StormwatermanagementPlanning MF - Murshed 2012

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Stormwater management planning and design
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DOI: 10.1142/9789814327701_0011
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November 15, 2011 11:14 9.75in x 6.5in b1139-ch11
Chapter 11
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
PLANNING AND DESIGN
by UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA @ SANTA BARBARA on 03/24/16. For personal use only.
Handbook of Environment and Waste Management Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
Yung-Tse Hung, Ph.D., P.E., DEE

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cleveland State University,
16945 Deerfield Dr. Strongsville, Ohio 44136-6214 USA
yungtsehung@yahoo.com, yungtsehung@gmail.com
Hamidi Abdul Aziz, Ph.D., FICCE, MEPRM

School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
cehamidi@eng.usm.my, cehamidi@yahoo.com
Mohamad Fared Murshed, M.Sc.

School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
cefaredmurshed@eng.usm.my, faredmurshed@yahoo.com
Abstract
Stormwater is water that originates from precipitation events such as rainfall,
snowmelt, and activities such as watering lawns, washing cars, and draining pools.
The main goal of stormwater management is to maintain health of environment
as well as provide opportunities for human uses by extenuating the effect of
urban development. This chapter divided into three main topics: introduction of
stormwater (history, stormwater pollution, and stormwater management), important
of stormwater management, and stormwater design.
Keywords: Management, planning, water quality, design criteria, operation and

maintenance.
405
406 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed
1. Introduction to Stormwater
1.1. History of Stormwater

Stormwater management has begun in the United State in 1800s after industrial-
ization and urbanization era (1-reese 2001). This evolution of stormwater practice
started when all liquid waste from toilet from downtown had started went straight to
the river and stream. They began to develop small pipes and drainage for sewerage
in order to reduce odor problem and sanitary concern. This practice become vast
after World War II at the 1960s when first stormwater management model (SWMM)
has been introduced. SWMM has undergone major upgrades till then: first in 1975
(version 2), in 1981 (version 3), and 1988 (version 4). The latest version SWMM
edition, version 5, is a complete rewrite and it can be run under Window XP and
Window Vista.
1.2. Storm Water Pollution

Stormwater pollution has become major problem in global context. This stormwater
pollution has led to serious problem that causes thousands of death every year. This
problem occurs when impervious surfaces (parking lots, roads, buildings, and com-
pacted soil) do not allow rain to infiltrate into the ground; more runoff is generated
than in the undeveloped condition.1 This additional runoff can erode watercourses
(streams and rivers) as well as cause flooding when the stormwater collection system
is overwhelmed by the additional flow (Fig. 1). This problem not only caused
problem to hydrologic cycle but also led to environmental, social, and economic
losses (Table 1).1
Stormwater pollution runoff contains high suspended solids and other contam-
inant that cause problem in the catchment area. Contaminants, such as oil, grease,
metal, animal feces, and pesticide, can harm aquatic life and reduce their diversity. It
may also affect drinking water supplies and recreational activities such as swimming,
fishing, and water skating.
1.3. Storm Water Management

Stormwater management is defined as a knowledge used to understand water
behavior at different forms within the hydrologic cycle. Most of the management
work done, based on precipitation event, in order to design best system that can
be used at certain period of time. The application of this concept, design method,
and maintenance work is related to other fields such as water supply, agriculture
drainage, lake management, and flood control. Indeed, this stormwater management
application has been integrated water innovatively into urban landscape. Beside of
Stormwater Management Planning and Design 407

Figure 1. High Flow During Flood.
Table 1. Stormwater Pollutants and Source of Pollution.
Stormwater Pollutant Source
Suspended solids and sediment Construction site, road, land clearance, agriculture
Pesticides and herbicides Yard, farm, and garden care
Bacteria Animal waste
Metals Vehicle engine
Oil and grease Car, leaks, spills, and automotive facilities
Nutrients Fertilizers, yard waste, and dead animals
Heat (increase temperature) Expose to warm season
Garbage Housing area
Source: US EPA.
that, this water also has been used for as a focal point in stimulating downtown areas
and as a source of water supply at certain arid area.
Integrated water management (IWM) is a combination of all aspects including
technical, social, and environmental. This system has able to address many of the
issues affecting the health of catchment area and water supply challenges facing the
modern urban city. Also known as low impact development, IWM has the potential
to improve runoff quality, reduce the risk and impact of flooding, and deliver an
additional water resource to augment potable supply.
2. Importance of Stormwater Management
2.1. Preserve the Natural Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is a circulation of water among the land, atmosphere, and
ocean. This water supplied to the atmosphere by evaporation from surface water and
by transpiration from the plants. The water will return to the land by precipitation
not only as rain but also as snow, hail, and sleet. After precipitation, water moves
across the land and as it flows, the water may infiltrate to the ground and stored to
the lake or reservoirs or may be extracted for agriculture and human uses. Water
infiltrate process normally takes times depends on ground level and soil type. Once
infiltrated, this water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
Urban development has a significant impact on the hydrologic cycle. It will
decrease infiltration (seepage into the soil) of precipitation and leads to the increase
of stormwater runoff. This is a direct impact of the increase of impervious area that
accompanies urban development. The large amount of water will cause damage to
stream flow and may cause flood at the catchment area. The reduction of water
infiltrate into the ground layer also affects the soil moister replenishment and
groundwater recharge. Soil moisture is important for sustaining vegetation and the
decreasing of groundwater recharge can reduce available water for domestic and
agriculture supplies.
2.2. Flood Prevention

Flood is the annual phenomenon that gives significant problem for most of the
country in the world. This problem occurs when high-intensity thunderstorm pre-
cipitates at urban area and produces large amount of runoff water. This runoff water
flows to the stream quickly because of the drainage system and causes flooding.
It can lead to loss of life and also property damage. Millions of dollar has been spent
every year for overcome this problem. The cost is not only to repair damages but
also to control waterborne diseases such as malaria, diarrhea, and paratyphoid fever.
2.3. Stream Erosion Control

Almost of all landscape of earth is the result of the erosion. Only a part of the land
area was constructional such as volcanoes, coral reefs, and the surfaces of glaciers
and ice sheets. River or stream plays a major role for landscaping a majority of
land. It can transfer about 80–90% of sediment in contrast with glaciers is about
7%, groundwater 1–2%, and less from 1% for wind and volcanoes.3 Apparently, this
amount of sediment reflects to the relative volume of landscape eroded by various
agents. Therefore, any general consideration of development must be deal with the
work of river or stream.
Stormwater manage to prevent any erosion that may prohibit a stream from its
normal function conveying water or sediment. The development of urban area will
increase the amount of water and sediment delivered to the stream. This problem
increases the erosive forces on the stream banks and beds and over time damages the
natural of streams. Shapes of stream change and enlarge and also affect the meander
pattern. Latter, it causes degradation to stream habitat and reduces the number of
plant and aquatic life.
2.4. Water Quality Protection

The amount of contaminants in surface water runoff keeps increasing day by day
because of urban development. This area (urban, builtup, and rural transportation
land) has covered more than 34% since 1982 land area in the United State.13
The source of pollutants coming from residential area that lawn appears to have
the highest runoff concentration of phosphorus and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)
while streets have high runoff concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS) and
heavy metals. This water quality problem not only affects the aquatic life but can
harm human health too. In 2006, Li and Zen reported that 627,800 people suffer from
gastrointestinal illness at beach in Los Angeles because of fecal contamination.
The traditional approach to urban stormwater management has been to build
drainage systems to channel all the water to the stream. However, this approach is
not enough in order to overcome water quality problem in runoff water. Pollutants
continue to penetrate in drainage system and settle in catchment area, reservoir, or
river basin. Some of it will infiltrate to the groundwater and increase the cost for
treatment process for public water supply. Therefore, new design approaches and
planning need to be implemented to protect the water quality of urban waterways.
3. Stormwater Management
3.1. Integrated Stormwater Management

Integrated stormwater management (ISM) is a management practice that incorpo-
rated technology and development without damage the natural hydrologic cycle.
Also known as low impact development, this management practice has been widely
used in Australia and the United State. ISM has a potential to protect runoff quality,
reduces the risk and impact of flooding, and delivers an additional water resource to
increase water supply. Especially during climate change problem, this management
practice should be applied in every development in urban city. It has to be done
because of the amount of snowfall and rainfall every year is unpredictable. There
are a lot of techniques that can be implemented such as covering, vegetated swales,
and detention pond that normally used based on land-based solution. Land-based
system also provide best practice such as underground storage tank, biofilter, and
water quality inlets.
Contribution from land-using planner, engineer, architect, and stakeholder is
must to achieve better planning and implementation. The completion of a stormwater
management plan would provide the basis for political subdivisions, to the extent
allowed by law, to implement stormwater management plans and ordinances and
provide best management practices that could be adopted by local stakeholders for
stormwater management. The planning process used to develop the regional plan will
be very public, stakeholder-driven process involving public input in every aspect of
the development of the plan. For this process to be successful, public participation is
paramount and every effort will be made to notify all impacted parties, stakeholders,
and the general public of all meetings and provide them the opportunity to provide
input and feedback on elements of the plan as they are being developed. Building
consensus as the plan is developed is critical to produce a plan that can be adopted
and implemented by local governments and stakeholders.
Elements of the planning process include:
• Stakeholder involvement in all phases of the development of the stormwater man-

agement plan.
• Identify the best management practices for stormwater management design for
specific area.
• Identify entities that can implement stormwater management design within the
planning area.
• Develop model ordinances to implement and enforce stormwater management
plans for the area.
3.2. Best Management Practice (BMP)

Best management practice (BMP) can be considered as a method or strategy in
stormwater application in order to protect watershed ecological. While, EPA defines
a BMP as a technique, measure, or structural control that is used for a given set of
conditions to manage the quantity and improve the quality of stormwater runoff in the
most cost-effective manner. BMPs generally have two type of application; structural
and nonstructural plannings. Structural planning is the most effective method that
has been applied in many strategic plans for stormwater management. Normally,
structural planning will combine the best treatment design and be located at the best
location. However, BMPs will fail if improperly located within the treatment design
or not properly maintained.
Low impact development (LID) practice is also one of the most effective planning
BMPs. This planning practice is developed to protect and reduce the impervious
runoff and achieve target condition:
• Limit the detrimental land coverage and

• Preserve significant natural features.
3.2.1. Limit the Detrimental Land Coverage

In every urban development, land used for residential area, industrial area, and
commercial area has led to the increase of stormwater runoff. Thus, strategic
planning should be taken to overcome this problem for long-term development.
Under strategic planning in order to reduce the total land use, six principles have
been taken:
1. Reducing road width: reducing road width reduces the total impervious area
especially in residential area. Infrastructural for road pavement also reduces and
increases the green space area along the road. Trees could be planted and serve
overarching canopy that shades the road and walkway and intercepts rainfall.
2. Reducing building footprints: Building footprints builds in order to create space
for walkway purposes. The number of building increases with the number of
footprints. Thus, high rise building and more slender building should be con-
structed that creating same floor area and with smaller footprints. Additionally,
more natural vegetation can be preserved and more space is available for source
control such as infiltration facilities.
3. Reducing parking standard: Parking standard such as residential driveway and
car parking, commercial parades, and parking lots uses a lot of land area. The
reducing of this land area can reduce the cost of development and allows for more
affordable houses. This strategy also serves to compact communities and creating
available space for public transit route.
4. Limiting the area of surface parking: Elevated parking, underground parking, and
also parking parades in the building can reduce the number of surface parking.
This planning or development will reduce impervious area and directly reduces
stormwater runoff.
5. Increasing natural plants: For any urban development, developer should try to
minimize deforestation and clearing process especially in the hill side devel-
opment. It increases high suspended material during stormwater runoff and
directly pollutes the water quality of stormwater.
6. Compact communities: By building compact communities, natural area can be

preserved; amenities are within walking or biking distance and reduce trans-
portation needs. Average roadway coverage for dwelling unit also reduces up
to 75%.
3.2.2. Preserve Significant Natural Features

All development strategies contributed to preserve natural features and some of
them have incredibly beneficial natural function (which costly infrastructure must be
implemented to replicate). Tree, absorbent soil, stream, and wetland help to provide
significant impact on urban development. These natural features not only reduce
construction cost but also act as a soil erosion control. However, these features need
to recognize early in site design in order to integrate into land use decision. A variety
of stormwater management designs have been applied and describe as follows:
3.2.2.1. Vegetated swales and covers

A vegetated swale is a broad and shallow channel with a dense stand of vege-
tation covering the side slopes and bottom. Swales can be natural or manmade,
and are designed to trap particulate pollutants (suspended solids and trace metals),
promote infiltration, and reduce the flow velocity of stormwater runoff. While vege-
tative covers used existing vegetation and revegetate disturbed soil, they can provide
both dust control and a reduction in erosion potential by increasing infiltration,
trapping sediment, stabilizing the soil, and dissipating the energy of hard rain.
3.2.2.2. Wetland
Wetlands are stormwater control structure providing both retention and treatment of
large volume of contaminated stormwater runoff. These treatment systems control
both stormwater quantity and quality. Its natural, physical, biological, and chemical
processes work to remove pollutants. Sedimentation processes remove particulates,
organic matter, and metals, while dissolved metals and nutrients are removed through
biological uptake.
3.2.2.3. Flood plains

Streams or rivers have their own natural flood control by creating space and dissi-
pating peak flow energy during heavy rainfall and snowmelt. These natural flood
plains also preserve natural integrity of riparian forest and wetland ecosystem.
3.2.2.4. Natural infiltration area

Infiltration through the soil can reduce the amount of stormwater runoff; however,
it depends on the porosity and permeability of soils. For example, natural riparian
corridors with high permeability can infiltrate high volume of water are pivotal to
natural watershed function.
3.3. Stormwater Technology: Design Practice

Stormwater technology is a part of best management practice (BMP) that has been
successfully implemented in urban city development. Stormwater technologies have

diverse form: at surface or underground; with or without vegetation; permanently
or temporary wet; and promote infiltration or detain stormwater. This list is not
exhaustive but based on the U.S. Environmental Protection agency condition and
constraint.
3.3.1. Wet Detention Pond

3.3.1.1. Description
Wet detention ponds have been widely used throughout the United States for many
years. EPA region V is currently performing more than 60 wet detention ponds.
Wet detention and wetlands have similar function that can treat higher level of
nutrient removal and better stormwater quantity control. It also decreases potential
for downstream flooding and stream bank erosion and improves water quality due to
the removal of suspended solids and heavy metals. The performance of wet detention
pond can increase with other best management practice (BMPs) such as dry ponds,
infiltration trenches, or sand filter. A typical wet detention pond design is shown
in Fig. 2.
There are several common modifications that can be made to the ponds to increase
their pollutant removal effectiveness, as list below:
• Increase the settling area for sediments through the addition of a sediment forebay.
• Construct a shallow ledge along the edge of permanent pool.
Wet detention ponds also have some negative impact if improperly designed or
improperly maintenance. It will affect the water quality of stormwater and pollute
groundwater, coldwater fisheries, or wetlands. Improperly designed wet detention
ponds also may results in stratification and anoxic condition that can promote the
resuspension of solids and the release of nutrient and metals from the trapped sedi-
ments. In addition, precautions should be taken to prevent damage to wetland areas
during pond construction. However, recent researches show that wet detention pond
does not significantly contribute to the groundwater contamination even though no

Figure 2. Typical Design of Wet Detention Pond.

Source: U.S. EPA.
maintenance to be done (Schueler, 1992). The following limitation should also be

considered when determining the feasibility of installing a wet detention pond:
• Wet detention pond must be able to maintain a permanent pool of water.

• Land constraints, such as small sites or highly developed areas, may preclude the
installation of the pond.
• Discharge from ponds usually consists of warm water, and thus the use of pond
may be limited in area where warm water discharge from the pond will adversely
impact a cold water fishery.
• The local climate (i.e., temperature) may affect the biological uptake in the pond.
• Without proper maintenance, the performance of the pond will drop off sharply.
Regular cleaning of the forebay is particularly important. Maintaining the per-
manent pool is also important in preventing resuspension trapped sediment.
3.3.1.2. Design criteria

In general, pond designs are unique for each site and application. Criteria for selecting
site for installation of the pond should include the site’s ability to support the
pond environment, as well as effectiveness of locating a pond at that specific site.
In addition, site selection should be based on topography map that allows maximum
storage, minimum construction cost, and nearest to existing utilities (e.g., electric or
gas). Table 2 shows the specific design criteria for wet detention pond.
Table 2. Design Criteria for Wet Detention Ponds.
Adequate Base Flow With Soil Permeability

Type of Soil 10−5 to 10−6 cm/sec
Pond design control 2- and/or 10-year storms

Depth of pond Not exceeded 6 meters (optimal depth: 1 and 3 meters)
Volume ratio (VB/VR) VB must larger than VR
Area ratio (A/As ) Less than 100
High length to width ratio 2:1
Shoreline slope Between 5:1 and 10:1
Size of embankment Side slope 2:1 and minimum top width of 2 meter
Flow control Control by a riser and release pipe
Size of riser and barrel to pass 2- or 10-year storm events
Note: VB: Volume storage; VR: Volume runoff.

Source: U.S. EPA.
3.3.1.3. Operation and maintenance

Wet detention ponds function more effectively when they are regularly inspected and
maintained. Routine maintenance of the pond includes mowing of the embankment
and buffer areas and inspection for erosion and nuisance problem (e.g., burrowing
animals, weeds, odors) (xxxx). Trash and debris should be removed routinely to
maintain attraction and to prevent the outlet from becoming clogged. In general,
every aspect design structure should be inspected after every storm event especially
during major and heavy storm events. Typically, maintenance includes repairs, inlet
and outlet; removal of sediment; and control of algal growth, insects, and odors. Large
vegetation or trees that may weaken the embankment should be removed. In most
cases, sediments removed from wet detention ponds are suitable for landfill disposal.
However, where available, on-site use of removed sediments for soil amendment will
reduce maintenance cost.
3.3.1.4. Cost implication

Typical cost for wet detention pond range from $17.50 to $35.00 per cubic meter for
storage area. The total cost depending on the cost of permit, design and construction,
material, and maintenance. Annual construction cost can be approximated at 3% to
6% of construction cost.
3.3.2. Wetlands
Wetlands are surface facilities that use natural chemical and biological treatments
to remove contaminants. Also called natural kidney, its live storage can be designed

Figure 3. Shallow Marsh Wetland.

Source: U.S. EPA.
for detention during heavy stormwater event. A typical shallow marsh wetland is
shown in Fig. 3. Wetland used for stormwater treatment can be incidenial, natural,
or constructed. Incidental wetlands are created as a result from previous development
or human activity. However, some natural wetlands are not suitable to act as a
stormwater prevention because of some of them connected to groundwater basin.
Two types of construction wetlands have been used successfully for stormwater
treatment: the subsurface flow (SF) constructed wetland and the free water surface
(FWS) constructed wetland. In the FWS wetland, runoff flow through soil-line basin
at shallow depth. The wetlands consist of shallow pool planted with emergent vege-
tation (vegetation that is rooted in the sediment but with leaves at or above the water
surface). In contrast, SF constructed wetland is lined with pre-designed amount of
rock or gravel, through which the runoff is conveyed. The water level in an SF
wetland remains below the top of the rock or gravel bed. However, recently, most of
the construction wetlands focus on FWS system rather than SF because of the cost
for gravel bed too high to achieve peak flow.
There are four basic designs of FWS construction wetlands: shallow marsh,
extended detention, pond wetland system, and pocket wetland. As shown in Fig. 4,
FWS system store runoff in the shallow basin vegetated with wetland plants. The
selection of one design over another depends on various factors, including land

Figure 4. Comparative Profile of Four Stormwater Wetland Design.

Source: U.S. EPA.
availability, level and liability of pollutant removal, and size of contributing drainage
area.
The constructions of wetlands in urban areas not only act as flood mitigation but
also help to sustain wildlife and natural environment. Other than acting as stormwater
treatment wetlands possess various other advantages. Table 3 shows other advantages
and disadvantages of construction wetland.

Every site for construction wetland must have adequate water flow and appropiate
underlying. The baseflow from drainage area or groundwater must be sufficient to
maintain a shallow pool in the wetland and support vegetations. The soil type should
have high permeability in order to reduce cost for geotextile liner that very expensive.
Every excavation of wetland also need 10 cm subsoil to act as cover and work as
Table 3. Advantage and Disadvantages of Construction Wetland.
Advantages Disadvantages
Diverse vegetation and wildlife habitat in Adverse environmental impacts upstream of

urban area wetland.
Downstream quality is improved Shallow and open water areas are favored by
birds (geese and Mallard); this directly
increases the amount of nutrient in the water
and becomes nuisance to the residents.
Can remove over 80% of organic matter, high Less effective during nongrowing season and
suspended solid, and heavy metal problem low temperature.
Source: U.S. EPA.
substrate for vegetation process. The substrate should be so soft, so that the plants
can be planted easily.
The size for wetlands normally based on stormwater runoff volume, and U.S.
EPA recommended size is 90% of stormwater runoff volume. The calculation for
total treatment volume calculated based on this equation:
Rv = 0.05 + 0.009 (I), (11.1)
where Rv = Stormwater runoff coefficient and I = % (as decimal) site impervi-
ousness.

(1.25)(Rv)(A)
Vt = (43,560), (11.2)
12
where Vt = treatment volume (cubic feet) and A = contributing area (acres).
Sizing criteria vary depends on local authority or state because all of them have
their own method. However, the difference is based on the rainfall event and detention
time to calculate the total volume of runoff. The surface is normally around 2–3%
of wetland area. However, U.S. EPA has come out guidelines as suggestion for
allocating treatment volume as shown in Table 4 for design purposes. The summary
of design criteria for wetland construction also illustrated in Table 5, which is based
on recommendation from U.S. EPA.

Well-designed and -maintained wetlands can function as long as 20 years. However,
wetland maintenance must actually begin during the construction phase. During
construction and excavation, many constructed wetlands lose organic matter in the
soil. The organic matter provides exchange sites for pollutant and, therefore, plays
an important role in pollutant removal. Replacing or adding organic matter after
construction improves performance.
After the wetland has been constructed, its vegetation must be maintained on a
regular basis. Maintenance requirements for constructed wetland are particularly
Table 4. Guidelines for Allocating Wetland Surface Area and Treatment Volume.
Extended Detention
Target Allocation Shallow Marsh Wetland Pond/Wetland Pocket Wetland
Percentage of wetland surface area

Forebay 5 5 0 0
Micropool 5 5 5 0
Deepwater 5 0 40 5
Low marsh 40 40 25 50
High marsh 40 40 5 40
Semi-wet 5 10 5 5
Percentage of treatment volume
Forebay 10 10 0 0
Micropool 10 10 10 0
Deepwater 10 0 60 20
Low marsh 45 20 20 55
High marsh 25 10 10 25
Semi-wet 0 50 0 0
Note: Depth — deepwater: 0.5–2 meters below normal pool level; low marsh: 0.17–1.5 meters
below normal pool level; high marsh: 0.5 feet below normal pool level; and semi-wet: 0–2 feet
above normal pool level (includes extended detention).
Source: U.S. EPA.
Table 5. Design Criteria for Wetland Construction.
Length to Width Ratio 2:1
Extended detention Limited to 11 meter above normal pool elevation

Sediment forebay Contain minimum 10% from treatment volume — 2–3 meter deep
Micropool Contain minimum 10% from treatment volume — 2–3 meter deep
Buffer area 8 meter from water surface elevation add more 8 meter for wildlife concern
Source: U.S. EPA.
high while vegetation is being established (usually for the first three years).
Monitoring during the first year is crucial to the future success of wetland as a
stormwater BMP. Inspection should be conducted at least twice a year and annually
thereafter. The requirements of wetland design maintenance may also include
replacement planting, sediment removal, and possibly plant harvesting. Wetland
design should also include access to facilitate these maintenance activities.
3.3.2.4. Cost
The cost incurred for stormwater wetland design is estimated to be about 25% of the
construction cost. Construction cost for an emergent wetland with a sediment forebay
ranges from $65,000 to $137,500 per hectare. This includes the cost of clearing and
grubbing, erosion and sediment control, excavating, staking, and planting.
3.3.3. Bioretention
Bioretention has been introduced by Prince George’s County, MD in the early 1990s
(U.S. EPA). Bioretention utilizes soils and both woody and herbaceous plants to
remove pollutants from stormwater runoff. This technology convey surface runoff to
treatment area, which consists of a grass buffer strip, sand bed, ponding area, organic
layer or mulch layer, planting soil, and plants. Sand bed used for slow runoff velocity
and distribute water along the ponding area, which consists of surface organic layer
and underlying soil. As shown in Fig. 5, stormwater runoff will retain at ponding
area and over a period of day infiltrate into underlying soils.
Typically, bioretention treats stormwater from residential, commercial, and
industrial areas and is ideal for median strips, parking lot islands, and swales. Its
basic design is easy to modify to more specific need either for underdrain or com-
bined with curb and gutter to receive stormwater runoff. Some modification designed
in order to prevent complete infiltration by underlying soil. In this case, normally
Figure 5. Bioretention Area.

Source: U.S. EPA.
underlying soils covers with impervious subsoil or marine clay. This modification
work used to achieve the effectiveness of bioretention that can remove 70% of total
phosphorus, 93% of metals, 70% of TKN, 90% of total suspended solids, and 90%
of organic content (Davis et al., 1998).

Design of bioretention tanks was designed based on the manual by the Prince
George’s County in 1993. This manual was published after extensive research work
done on soil absorption capacities and rate, water balance, plant pollutant removal
potential, and maintenance requirements. The specific design criteria and biore-
tention area computation that can be used are depicted in Tables 6 and 7.

Recommended maintenance for a bioretention area includes inspection and repair or
replacement of the treatment area components. Trees and shrubs should be inspected
twice a year to evaluate their health and should remove any dead or severely disease-
affected vegetation. Diseased vegetation should be treated as necessary using pre-
ventative and low toxic measures.
Table 6. Design Criteria for Bioretention.
Aeration and drainage of planting soil 0.5 m of sand bed

Sheet flow velocity/amount 0.3 m/s generated of 10 years storm
Mulch cover velocity 0.9 m/s
Size drainage for bioretention Between 0.1 and 0.4 hectares
Minimum dimension 4.6 m width and 12.2 m length
Pond depth 15 cm
Source: U.S. EPA.
Table 7. Bioretention Area Sizing Computation.
Development Area (sq. ft) “C” factor C × area
Pavement 23,800 0.90 21,400

Grass 10,100 0.25 2,500
Totals 33,900 23,900
Note: Bioretention area size:

(i) With sand bed (5% sum of C × area)
05 × 23,900 = 1,195 or say 1,200 sq. ft
(ii) Without sand bed (7% sum of C × area)
07 × 23,900 = 1,1673 or say 1,700 sq. ft
Source: U.S. EPA.
3.3.4. Infiltration Trench

Infiltration trench is a design to increase or to capture more water directly into the
trench. These infiltration practices are being employed to remove suspended solids,
particulate pollutant, coliform bacteria, organics, and some soluble forms of metals
from stormwater runoff. Infiltration trench is an excavated trench with 0.9 to 3.7 m
deep, stone aggregate as a backfilled and line with filter fabric. Typical design of
infiltration trench is shown in Fig. 6 below.
Infiltration trenches are often used in place of other best management practice
where limited land is available. It was widely used in warmer condition and it
increases groundwater recharge and base flow in nearby stream. Negative impact
includes the potential for groundwater contamination and a high likelihood of early
failure if not properly maintained.
Figure 6. Typical Infiltration Trench.


A variety of infiltration design has been constructed; the following is a list of design
criteria that for better performance.
• Soil should have a low silt and clay content and have infiltration rate greater than
1.3 cm/hr (minimum thickness is 450 mm).
• Feasible site should have a minimum of 1.2 m to bedrock in order to reduce
excavation cost.
• 1.2 m below the trench to prevent potential groundwater problems.
• Trenchs should be located at least 30.5 m from water supply well and building
foundation.
• Infiltration trenches suitable for drainage area of 2–4 hectares.
• Trenches work best when the upgradient drainage slope less than 5 percent and
downgradient slope not more than 20% to minimize slope failure and seepage.
• Vegetated buffer strip should be established adjacent to the infiltration trench to
capture large sediment particle.
• Required design volume by calculating the volume based on first flush, which is
1.3 cm of runoff from the contributing drainage area.
• Trench depth normally 0.9 m to 3.7 m (commonly used is 2.4 m).
• A minimum drainage time of 6 hours to be provided to ensure satisfactory pollutant
removal in the infiltration trench.
3.3.4.3. Operation maintenance

All BMPs have their own inspection and maintenance designed in order to get better
performance. The principle maintenance objective is to prevent clogging, which may
lead to trench failure. Infiltration trench and any BMP design should be inspected
after large-scale storm event and for the removal of any accumulated debris or
materials. Annual inspection also includes monitoring of the observation well to
confirm that trench is drained within the specific time.
3.3.4.4. Cost
The construction cost for infiltration trench depends on the size of infiltration; the
cost for 68 cubic meter is $8,000 to $19,000 and for 34 cubic meter is $3,000 to
$8,500. The construction cost includes clearing, excavation, placement of filter and
stone, installation of monitoring well, and establishment of a vegetated buffer strip.
3.3.5. Vegetated Swales and Cover

A vegetated swale is a broad and shallow channel with a dense stand of vegetation
covering the side slopes and bottom. Swales can be natural or manmade and were

Figure 7. Typical Design of Vegetated Swale.
designed to trap particulate pollutants (suspended solids and trace metals), promote
infiltration, and reduce the flow velocity of stormwater runoff. Vegetative covers on
the top of swales are important to provide dust control, reduce erosion potential, trap
sediment, and dissipate the energy of hard rain. A typical design of vegetated swales
is shown in Fig. 7.
Vegetated swales can be used as a drainage system and can replace curbs, gutter,
and storm sewer system. Its implementation on site depends on the area, slope, and
previousness of the contributing watershed as well as the dimension and type of
vegetative covering. This BMP practice is easy to design and very effective when
used in conjunction with other BMPs such as pond, infiltration strip, and wetland.

Design criteria for implementation of the vegetated swales are as follows:
• Location: located along property boundaries, need adequate space.
• Soil requirements: alkaline soil and subsoil, soil infiltration rate greater than
0.2 mm/s.
• Vegetation: fine, close-growing, and water-resistant grass, able to thrive on site
(e.g., reed canary grass, red fescue).
• General channel configuration: a parabolic or trapezoidal with side slopes not
steeper than 1:3 or specific channel slope between 2 and 4 percent (U.S. EPA).
• Flows: swale size based on 6 month frequency and 24 hours storm event, maximum
flow rate at 140 l/s.
• Sizing procedure: total surface area of swale should be one percent of the area
that drains to the swale, the swale size should treat design flow and to past peak
hydraulic flow.
• Construction: subsurface of the swale must be carefully constructed to avoid
compaction of soil.

The useful life of vegetated swale system is directly proportional to its maintenance
frequency. If properly design and regularly maintained, vegetated swale can last
indefinitely. Maintenance activities such as periodic mowing, weed control, watering
during drought condition, reseeding of bare area, and clearing debris and blockage.
3.3.5.4. Cost
Construction of vegetated swale is cheaper than curb, gutter, or underground
stormwater sewer constructions. The cost may vary from $16 to $30 per linear meter
for 4.5 meter wide channel (top width) and annual maintenance cost approximately
$1.90 per linear meter for 0.5 meter deep channel.
3.3.6. Other BMPs

3.3.6.1. Water quality inlets
Water quality inlets (WQIs), also known as oil/grit separator, consist of series
chambers that promote sedimentation of coarse materials and separation of free
oil from stormwater. Most WQIs also contain screen to help retain larger or floating
debris, many of newer designs also include a coalescing unit that helps to promote
oil/water separation. WQIs typically capture only the first portion of runoff for
treatment and are generally used for pretreatment before discharging to other BMPs.
WQIs (Fig. 8) consist of a sedimentation chamber, an oil separation chamber,
and a discharge chamber. A permanent pool in the device promotes settling and oil
separation, but may results in order problem, particularly through a dry season, if
contaminated with decomposing organic matter. The maximum contributing imper-
vious area is 0.4 ha per facility. This facility also placed 15 m away from slope.

Figure 8. Profile of Typical Water Quality Inlet.
3.3.6.2. Infiltration drainfields

Infiltration drainfields are innovative technologies that are specially designed to
promote stormwater infiltration into subsoil. These drainfields help to control runoff
and prevent the contamination of local watershed. Infiltration drainfields are most
applicable on sites with a relatively small drainage area (less than 15 acres). They
can be used to control runoff from parking lots, rooftops, impervious storage area,
or other land uses. Infiltration drainfields should not be used in locations that receive
a large sediment load that could clog the pretreatment system, which in turn would
plug the infiltration drainfield and reduce its effectiveness. An example of this system
is provided in Fig. 9.
3.3.6.3. Sand filters

Sand filters have proven effective in removing several common pollutants from
stormwater runoff.19,20 Sand filters generally control stormwater quality and provide
very limited flow rate control. A typical sand filter system consists of two or three
chambers of basin. The first is the sedimentation chamber, which removes floatable
and heavy sediments. The second is the filtration chamber, which removes addi-
tionally pollutants by filtering the runoff through a sand bed. The treated filtrate

Figure 9. Typical Infiltration Drainfield Schematic.
normally is then discharged through an underdrain system either to a storm drainage

or directly to surface water.
Typical Austin sand filter is the best sand filter that has been used in the United
State. This filter system is designed to handle runoff from drainage areas up to
20 ha. The collected runoff is first diverted to the sedimentation basin, where heavy
sediments and floatables are removed. The full sedimentation system, as shown in
Fig. 10, collects and treats the first 1.3 cm of runoff. Equations used to determine
Figure 10. Typical Austin Sand Filter Design.

Source: U.S. EPA.
the sedimentation basin surface area (As) in square and meter acres shown below:
As = (AD)(H)/10 (sedimentation basin),

Af = (AD)(H)/18 (filtration basin).
Note:
• designed to collect and treat 0.5 inches of runoff,

• Ds (feet) = depth of the sedimentation basin,
• H (feet) = depth of rainfall, 0.042 ft (0.5 inch), and
• AD (acres) = impervious and previous areas that provide contributing drainage.
3.3.6.4. Turf reinforcement mats

This fact sheet describes the use of turf reinforcement mats (TRMs). TRMs combine
vegetative growth and synthetic materials to form a high-strength mat that helps to
prevent soil erosion in drainage areas and on steep slopes. TRMs are classified as
a “soft engineering practice” in contrast to concrete and riprap, which they may
replace in certain erosion control situations.
TRMs provide long-term water quality benefits by allowing the growth of veg-
etation in areas where impervious conveyance systems would otherwise be used.
While they may reduce flow velocities, hard armor techniques do not remove pollu-
tants as does natural vegetation. TRMs can be used in conjunction with temporary
sediment and erosion control measures to assist communities in complying with
state and local requirements.
References
1. Bakri, A.D., Rahman, S., and Bowling, L. (2008). Sources and management of urban
stormwater pollution in rural catchments, Australia. Journal of Hydrology 299–311.
2. He, L.M. and He, Z.L. (2008). Water quality prediction of marine recreational beaches
receiving watershed baseflow and stormwater runoff in Southern California, USA.
Water Research 42.
3. Gilbert, J.K. and Clausen, J.C. (2006). Stormwater runoff quality and quantity from
asphalt paver and crush stone driveway in Connecticut. Water Research 40.
4. Hatt, B.E., Deletic, A., and Fletcher, T.D. (2006). Integrated treatment and recycling
of stormwater: a review of Australian practice. Journal of Environmental Management
79.
5. Kelman, I. and Spence, R. (2004). An overview of flood actions on buildings. Engi-
neering Geology 73.
6. McGuckin, C.P. and Brown, R.D. (1995). A landscape ecological model for wildlife
enhancement of stormwater management practices in urban greenways. Landscape and
Urban Planning 33.
7. Dechesne, M., Barraud, S., and Bardin, J. P. (2004). Spatial distribution of pollution in
an urban stormwater infiltration basin. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 72.
8. Martin, C., Ruperd,Y., and Legret, M. (2007). Urban stormwater drainage management:
The development of a multicriteria decision aid approach for best management prac-
tices. European Journal of Operational Research 181.
9. Kim, G., Yur, J., and Kim, J. (2007). Diffuse pollution loading from urban stormwater
runoff in Daejeon City, Korea. Journal of Environmental Management 85.
10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999a). Stormwater technology fact sheet: Wet
detention ponds, EPA 832-F-99-048. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 7 pages.
11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999b). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
Wetlands, EPA 832-F-99-025. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 11 pages.

12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999c). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
Infiltration trench, EPA 832-F-99-019. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 7 pages.
13. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999d). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
Vegetated swales, EPA 832-F-99-006. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 7 pages.
14. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999e). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
Vegetated covers, EPA 832-F-99-027. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 6 pages.
15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999f). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
Water quality inlets, EPA 832-F-99-029. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 6 pages.
16. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999g). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
Sand filters, EPA 832-F-99-007. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 7 pages.
17. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999h). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
Infiltration Drainfields, EPA 832-F-99-018. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 5 pages.
18. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999i). Stormwater technology fact sheet: Turf
Reinforcement Mats, EPA 832-F-99-002. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC. 6 pages.
19. Wang, L.K., Hung, Y.T., Lo, H.H., and Yapijakis, C. (Eds.) (2004). Handbook of Indus-
trial and Hazardous Wastes Treatment. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. and CRC Press,
1345 pp.
20. USEPA (2011). Sustainable Chesapeake: A Collaborative Approach to Urban Storm-
water Management. www.epa.gov/ncer/rfa/2011/2011 star chesapeake.html
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Stormwater management planning and design

Chapter · January 2012

Hamidi Abdul Aziz Mohamad Fared Murshed

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Yung-Tse Hung, Ph.D., P.E., DEE

Hamidi Abdul Aziz, Ph.D., FICCE, MEPRM

Mohamad Fared Murshed, M.Sc.

Keywords: Management, planning, water quality, design criteria, operation and

406 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed

1.1. History of Stormwater

1.2. Storm Water Pollution

1.3. Storm Water Management

Stormwater Management Planning and Design 407

Figure 1. High Flow During Flood.

Table 1. Stormwater Pollutants and Source of Pollution.

Stormwater Pollutant Source

408 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed

2. Importance of Stormwater Management

2.1. Preserve the Natural Hydrologic Cycle

2.2. Flood Prevention

2.3. Stream Erosion Control

Stormwater Management Planning and Design 409

2.4. Water Quality Protection

3.1. Integrated Stormwater Management

410 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed

• Stakeholder involvement in all phases of the development of the stormwater man-

3.2. Best Management Practice (BMP)

Stormwater Management Planning and Design 411

• Limit the detrimental land coverage and

3.2.1. Limit the Detrimental Land Coverage

412 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed

6. Compact communities: By building compact communities, natural area can be

3.2.2. Preserve Significant Natural Features

3.2.2.1. Vegetated swales and covers

3.2.2.3. Flood plains

Stormwater Management Planning and Design 413

3.2.2.4. Natural infiltration area

3.3. Stormwater Technology: Design Practice

successfully implemented in urban city development. Stormwater technologies have

3.3.1. Wet Detention Pond

414 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed

Figure 2. Typical Design of Wet Detention Pond.

maintenance to be done (Schueler, 1992). The following limitation should also be

• Wet detention pond must be able to maintain a permanent pool of water.

3.3.1.2. Design criteria

Stormwater Management Planning and Design 415

Table 2. Design Criteria for Wet Detention Ponds.

Adequate Base Flow With Soil Permeability

Pond design control 2- and/or 10-year storms

Note: VB: Volume storage; VR: Volume runoff.

3.3.1.3. Operation and maintenance

3.3.1.4. Cost implication

416 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed

Figure 3. Shallow Marsh Wetland.

Stormwater Management Planning and Design 417

Figure 4. Comparative Profile of Four Stormwater Wetland Design.

3.3.2.2. Design criteria

418 Y.-T. Hung, H. A. Aziz and M. F. Murshed

Table 3. Advantage and Disadvantages of Construction Wetland.

Diverse vegetation and wildlife habitat in Adverse environmental impacts upstream of