GROWTH

In this section we’ll look at how organism grow, and the mechanisms involved in that growth.

Growth doesn’t just mean getting bigger, some organisms can enlarge themselves as a defence mechanism,
take the puffer fish for example, which swallows water, when in danger, to swell up, or the puff adder, a
deadly venomous snake that sucks in air into its lungs to make its appearance larger when it feels
threatened. These definitely get bigger, but its only temporary and can’t be considered real growth.
For an organism to be considered as growing, it must get bigger and stay bigger. We can therefore define
growth as a permanent increase in size of an organism.

Growth involves the division of cells.

During growth, the cells of an organism get bigger till it reaches maturity. As this happens the surface area to
volume ratio gets too small for gaseous exchange to occur fast enough. Due to this, growth must involve cell
division. The cells divide into two new cells that, together, are the same size as the original cell they divided
from. So, cell division alone doesn’t change the size of the organism, but these two new cells then grow
larger, before having to undergo cell division themselves.
The process of cell division is called mitosis.

What is mitosis?
It is the way in which any cell (plant or animal) divides for an organism to grow, repair damaged parts of its
body, asexual reproduction or embryonic development. The nucleus of the cell contains chromosomes,
which have genes on them. The genes give the instructions to the cell about which sort of proteins to
synthesize. When a cell divides, it is very important that the two new cells each get a complete set of
chromosomes from their parent cell. Mitosis ensures that the two new cells get the exact same number
and kinds of chromosomes as the original cell. After the last stage of mitosis (stage 6; late telophase) each
daughter cell grows to the same size of the original mother cell.

MITOSIS

Mitosis occurs in 6 stages, during which each chromosome splits. One chromatid from each chromosome goes into
each daughter cell. During the growth of the new daughter cells, an exact copy is made of each chromatid so the
cells can be ready to divide again.
Before Mitosis: Interphase is considered the first stage.

Interp 1) Interphase:

 DNA is present as uncondensed chromatin (not visible under microscope)

 DNA is contained within a clearly defined nucleus

 Centrosomes and other organelles have been duplicated

 Cell is enlarged in preparation for division

Stages of Mitosis

2 3 6
4 5 Late Telophase

2) Prophase:

 DNA supercoils and chromosomes condense (becoming visible under microscope)

 Chromosomes are comprised of genetically identical sister chromatids (joined at a centromere)

 Paired centrosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell and form microtubule spindle fibres

 The nuclear membrane breaks down and the nucleus dissolves

3) Metaphase:

 Microtubule spindle fibres from both centrosomes connect to the centromere of each chromosome

 Microtubule depolymerisation causes spindle fibres to shorten in length and contract

 This causes chromosomes to align along the centre of the cell (equatorial plane or metaphase
plate)

4) Anaphase:

 Continued contraction of the spindle fibres causes genetically identical sister chromatids to
separate

 Once the chromatids separate, they are each considered an individual chromosome in their own
right

 The genetically identical chromosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell

5) Telophase:

 Once the two chromosome sets arrive at the poles, spindle fibres dissolve

 Chromosomes decondense (no longer visible under light microscope)

 Nuclear membranes reform around each chromosome set

6) Late Telophase:

 Cytokinesis occurs (cytokinesis = the physical splitting of the cytoplasm into two)
 Two daughter cells are formed
 Each cell goes into interphase again.

IDENTIFYING MITOTIC CELLS

Cells undergoing mitosis will lack a clearly defined nucleus and possess visibly condensed
chromosomes
 Prophase – Chromosomes condensed but still confined to a nuclear region
 Metaphase – Chromosomes aligned along the equator of the cell
 Anaphase – Two distinct clusters of chromosomes apparent at poles of the cell
 Telophase – Two nuclear regions present within a single cell (difficult to see as cytokinesis
occurs concurrently)

GROWTH IN FLOWERING PLANTS

In animals, most cells divide by mitosis, because all the parts of an animal can grow. In a plant it’s a bit
different, not all the cells can divide by mitosis. Only those in certain parts of the plant can do this. These parts
are called the meristems. Most of the meristems are in the tips of shoots and just behind the tip of the roots.
This is the reason for plants having a branching shape.

Meristems are tissues in a plant consisting of undifferentiated cells capable of indeterminate growth

 They are analogous to immature stem cells in animals, except that they have specific regions of
growth and development

 Meristematic tissue can allow plants to regrow structures or even form entirely new plants
(vegetative propagation)

Meristematic tissue can be divided into apical meristems and lateral meristems:

 Apical meristems occur at shoot and root tips and are responsible for primary growth (i.e.
plant lengthening)

 Lateral meristems occur at the cambium and are responsible for secondary growth (i.e.
plant widening / thickening)

 Apical meristems give rise to new leaves and flowers, while lateral meristems are responsible for
the production of bark
Apical vs Lateral Meristems

Before all this though, many plants begin their lives as a seed. The seed contains an embryo plant, which
consist of a radicle (grows into a root) and a plumule (grows into the shoot). Inside the seed there are nutrients
(starch & protein) for the embryo, stored in two cotyledons that also contain enzymes. The cotyledons are
surrounded by a tough protective coating known as the testa. This prevents the embryo from being damaged
and stops bacteria and fungi from entering the seed. In the testa there is a tiny hole called the micropyle (for
gaseous exchange and water uptake. Near the micropyle is a scar called the hilum, where the seed was
attached to the pod.

GERMINATION
Seeds hardly contain any water at all. During its formation on the plant, the water was extracted so as to
dehydrate the seed. This drastically reduces any metabolic activity within in the seed, thus making it inactive
and able to be dormant for long periods of time and survive harsh conditions.

Only certain conditions will allow a seed to germinate. The uptake of water starts the process of germination.
Water is taken in through the micropyle which goes into the cotyledons. The cotyledons expand and eventually
burst through the testa. With sufficient water in the cotyledons, the enzymes within them become active.
Amylase breaks down starch molecules to maltose and proteases break down proteins into amino acids. Both
of these are water soluble and dissolve in the water within the seed. It is then take up by the embryo, which
uses the maltose and amino acids to grow.
 During germination the radicle and plumule grow lengthways, developing quickly into the root and shoot of the
young plant and continue to grow throughout the life of the plant.

The tips of the roots are covered by a root cap, which protects the root as it grows through the soil.

Just behind the root cap (tip) there is a region of where the cells are very small because they are young. This
regions is where the meristematic activity takes place because these young cells would have divided from older
cells closer to the root hair region. The region nearer the root hairs is known as the cell elongation region as
they would be more mature and this larger. (primary growth)

Shoots also grow in a similar manner. There is a region of cell division at the tip and a region of cell elongation
behind it. However, shoots do not have any protective layers at the tip.

Longitudinal section through a root tip.

Lateral Growth of plants

(Roots and stems eventually grow wider)

Plant growth is initiated at regions called meristems – undifferentiated cells capable of indeterminate
divisions

 Meristems are equivalent to embryonic stem cells in animals, but are retained throughout the adult life of
the plant

 This allows plants to regrow structures and even reproduce asexually (vegetative propagation)

All the differentiated tissues in a plant are derived from meristems – either apical or lateral meristems

 Apical meristems give rise to the primary tissues needed to increase a plant’s length and grow new leaves
and fruits
 Lateral meristems give rise to the secondary tissues needed to support an increase in the plant’s width (e.g.
bark)

Meristem Tissue Differentiation

Secondary (Lateral) Growth

The thickening of a plant’s stem (secondary growth) is controlled by the cambium (where lateral meristems
are found)

 Vascular cambium cells give rise to secondary xylem and phloem, which facilitate water and nutrient
transport in the plant

 Relative to the cambium, secondary xylem cells are formed internally and secondary phloem cells are formed
externally

 Cork cambium cells produce a progressively thickening layer of cork, which contributes to the bark of a plant.
These cells contain a waterproof substance called suberin, which prevents water entering the cells and so the
cork cells contents die and they become hollow.

 These cells add girth to the plant stem, resulting in the thickening of the trunk (lateral growth)

Representation of Secondary Growth

 Growth Rings

The rate of secondary growth in a plant will change throughout the year according to the seasons

 Growth rates will slow in winter when there is less light available for photosynthesis

This results in discrete growth rings occurring within the plant stem, which are visible when the trunk is cut
in cross-section

 Each ring typically marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree

 Growth rings can be counted to estimate the age of the plant (dendrochronology)

Cross-Section of a Plant Stem Showing Lateral Growth

GROWTH IN ANIMALS

Mammals grow quickly when young.

In humans there is a fairly smooth growth curve until the individual reaches adolescence ,about twenty years old,
where there is growth spurt.

Insects shed their exoskeleton periodically.

Most insects have a hard, outer covering on their bodies, an exoskeleton. This exoskeleton cannot grow, so as the
insect grows bigger, it must shed this exoskeleton from time to time and produce a new one. This process is called
ecdysis or molting. Under the existing exoskeleton there is a liquid called molting fluid which loosens the inner
layer of the exoskeleton and separates it from the insect’s body. In this space the new soft exoskeleton is produced.
The insect then pumps blood into its thorax to expand its size and stretch the new exoskeleton while
simultaneously breaking off the old exoskeleton. The emerging insect is larger and it takes a few hours for the new
exoskeleton to dry and harden. The process will repeat as the insect continues to feed.

Insects grow in stages.

Insects can only grow after every molt. What does this mean?
Insects have an exoskeleton, which cannot grow, so they remain the same size at each stage of their life, until they
molt that exoskeleton and grow a new one.
Metamorphosis is a change from young to adult.

When a grasshopper hatches from an egg, it is not a miniature version of what it looks like an adult. It’s called a
nymph and many changes will occur to it before it becomes an adult. These changes are called metamorphosis.

Grasshoppers show incomplete metamorphosis.

It must molt 5 times after hatching before becoming an adult. The stage between molts is called an instar.

But why is it an incomplete metamorphosis?

At each molt the instar becomes more like the adult. However, it takes 5 molts for this to happen, the change is
gradual from nymph to adult.

Butterflies undergo complete metamorphosis.

When the organism undergoes a more drastic change when they develop, it is known as complete metamorphosis.
Many insects show this; for instance, with butterflies, the egg produces the larva which changes into a caterpillar
and the caterpillar changes into a pupa and after some time it emerges as the butterfly. Mosquitoes and houseflies
also show complete metamorphosis.

Amphibians, like frogs, also undergo metamorphosis.

pupa
Why is metamorphosis necessary?

There are a few reasons why; one is that if the young and adults are different from one another, they will not
necessarily compete with each other, they may have different food sources, one may feed on leaves and the other
on nectar. So there is more food available to both stages. Another reason is function, the young usually functions to
feed and grow and is adapted to carry out this purpose as quickly as possible. The adult usually functions to
reproduce as would be similarly adapted for this purpose, perhaps by having wings for fast and farther travel to
find a mate or place to lay. The same hold true for tadpoles and frogs; those lil tadpoles are adapted to swim and
eat so they can grow, while the adult frogs are adapted to find mates, and reproduce.

All this doesn’t happen at random though!

Growth is usually carefully controlled by hormones. This allows from different parts of animals and plants bodies to
grow at different rates. Plant shoots grow towards light and tadpoles don’t just grow into larger tadpoles; they
develop into frogs. These hormones are made in one part of the organism and affects how other parts behave.

MEASURING GROWTH

There are many ways to measure the growth of an organism.

Whatever way you chose though, you must take measurement regularly, be it every hour, same time each day or
each week, your interval will depend on the speed of growth of that organism.

There are several different sorts of measurements one can make. Each with its advantages and disadvantages.

Method Advantages Disadvantages Suitable organisms

Height or length Quick, easy, non-destructive, can be
used in the in the field
Length of one body Same as above
part
Fresh mass More accurate measure of overall size
than height or length. Fairly quick for
small animals
Dry mass Best measurement of the amount of
living material in an organism
Measures one dimensional growth Small plants, most animals
Only measures growth in one part Small animals: birds and
mammals
Plants must be uprooted and soil Most animals and small plan
removed. Difficult for large animals
without special equipment.
Fluctuations in water content may
skew results
Time consuming, destructive (kills Plants, small animals like
individual), large numbers needed, insects and slugs
environmentally disruptive