Tunnels and Underground Cities: Engineering and Innovation meet Archaeology,

Architecture and Art – Peila, Viggiani & Celestino (Eds)

© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-38865-9

Low energy nobilitation of clay waste from tunnelling

V. Perugini
Experimentations Srl, San Mariano di Corciano (PG), Italy
School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Italy

ABSTRACT: Infrastructures and tunnelling works should increase circular economy, maxi-
mizing waste reusing, in order to save quarrying, landfill dumping, transport and environmen-
tal impact. An integral reusing of tunneling waste can minimize the necessity of waste
relocation. Hard rocks can be easily used as aggregate, instead, argillaceous waste commonly
requires expensive relocation works. This research is pointed to demonstrate the possibility of
producing refined materials from argillaceous tunneling waste for use in concrete, as aggre-
gate, binders, supplementary cementitious materials and geopolymers, by applying a low
energy treatment associated with chemical activation. The main advantage of the approach of
this study is the potential to reuse larger quantities of clay materials with low treatment costs.
It would be very useful also in case of Earth Pressure Balance TBM bored tunnel, where clay
soil is often conditioned with surfactant and polymer agents to assure the stability of the exca-
vation and to improve the TBM performance.

1 INTRODUCTION

New technologies in tunnel production, first of all due to the use of Tunnelling Boring
Machine (TBM), allow many advantages, as e.g. higher velocity of excavation, lower labor
activity, lower environmental and landscape impact. This leads to increase the TBM use in the
tunnelling and to the possibility to adopt longer tunnel in the infrastructures planning. Never-
theless, especially in case of Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) and surfactant use, the TBM pro-
cess determines new environmental issues in the muck managing, whose results rapidly
produce a higher amount.
The nature of the rock and geological formations involved in tunnelling works determines
different challenges and possibilities of waste reusing. In fact, good mechanical properties of
the rock make tunnelling waste suitable for use as concrete aggregate. In this case they require
only physical treatments, as e.g. washing, grinding, sieving, separation, etc. Instead, different
issues are linked to the argillaceous formations, due the plastic behaviour, water retention,
high hydraulic limits and deformability, which make it complicated to manage and relocate
them. Moreover, in case of EPB-TBM, the pollution due to the use of surfactant addition to
the soil during the excavation, requires storing them in dedicated areas, waiting for the reduc-
tion of surfactant activity, before definitive relocation can take place.
Considering the difficulties for long steps of storage, the limitations in the relocation possi-
bilities and landfill dumping costs, treatment of the muck could become convenient also in
cases of final vale of the produced material lower than the treatment cost, thanks to the high
saving of relocation. Other mainstone to take in account from this solution regard a better
landscape safeguarding and environmental sustainability, due to the saving of quarrying of
new raw materials for building material industry, lower greenhouse gas emission, lower
impact of transports on infrastructure and natural environments during the works. Consider-
ing all possible advantages, also soil waste which looks ineligible as building materials, as e.g.
for lime, binder, cement, aggregate, addition or supplementary cementitious materials (SCM),

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should be evaluated in order to detect possible forms of reusing inside or close to the tunnel-
ling work.
This research is focused on the possibility of producing an SCM, to use in concrete, cement,
or low grade binder, through available clay waste from one of the largest tunnelling works
today in progress in north of Italy. It should also be considered that, the use of SCM as
cement replacement, is today one of the most recommended practices for several reasons. It
allows the reduction of content of cement in the concrete, or clinker Portland in cement pro-
duction, which is one of the main causes of CO2 emissions, being responsible for about 7% of
global greenhouse gas emissions (Perugini et al., 2014; Hendriks et al., 1998). Moreover, in
most cases, SCM use in concrete determines higher durability, increasing resistance to chem-
ical damage and leading to higher alkali-silica reaction mitigation (ASR). In the same time, it
can also lead to better physical performance, such as lower permeability, lower shrinkage, or
lower hydration heat.
SCM from argillaceous soils, especially if they contain kaolin, can be produced by means of
calcination, in order to transform alumina-silicates in artificial pozzolan, as recommended in
the common industrial practice (Chakchouk et al., 2009; Cook, 1986; Johanson and Anderson,
1990). In the case of not strong, or insufficient activation of the pozzolanicity, alternative low
strength binders, chemically activated geopolymers, fillers or artificial aggregates, could be pro-
duced, especially if they result as adapted to use in the same infrastructure construction ring.
(Perugini 2018a; Perugini 2018b). Nevertheless, in some cases, a lower activation could be due
to the convenience of a lower energy treatment, which could lead to accepting a lower quality
of the final product, in consideration of the saving in the treatment or due to the unavailability
of higher energy for treatment. The following research work demonstrates as, in some cases,
also for clay without kaolin, low energy of activation could be possible. This solution could
result as convenient, offering the possibility to reuse tunnelling waste in infrastructure works
through a low cost of treatment, by means calcination at temperatures lower than 600°C,
instead of the more common and energy consuming treatment at 750°C or higher, e.g.1000°C.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

A representative sample from different points of the same geological formation involved in
the tunnelling work, was sampled, premixed, homogenized and assessed regarding the chem-
ical and mineralogical composition, using X ray techniques, such as XRF and XRD.
After chemical and mineralogical characterization, the soil sample was treated by means of
calcination for 2 hours, at 400°C and 600°C, obtaining two different calcined, or partially cal-
cined, materials. Following, they were ground to a grinding fineness of 600 m2/Kg, which was
assessed, step by step, until reaching the right value, by means of the Blaine method, in accord-
ance with EN 196-6. For both temperatures of calcination, mineral dissolution and transform-
ations were assessed through X ray diffraction (XRD), as shown in Figure 1. In both cases,
chemical activation produced by means of calcination was verified through the Strength Activity
Index (SAI), in comparison to fly ash and natural pozzolan, using 25% of cement replacement,
following the indication of EN 450-1 (very similar to the ASTM C 618 and C311). As base
cement, was used a commercial Portland cement type I class 52,5 R, produced according to EN
197-1, containing more than 95% of clinker Portland, having alkali content of 1%, as shown in
Table 1. The same Portland cement was also adopted for the production of two experimental
Pozzolanic blended cements, in accordance to EN 197-1, using each calcined soils.
Soil samples show very low loss on ignition (L.O.I.). That treated at 400°C indicates not
relevant mineralogical transformations, while that treated at 600°C show evident changing of
some phases. Both products, treated at 400 and 600°C, were used in the production of two
experimental Pozzolanic cements containing respectively 20% and 50% each of calcined clay,
in replacement of the same percentages of Portland cement. Following, in order to evaluate
the possibility to increase the strength activity, or hardening contribution, in a chemical way,
a sort of hybrid binder OPC-AAC-Geopolymer (ordinary Portland cement - alkali active
cement - Geopolymer), containing 50% of calcined clay treated at lower temperature, and

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Figure 1. XRD spectra of tunnelling waste sample and mineralogical transformations at temperature of
400, 600; minerals and their dissolving or transformation are indicated by means the symbols: Q =
quartz; Ill = illite; Mu = muscovite; Cc = calcite; A = albite; Ch = chlorite/clinochlore. Quartz is the
main element, calcite and chlorite are present in lower percentages, similar to mica component muscovite,
and plagioclase, as albite.

Table 1. XRF data of tunnelling waste samples, natural pozzolan, fly ash and Portland cement.
Chemical characterization

L.O.I. SiO2 Fe2O3 Mn3O4 TiO2 P2O5 Al2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O

Soil waste - Noth 0,70 56,63 8,15 0,24 0,42 0,01 23,37 0,34 2,67 0,50 2,28 4,68
Italy
Natural Pozzolan 8,97 53,04 5,44 0,12 0,59 0,15 18,19 4,67 1,46 0,23 1,63 5,30
- Borghetto, Italy
Burning coal fly 6,93 50,05 4,37 0,04 1,49 1,39 27,50 5,02 1,08 0,39 0,30 1,18
ash - Cerano, Italy
Reference CEM, 2,71 19,25 3,08 0,08 0,17 0,07 4,65 64,54 1,09 3,53 0,63 0,57
type I 52,5 R

addition of NaOH as activator, was tested in concrete, in comparison to the other cement con-
taining similar components without NaOH activator.
All experimental cements were compared to the reference Portland cement type I 52,5 R,
used as base cement, and four Pozzolanic cements containing analogue percentages of natural
pozzolan from Borghetto, (Viterbo - Italy) and fly ash from burning coal from Cerano power
plant (Brindisi - Italy), regarding pozzolanicity (in accordance to EN 196-5), as well as for
mechanical strength in standard mortar (in accordance to EN 196-1) and in concrete at
equivalent cement dosage and conditions (in accordance to EN 12390 and 12350).
Finally, the mentioned experimental hybrid binder (OPC-AAC-Geopolymer), made by
adding 0.2% of alkali (as NaOH) to the experimental cements containing 50% of cal-
cined clays for compensation of low Strength Activity Index (SAI) of the calcined clay,
especially detected for the sample treated at lower temperature (400°C), was assessed
regarding mechanical strength in concrete, in order to verify the additional chemical acti-
vation due to the higher alkali content and relative increasing of hardening of the soil
calcined at low energy. This conditions could result as very useful considering that the

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treatment at 400°C allows to resolve the issue of pollution of the soil due to the surfac-
tant use in EPB-TBM process.
Chemical assessment, regarding clay sample, Portland cement, natural pozzolan, fly ash, by
means XRF (as alternative method in accordance to EN 196-2), are shown in Table 1.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chemical characterization of the sampled soil waste involved in this experimentation shows a
content of silica, alumina and iron oxide higher than pozzolanic materials usually used for Poz-
zolanic cement production, as evident from the comparison with natural pozzolan from Bor-
ghetto and fly ash from burning coal from Cerano power plant (see Table 1).
Mineralogical composition of sampled soil shows quartz as prevalent element, with lower
content of chlorite and clinochlore, mica component as muscovite, and plagioclase as albite.
Loss on ignition (LOI) of clay sample, as shown in Table 1, is lower than 1% at 950°C, in
accordance to EN 196-2, indicating not presence of water and calcite. Evident mineralogical
transformation occurs at temperature higher than 400°C, involving at first chlorite and clino-
chlore, which are totally decomposed at 600 °C. (Johanson and Anderson, 1990; Kakali et al.,
2001; Cook, 1986).
As shown in Table 2, after thermic treatment, soil treated at 600 °C match the prescribed
limits of EN 450-1 for strength activity index (SAI) of fly ash from burnig coal (as well as
ASTM C 618). In fact, SAI test indicate for this soil, if treatment at temperature at 600°C, a
value higher than the limit of 0.75 at 28 days and 0.85 at 90 days. Instead, sample treated at
400°C shows a value of 0.75 at 28 days and a value lower than the limit of 0.85 at 90 days,
being 0,84.
Regarding chemical assessment, as shown in Table 2, data match the prescribed parameter
of content of silica, alumina and iron oxide, being their sum higher than 70 %. Regarding the
values of reactive silica content, the sample treated at 600°C match the EN 197-1 and 450-1
limits of 25%, being 25,4%, while the sample treated at 400°C do not match the minimum
value of 25%, showing a content of 22,7%.
The hardening contribution of these calcined clays is confirmed by mechanical strength in
standard mortar (in accordance to EN 196-1) of the experimental cements containing 20% of
them, as shown in Table 3 and Figure 2.
Tests indicate that compressive strength in standard mortar at 2 and 28 days, for both treat-
ment temperatures, are very similar to the cement containing natural pozzolan and fly ash in
the same percentages. Mechanical strength at 2 and 28 days are respectively of 24 MPa and
45.6 MPa for clay calcined at 400°C and 25.5 and 48.9 MPa for the sample calcined at 600°C.
Instead, cements containing 50% of them show mechanical strength in standard mortar of
10.9 MPa at 2 days and 35 MPa at 28 days, for clay calcined at 400°C, and 13.9 and 39 MPa
for the sample calcined at 600°C.

Table 2. Strength Activity index (EN 450-1 at 28 and 90 days); reactive SiO2 (EN 197-1 and EN 450-1);
sum of silica+alumina+iron oxide (ASTM C618 and EN 450-1) of natural pozzolan, fly ash and
calcined clay.
SAI test SAI test Reactive SiO2+ Al2O3+
28 days 90 days SiO2 (%) Fe2O3 (%)

Limits (EN 450-1 0,75 0,85 25 70

and EN 197-1)
Natural Pozzolan 0,78 0,9 37,2 76,6
Fly Ash 0,78 0,89 38,1 81,9
Calcined clay - 400°C 0,75 0,84 22,7 88,2
Calcined clay - 600°C 0,77 0,91 25,4 88,4

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 Table 3. Mechanical strength in standard mortar (in accordance to EN
196-1) and concrete (EN 12390 and 12350) of cements containing Natural
Pozzolan, Fly Ash and Calcined Clay, as clinker replacement, in percent-
age of 20 and 50%.

Figure 2. Mechanical strength in mortar (EN 196-1), of four experimental blended Pozzolanic cements
containing 20% and 50% of tunnelling waste, calcined at 400°C and 600°C, in comparison to the refer-
ence Portland cement type I 52.5 R and four commercial cements containing natural pozzolan and fly
ash in similar percentages.

Behaviour in concrete was assessed using a cement dosage of 400 Kg/m3 (as sum of refer-
ence Portland cement type I 52.5 R and pozzolanic material separately ground and added to
the concrete before mixing), at same workability class (slump 18 cm) and w/c ratio (0.42),
adding 1% of superplasticizer Polycarboxylate ether (PCE).

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 As shown in Table 3 and Figure 3, compressive strength at 28 days of concrete made with
cement containing clays calcined at 600°C are equivalent, or higher, than those containing the
same percentage of natural pozzolan or fly ash, being 68,1 MPa, for cement containing 20%
of calcined clay and 51,0 MPa for the cement containing 50% of the same calcined soil.
Mechanical strength in concrete at long term of this type of calcined soil, treated at 600°C,
after 180 days of maturation, confirms the evident good pozzolanicity. In fact, they match
perfectly those of concrete containing natural pozzolan and fly ash commonly used, showing
a rate of increasing higher than that of the reference Portland cement, type I class 52.5 R, and
reaching strength higher than 85 MPa at 180 days for percentage of 20%. Lower strength
shows calcined clay treated at 400°C, confirming the lower strength activity index (SAI).
Nevertheless, as shown in Figure 5, mechanical strength in concrete could be affected and
improved by other aspect, as e.g. alkali content.
Figure 4 shows the pozzolanicity of cements containing 20% and 50% of the soil involved in
the experimentation, calcined at 400 °C and 600°C, assessed in accordance to the EN 196-5
and compared to cements containing 20% and 50% of natural pozzolan and fly ash, named
IV/A (P) and IV/B (P) in case of use of natural pozzolan, or IV/A (V) and IV/B (V) in case of
fly ash.
Data after 15 days indicate than, using high content of calcined soil (e.g. 50% in the
cement type IV/B (Q) 32.5 R), also if treated at 400°C, this type of material allows to produce
sufficient pozzolanicity, as capability to combine the lime, fixing it by means not soluble end-
product, such as calcium silicates and aluminates, and reducing consequently the calcium ion
concentration in the cement paste. Instead, the soil sample treated at 600°C shows pozzolanicity
perfectly comparable to the natural pozzolan from Borghetto (Italy) and fly ash from Cerano
(Italy), which have been successfully used for many years in the production of Pozzolanic
cement.

Figure 3. Mechanical strength in concrete, at equivalent workability (in accordance to EN 12390 and
EN 12350) of four experimental blended Pozzolanic cements containing 20% and 50% of soil waste, cal-
cined at 400°C and 600°C, in comparison to the reference Portland cement type I 52.5 R and four com-
mercial cements containing natural pozzolan and fly ash in similar percentages.

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Figure 4. Pozzolanicity tests (EN 196-5) of the Pozzolanic cements containing 20% of calcined clay
waste treated at 750 °C and 870 °C, natural pozzolan from Borghetto and fly ash from Cerano power
plant, after 15 days.

Figure 5. Mechanical strength in concrete, at equivalent workability class (in accordance to EN 12390
and EN 12350) of three experimental blended Pozzolanic cements containing 20% and 50% of soil waste,
calcined at 400°C, without and with alkali activation, in comparison to the reference Portland cement
type I 52.5 R and two commercial Pozzolanic cements containing the same percentages of natural
pozzolan.

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 Similar to these, it assures sufficient pozzolanicity also using only 20% of addition as clinker
Portland replacement. The percentage of 20% is the minimum usually necessary to reach the
required reduction of calcium ion concentration under the saturation line, in order to allow
the commercialization of blended cement as Pozzolanic cement (e.g. cement type IV/A (Q)
42.5 R).
Regarding the final experimentation, as shown in Figure 5, a sort of hybrid binder (OPC-
AAC-Geopolymer), activated by means the addition of 0.2% of alkali (as NaOH) to the
experimental cement containing 50% of calcined soil treated at 400°C, was tested for concrete
strength comparison, in order to evaluate the possibility to increase the activation in a chem-
ical way and to compensate the low reactivity which the low Strength Activity Index (SAI =
22.7) indicates. The result shows clearly the possibility to improve chemically the reactivity of
the cement, also in case of not very reactive calcined soil, allowing the optimization of treat-
ment and reusing cost.

4 CONCLUSION

This study shows the possibility of reusing argillaceous tunnelling waste as pozzolanic
material for cement, or supplementary cementitious material (SCM) for concrete, or low
grade binder, or e.g. in alkali activated cement (AAC), or similar hybrid binders, as tested in
this experimentation.
Finally, reusing of clay waste in tunnelling work leads to increased sustainability in several
ways. It allows the reduction of CO2 emission thanks the possibility to replace cement Port-
land in the concrete or clinker Portland in the cement, as well as reducing quarrying and land-
fill dumping. At the same time, the addition to the concrete of pozzolanic materials improve
durability of structures and infrastructures. Quality of the products, as addition for cement or
supplementary cementitious material for concrete, can be managed considering costs and con-
venience of the treatment. Decisions should consider relocation cost of the tunnelling waste,
surfactant presence from tunnelling process, as well as the necessity and availability of pozzo-
lanic material in the construction works. This is a clear example of circular economy, from
which both the natural and urban environment can strongly benefit.

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