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Sodium and potassium hydroxide are corrosive substances.
Relative solubilities of common bases

Base Formula Relative solubility
Potassium hydroxide KOH Soluble
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Soluble
Ammonia solution NH4OH Soluble
Calcium oxide CaO Slightly soluble
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Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Slightly soluble

Magnesium oxide MgO Slightly soluble
Copper (II) oxide CuO Insoluble
Iron (II) hydroxide Fe(OH)2 Insoluble
Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 Insoluble
STRONG AND WEAK ALKALIS

A strong alkali is one which ionises completely in aqueous solution, for example:
KOH(aq) → K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
NaOH(aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
A weak alkali is only partially ionised in aqueous solution, for example:
NH4OH(aq) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
The reversible symbol is used in place of the arrow to indicate partial ionisation.
THE EFFECT ON ALKALIS ON INDICATORS

Each one of the indicators shows a characteristic colour in a solution of a
particular alkali. Red litmus paper turns blue in sodium hydroxide, calcium
hydroxide and ammonia solution.
Methyl orange turns yellow whereas phenolphthalein turns pink in the above
solutions. Litmus paper would turn blue in potassium hydroxide solution.
Action of acids and alkalis on indicators

Indicator Colour in:
Acid Alkali
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink or red
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Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue
THE EFFECT OF ALKALIS ON ACIDS

As the sodium hydroxide is slowly added to the dilute hydrochloric acid, the
colour of the litmus paper at a particular time turns from red to pale blue. This is
because as the sodium hydroxide is added to the acid, the acid becomes weaker
until there is no acid left.
This process is called neutralisation.
Neutralisation is the formation of molecules of water from oxide (O-) or

hydroxide (OH-) ions form a base and hydrogen ions (H+) from an acid.
2H+ (aq) + O2- (aq) → H2O(l)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O(l)
Complete neutralisation of the acid by the alkali occurs when the litmus paper
changes colour from red to pale blue.
A salt is also formed at the same time as the water. On evaporation, the resulting
solution gives a white crystalline solid which is sodium chloride, the salt.
A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by
metal or ammonium ions.
THE EFFECT OF ALKALIS ON SOLUTIONS OF SALTS

When sodium hydroxide solution is added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate, an
insoluble compound, copper (II) hydroxide is formed as a blue precipitate:
CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Ionically:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
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Similarly, sodium hydroxide solution produces a white precipitate of insoluble zinc

hydroxide when it is added to zinc chloride solution:
ZnCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Zn(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Ionically:
Zn2+ (aq) → Zn(OH)2(s)
There is no precipitate formed when sodium hydroxide reacts with magnesium

sulphate.
To sum up, alkalis precipitate insoluble hydroxides from solutions of some salts.
THE EFFECT OF ALKALIS ON AMMONIUM SALTS

When sodium hydroxide solution is added to ammonium chloride solution and
the mixture warmed, a pungent smelling gas is evolved which turns moist red
litmus paper blue. The gas is alkaline and is ammonia.
NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Ionically:
NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Alkalis react with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas.
USES OF SOME ALKALINE SUBSTANCES

Ash and lime are often used to treat acidic soil in agriculture. Most crop plants do
not grow well in soils that contain too much acid. To neutralise the acid, lime and
sometimes ash, is added to the soil. Apart from neutralising the acid in the soil,
these substances also act as fertilisers.
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is used in reaction with fatty acids, in the
chemical industry, to make soap.
Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used to soften hard water and remove
grease. It is also used in the manufacture of glass and in soap making.
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7.3 PH SCALE AND CLASSIFICATION OF OXIDES

pH SCALE
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance can be measured by the pH scale

using universal indicator.
Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes. The indicator is available in either
solution or paper form. It undergoes various colour changes depending on the pH,
which is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Colours of universal indicator according to the pH value

pH value Colour of universal indicator
0-2 Red
3 Pink
4 Brown
5 Yellow
6-8 Green
9-10 Blue
11-12 Indigo
13-14 Violet
The pH scale consists of numbers ranging from 0 to 14. These pH numbers are
used to compare the strengths of acids and alkalis.
When the solution is neutral, the pH is equal to 7. Pure water for instance has a
pH equal to 7. The smaller the pH value, the stronger the acid. The larger the pH
value, the stronger the alkali. Alkalis have a pH value greater than 7. The diagram
below shows the pH scale.
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THE pH SCALE
THE IMPORTANCE OF pH VALUE IN AGRICULTURE
Agriculturalists and good farmers are interested in obtaining high yields of crop
plants in the fields. They know which plants grow well in which type of soil. Some
plants grow well in acid soils while others grow in alkaline soils.
Taking a pH measurement of a soil will show the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. If,
for example, a soil is discovered to be too acidic for the good growth of crops,
some lime is added to the soil to neutralise the acid. Conversely, if the soil is
found to be too alkaline for the good growth of plants, then a fertiliser such as
ammonium sulphate may be applied to improve the condition of the soil. Such
fertilisers improve not only the nature of the soil but also the fertility of the soil.
CLASSIFICATION OF OXIDES
Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals which dissolve in water to form acids. They
are formed when non-metals burn in oxygen. For example:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
S (s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
These oxides form acidic solutions with water. For example:
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3(aq) is called sulphurous acid.
Basic oxides are oxides of metals. They are called bases. Most basic oxides are
insoluble in water. Those which are soluble form alkalis. For example:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
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Amphoteric oxides are oxides which are both acidic and basic. They neutralise
both acids and alkalis. Examples include the oxides aluminium, zinc, tin and lead.
Zinc oxide, for example, neutralises sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate:
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Zinc oxide also reacts with sodium hydroxide to form a complex salt, sodium
zincate.
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Neutral oxides are oxides which have neither acidic nor basic properties. These
oxides are usually the lower oxides of non-metals, for example carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrogen oxide (water, H2O) and dinitrogen oxide (N2O).
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EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS IV
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ANSWERS
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ANSWERS
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8. INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
8.1 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Carbon has a large variety of compounds. Most of such compounds produce
water and carbon dioxide when heated with copper (II) oxide. These carbon-
containing compounds are called organic compounds.
When naphthalene is heated with copper (II) oxide, water and carbon dioxide are
produced. The presence of water is tested using cobalt (II) chloride paper. Water
changes the colour of cobalt (II) chloride paper from blue to pink. The presence of
carbon dioxide is tested using lime water. When carbon dioxide is bubbled
through lime water a cloudy white precipitate is formed.
Many organic compounds burn forming carbon dioxide and water, for example:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Methane Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water
(organic
compound)
Most carbonates and oxides of carbon do not form water and carbon dioxide
when heated with copper(II) oxide. This indicates that they are not organic
compounds. Some carbonates undergo thermal decomposition releasing carbon
dioxide.
SOLUBILITY OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Sodium chloride is soluble in water but insoluble in acetone and ethanol.

Naphthalene is insoluble in water but soluble in acetone and ethanol.
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Acetone and ethanol are organic liquids but water is inorganic. Sodium chloride is
an inorganic substance whereas naphthalene is organic.
Generally inorganic compounds dissolve readily in water whereas organic

compounds dissolve in organic liquids such as ethanol, acetone, carbon disulphide
and tetrachloromethane.
DO ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONDUCT ELECTRICITY

Generally solutions of organic compounds do not conduct electricity whereas
inorganic ones do, whether in molten or in solution form.
Some characteristics of organic and inorganic compounds

Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Insoluble in water but soluble in Soluble in water but insoluble in
organic solvents organic solvents
Do not conduct electricity Conduct electricity
Have low melting points Have high melting points
Volatile Non-volatile
Flammable Not easily flammable
8.2 HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds whose molecules consist of the elements
carbon and hydrogen only. There are two types of hydrocarbons, namely,
saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons have molecules consisting of single covalent bonds only.

An example of a group of saturated hydrocarbons is the alkanes. Unsaturated
hydrocarbons have multiple bonds and an example of this group is the alkenes.
ALKANES
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. They possess the general molecular formula
CnH2n+2, where n is a whole number.
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The simplest alkane is methane consisting of only one carbon atom bonded to
four hydrogen atoms by single covalent bonds.
H
|
H− C−H
|
H
This representation of methane is its structural formula. Its molecular formula is

CH4. The names and formulae of some alkanes are listed below.
The first five alkanes

Alkane Structural formula Molecular formula
Methane H
|
H− C−H CH4
|
H
Ethane H H
| |
H− C− C−H C2H6
| |
H H
Propane H H H
| | |
H− C− C− C−H C3H8
| | |
H H H
Butane H H H H
| | | |
H− C− C− C− C−H C4H10
| | | |
H H H H
Pentane H H H H H
| | | | |
H− C− C− C− C− C−H C5H12
| | | | |
H H H H H
Note that the ending for the names of all of the alkanes is ‘-ane’.
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There is another way to write molecular formulae. For example the molecular
formula of ethane may be written as CH3˙CH3, of propane as CH3˙CH2˙CH3, of
butane as CH3˙CH2˙CH2˙CH3 and of pentane as CH3˙CH2˙CH2˙CH2˙CH3.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

Alkanes of up to four carbon atoms in each molecule are gases at room
temperature. Alkanes with five to 17 carbon atoms are liquids at room
temperature. Alkanes with 18 or more carbon atoms in each molecule are solids
at room temperature.
Generally alkanes have low melting and boiling points. Alkanes are insoluble in
water, but they dissolve in organic solvents.
REACTIONS OF ALKANES
COMBUSTION REACTION
Alkanes burn in air forming carbon dioxide and water.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
When the air supply is limited, incomplete combustion occurs, producing carbon
monoxide.
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)
SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS
Alkanes react with members of the halogen group, for example chlorine, bromine
and iodine. Atoms of these elements take the place of the hydrogen atom or
atoms in the alkane. Hydrogen chloride gas is produced.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
ISOMERISM
Some organic compounds have the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.
For example the formula C4H10.
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The structure on the left is butane. The structure on the right is a different
substance called methylpropane with a branched carbon chain.
Despite having the same molecular formula they have different structures and
because of this they have different characteristics, or properties.
Characteristics of butane and methylpropane

Characteristic Butane Methylpropane
Melting point (°C) -138 -160
Boiling point (°C) -0.5 -11.7
Such compounds which have the same molecular formula but different structural
formula are called isomers, and the phenomenon is called isomerism.
All alkanes with four or more carbon atom exhibit isomerism. The greater the
number of carbon atoms the more the number of isomers.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
This is a series where each member differs from the next by one ˙CH2 unit and
conforms to general molecular formula.
The following is a summary of the characteristics of a homologous series.

 All members can be represented by a general molecular formula.
 Each member in the series differs from the next by one ˙CH2 unit.
 The members in the series show similar chemical properties.
 The physical properties of the members show a gradual change along the
series.
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 The members in the series have similar methods of preparation.
Some elements and some of their properties

Element Atomic Approximate Melting Boiling
Name Symbol number relative point (°C) point (°C)
atomic mass
Hydrogen H 1 1 -259 -253
Helium He 2 4 -272 -269
Lithium Li 3 7 181 1342
Beryllium Be 4 9 1278 2970
Boron B 5 11 2300 2550
Carbon C 6 12 3652 4827
Nitrogen N 7 14 -210 -196
Oxygen O 8 16 -218 -183
Fluorine F 9 19 -220 -188
Neon Ne 10 20 -248 -246
Sodium Na 11 23 98 883
Magnesium Mg 12 24 649 1107
Aluminium Al 13 27 660 2467
Silicon Si 14 28 1410 2355
Phosphorus P 15 31 44 280
Sulphur S 16 32 119 445
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5 -101 -35
Argon Ar 18 40 -189 -186
Potassium K 19 39 63 760
Calcium Ca 20 40 839 1484
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REFERENCES
pixabay.com
physicsandmathstutor.com
Curriculum development centre’s chemistry 10 – macmillan Zambia
Scullion Family chemistry material
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ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Prepared by Jeffrey M for eskulu.com

UNIT 1. METALS ............................................................................................................................................ 4

Topic 4.2- Synthetic Polymers................................................................................................................. 68

These elements are on the left side of the periodic table

Physical properties of metals;

METAL DENSITY(g/cm3) MELTING POINT(OC) BOILING POINT(oC)

electrons move freely.

Topic 1.2- Chemical Properties of Metals

 The reactivity of metals varies.

Reaction between Metals and Water

METAL REACTION WITH WATER

An example of the reacting a metal with water

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ------ Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)2

Reactions between Metals and Acid

 Hydrogen gas and a salt is produced

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

The Reactivity Series

The arrow shows increasing reactivity

Reaction with Oxygen/Air.

Metals react directly with oxygen to form oxides.

e.g 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

Decomposition of Metal Nitrates, Carbonates, Oxides and Hydroxides.

e.g 2NaNO3(s)  2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

e.g 2Mg(NO3)2(s) heat

CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Hydroxides of reactive metals show no decomposition when they are heated.

Topic 1.3- Extraction of Metals

Metals are extracted from “ores”

Some common ores;

METAL NAME OF ORE CHEMICAL FORMULA METHOD OF EXTRACTION

Making Copper from its Ore

1. It is mixed with sand and heated strongly with air.

Making Pure Copper from Electrolysis

Making Iron from its Ore

Reactions in the Blast Furnace

Making Zinc from its Ore

The main source of zinc is zinc sulfide or zinc blende.

 Zinc can also be extracted by electrolysis of Zinc Sulphate.

2,000°C), so it would be expensive to melt it. Instead, it is dissolved in molten cryolite, an

Topic 1.4- Alloys

The majority of the metallic substances used today are alloys.

Types of Steel Alloys

KIND OF STEEL PERCENTAGE OF CARBON % USES

Steel is mixed with other metals to form Alloy Steels;

NAME COMPOSITION USES

Atoms of different sizes

Some Useful Alloys:

ALLOY COMPOSITION SOME USES PROPERTIES

Uses of Some Metals

 Coat steel to stop it from rusting (galvanizing)

 Make objects for lightness and corrosion resistance

 Making steel because pure iron is weak

Topic 1.5- Corrosion of Metals

Causes of Rusting of Iron

 The nail in the dry air did not rust at all

METAL OBJECT METHOD ADVANTAGE OF USING THIS METHOD

EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

*Attempt the questions before you look at the answers*

1. Gallium is a metallic element in Group III. It has similar properties to aluminium.

(b) Give the formula of gallium(III) chloride,

(c) Gallium(III) oxide, Ga2O3, is amphoteric.

Attempt the questions before you look at the answers