Module 2

Text Representation and Compression
Module 2
Dr Pushpavathi.K.P, BMSCE
Types of text
• Unformatted text – Plain text.
• Formatted text – Rich text.
• Hypertext.
Unformatted text
• ASCII character set.
• Printable characters- alphabetic, numeric, punctuation.
• Control characters:
1. Format control character- BS, SP, DEL, ESC.
2. Information separators - FS, RS.
3. Transmission control characters – SOH, STX, ETX, ACK, NAK,
SYN.
• Mosaic characters- supplementary version – to create relatively
simple graphical images.
Character set to produce unformatted text
ASCII
character set
Character set to produce unformatted text (cntd.)
Mosaic characters
Formatted text
• Publishing sector.
• Characters of different styles and variable size.
• Structure a document into chapters, paragraph.
• Graphics and pictures inserted at appropriate points.
• Enter a specific command.
• Reserved format control character.
• Numeric or alphabetic character.
Formatted text (cntd.)
a) formatted text string b) printed version of string
Hyper Text
• Pages
• Defined linkage points-hyperlinks
• Electronic version of the documents.
• Browser.
• Home page
• URL
• HTML- presentation of the document.
• Directives – page formatting commands sandwiched between pair of
tags , eg: <p> , <B>text</B>
Electronic document written using hypertext
Digital document
Digital document (cntd.)
• Vertical resolution – 3.85 or 7.7 lines/mm or 100 or 200 lines/inch
• o/p of scanner – Resolution of apprx. 8 pels
• Bitonical images –black and white
• One binary digit –represent each pel
0 for white , 1 for black pel
• Typicla image – stream of 2 million bits - uncompressed
Facsimile conversion codes
• ITU-T group 3 and group 4- standards
a) Termination codes – run length – 0 to 63
b) Make-up codes – run length – multiples of 64
• Table of code words –produced - based on relative frequency of
occurrence of no. of white and black pels in scanned lines.
• Code words are fixed
Facsimile conversion codes (cntd.)
Compression principles
• Source encoders and destination decoders.

• Lossless and lossy compression.
• Entropy encoding.
• Source encoding.
Source Encoders and Destination Decoders
Lossless and lossy compression
• Lossless compression algorithm – reversible.

• Example – text file.
• Lossy compression algorithm – version of it.
• Higher level of compression – more approximated the received
version.
• Example – images, audio and video streams.
Entropy encoding:
• Lossless and independent.
• Information representation.
• Two examples:
1. Run length encoding.
2. Statistical encoding.
Entropy encoding (cntd.)
• Entropy of the source – minimum average no of bits required to
transmit a particular source stream
• Qualitatively - defined as the useful information
• Ebits(C) = -log2(PC) , where Ebits(C) –entropy of character C, - in bits
PC – probability of character C in given data
• If the stream contains n characters or symbols ,

Η = 𝜂 = − σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔2(𝑃𝑖 ) = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔2(1/𝑃𝑖 )
• Higher the probability of occurrence of a symbol, lower the entropy

Run length encoding:
• Repetitive Character encoding
• Used - Source information comprises of long substrings of same
character or bit.
• Transmitted as different set of code words.
• Indicates particular transmitted bit and the number of characters in
substring.
• Destination knows the set of code words being used.
Statistical encoding:
• Variable length code word.
• Prefix property.
• Huffman encoding algorithm.
• Entropy.
entropy of source
• Efficiency of encoding scheme =
average number of bits per codeword
Where, average number of bits per codeword = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖𝑃𝑖
Source encoding:
• Differential encoding.
• Transform encoding.
Differential encoding:
• Amplitude of signal covers larger range, but difference in amplitude
between successive values is relatively small.
• Smaller set of codewords.
• Indicates difference in amplitude between current signal and
immediately preceding value.
• Can be lossless or lossy – depending on number of bits to encode
different value.
Transform encoding
• Transforming the source information.
• No loss of information.
• Digitization of image produces two dimensional matrix.
• Rate of change in magnitude – Spatial frequency.
• Horizontal and vertical frequency components.
• Human eye is less sensitive to higher spatial frequency.
• DCT.
Transform encoding: pixel pattern
Transform encoding : DCT principle
Text Compression
• Compression algorithm must be lossless.
• Entropy encoding – Statistical encoding.
• Two types of Statistical encoding:
1. Optimum set of codewords – Huffman coding, Arithmetic coding
2. Variable length characters – Lempel-Ziv (LZ) algoritm.
• Two types of coding :
1. Static coding.
2. Dynamic or adaptive coding.
Static Huffman Coding
• Transmitted character string is analyzed.
• Determine character types and relative frequency.
• Coding operation involves creating an unbalanced tree.
• Huffman code tree – Binary tree.
• Branches are assigned the value 0 or 1.
• Root node (top), branch node , leaf node (termination point).
Huffman code tree
Example - character string : AAAABBCD (Final tree with codes)
Decoding Algorithm
• Assume code words is available at receiver.

• Received bit stream – variable BIT-STREAM.
• Bits in each code word – variable CODEWORD.
• ASCII code word – variable RECEIVE-BUFFER.
Decoding (cntd.)
• code words related to data.

• Done in two ways.
• Adaptive Compression.
• Disadvantage- new set of code words for new data- overheads
Dynamic (adaptive) Huffman Coding
• Both transmitter and receiver build the Huffman tree –dynamically.

• If the character to be transmitted is present in tree – its codeword is
determined and sent in normal way.
• If not present (first occurrence) – character is transmitted in
uncompressed form.
• Tree is updated by – 1. incrementing the frequency of occurrence
or 2. introducing the new character to the tree.
Adaptive Huffman tree
Ref: multimedia communication , components, Techniques, standards – Krishna kumar D N
Incrementing the count : if next symbol is ‘A’
Sibling property - swapping
One more increment in ‘A’
Swapping of internal nodes
Receiving two more ‘A’ s
Arithmetic Coding
• Complicated than Huffman coding.

• Assigns one code for each encoded string of characters – unlike
Huffman that use separate codeword for each character.
• Coding start with a certain interval – read input symbol by symbol –
use the probability of each symbol to narrow the interval
• High probability symbols contribute fewer bits to output
• Output is interpretedas a number in the range [0,1).
Arithmetic Coding (cntd.)
e=0.3, n=0.3, t=0.2, w=0.1, .=0.1 ‘WENT’
Arithmetic Coding (decoding)
• Decoder knows:
• Set of characters present in the received encoded messages
• Segment to which each character has been assigned
• Its related range.
• Follow the same procedure as in encoder.
• No. of decimal digits increase linearly with no. of characters in string.
• Complex messages –first fragmented into multiple smaller strings –
encoded separately
• Resulting set of code words – sent as blocks of floating point numbers
(binary) in known formats.
Lempel-Ziv Coding
• Uses strings of characters for the coding instead of single characters.
• Table holds character string of the text (all possible words).
• Encoder sends only the index of the word.
• Decoder use this index to access the word.
• Table is used as dictionary.
• Dictionary based compression algorithm.
• Word processing packages have dictionary-15 bits (25000 words).
• Shorter words – lower compression ratio, longer words – higher.
Lempel-Ziv-Welsh Coding
• Contents of dictionary is built dynamically by encoder and decoder.

• Initially dictionary consists of only the character set-ASCII.
• To determine compression level - no. of entries in dictionary – no.of
bits needed for index.
• Ex : this is simple as it is
Lempel-Ziv-Welsh (LZW) compression algorithm
Basic operation
Reference
• Multimedia communications- Applications , networks, Protocols and
Standards – Fred Halsall

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Text Representation and Compression

• Formatted text – Rich text.

• Source encoders and destination decoders.

• Lossless compression algorithm – reversible.

• If the stream contains n characters or symbols ,

• Higher the probability of occurrence of a symbol, lower the entropy

Where, average number of bits per codeword = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖𝑃𝑖

• Assume code words is available at receiver.

• code words related to data.

• Both transmitter and receiver build the Huffman tree –dynamically.

• Complicated than Huffman coding.

• Contents of dictionary is built dynamically by encoder and decoder.

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