Unit 1 f1

1 downloaded from: studymeteor.
com
2 downloaded from: studymeteor.com
Co
K
CT=
( Vk + VR)
2. PHOTODIODE
Working:-
• The photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of
operation is limited to the reverse biased region. The Fig shows the symbol of
photodiode while the Fig shows the working principle of photodiode
• The photodiode is connected in reverse biased condition. The depletion
region width is large. Under normal condition, it carries small reverse current
due to minority charge carriers. When light is incident through glass window
on the p-n junction, photons in the light bombard the p-n junction and some
energy is imparted to the valence electrons. Due to this, valence electrons are
dislodged from the covalent bonds and become free electrons. Thus more
electron-hole pairs are generated. Thus total number of minority charge
carriers increases and hence the reverse current increases. This is the basic
principle of operation of photodiode.
Continue
The reverse current without light in diode is in the range of micro
amperes. The change in this current due to the light is also in the
range of micro amperes. Thus such a change can be significance
observed in the reverse current. If the photodiode is forward
biased, the current flow through it is in mA. The applied forward
biased voltage takes the control of the current instead of the light.
The change in forward current due to light is negligible and can not
be noticed. The resistance of forward biased diode is not affected
by the light. Hence to have significant effect of light on the current
and to operate photodiode as a variable resistance device, it is
always connected in reverse biased condition.
• Photodiode is represented by an ideal junction diode in parallel with a
current source which is proportional to the light intensity.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
• ADVANTAGES:-
1.Can be used as variable resistance device.
2.Highly sensitive to the light.
3.The speed of operation is very high.
DISADVANTAGES:-
1.The dark current is temperature dependent.
2.The overall photodiode characteristics are temperature dependent, and
hence POOR TEMPERATURE STABILITY.
Voltage Multipliers
Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of diodes and capacitors to
step up the output voltage of rectifier circuits.
• Half Wave Voltage Doubler
• Full Wave Voltage Doubler
• Voltage Tripler & Quadrupler

1. Half Wave Voltage Doubler
This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be calculated by:
Vout = VC2 = 2Vm
where Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer

• Positive Half-Cycle
o D1 conducts, D2 is switched off
o Capacitor C1 charges to Vm
• Negative Half-Cycle
o D1 is switched off, D2 conducts
o Capacitor C2 charges to Vm
Vout = VC2 = 2Vm
2. Full Wave
Voltage Doubler
Working
• During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, diode D1 is forward
biased. So the diode D1 allows electric current through it. This current
will flows to the capacitor C1 and charges it to the peak value of input
voltage I.e Vm. As shown in figure (a)
• During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode D2 is
forward biased. So the diode D2 allows electric current through it. This
current will flows to the capacitor C2 and charges it to the peak value of
the input voltage I.e. Vm. As shown in figure (b)
3. Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler
86
Working:- downloaded from: studymeteor.com
• During first positive half cycle:
During the first positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode D1 is
forward biased whereas diodes D2, D3 and D4 are reverse biased. Hence,
the diode D1 allows electric current through it. This current will flows to the
capacitor C1 and charges it to the peak value of the input voltage I.e. Vm.
• During first negative half cycle:
• During the first negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased and diodes
D1, D3 and D4 are reverse biased. Hence, the diode D2 allows electric
current through it. This current will flows to the capacitor C2 and charges it.
The capacitor C2 is charged to twice the peak voltage of the input signal
(2Vm). This is because the charge (Vm) stored in the capacitor C1 is
discharged during the negative half cycle.
88
• During seconddownloaded
positive halffrom: studymeteor.com
cycle:
• During the second positive half cycle, the diode D3 is forward biased and diodes
D1, D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Diode D1 is reverse biased because the voltage
at X is negative due to charged voltage Vm, across C1 and, diode D2 and D4 are
reverse biased because of their orientation. As a result, the voltage (2Vm) across
capacitor C2 is discharged. This charge will flow to the capacitor C3 and charges it
to the same voltage 2Vm
• During second negative half cycle:
• During the second negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 are forward
biased whereas diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. As a result, the
charge (2Vm) stored in the capacitor C3 is discharged. This charge will flow
to the capacitor C4 and charges it to the same voltage (2Vm).
90 downloaded
• The capacitors C1 and Cfrom: studymeteor.com
are in series and the output
3
voltage is taken across the two series connected
capacitors C1 and C3. The voltage across capacitor C1 is
Vm and capacitor C3 is 2Vm. So the total output voltage is
equal to the sum of capacitor C1 voltage and capacitor
C3 voltage I.e. C1 + C3 = Vm + 2Vm = 3Vm. Hence it is
Trippler.
• The capacitors C2 and C4 are in series and the output
voltage is taken across the two series connected
capacitors C2 and C4. The voltage across capacitor C2 is
2Vm and capacitor C4 is 2Vm. So the total output voltage is
equal to the sum of capacitor C2 voltage and capacitor
C4 voltage I.e. C2 + C4 = 2Vm + 2Vm = 4Vm. Hence it is
Quadruppler
Special Purpose Diodes

•Zener diode
•Light-Emitting Diodes
•Photo Diodes
•Varactor Diodes
•Tunnel Diodes
•Liquid-Crystal Displays
BREAKDOWN MECHANISM IN A DIODE
The electrical Breakdown mechanism exist in a diode are of two types
1) Avalanche Breakdown
2) Zener Breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown exist in a moderately/less doped
diode at high reverse voltage> 6volts
On the other hand, Zener breakdown exist in a heavily doped
diode at low reverse voltage <5volts due to narrow depletion
layer.
Avalanche Breakdown
• Avalanche breakdown occurs in a p-n junction diode which is moderately
doped and has a thick junction (means its depletion layer width is high).
Avalanche breakdown usually occurs when we apply a high reverse voltage
across the diode (obviously higher than the zener breakdown voltage, say
Vz). So as we increase the applied reverse voltage, the electric field across
junction will keep increasing.
• If applied reverse voltage is Va and the depletion layer width is d;
• then the generated electric field can be calculated as Ea =Va/d
• This generated electric field exerts a force on the electrons at junction and it
frees them from covalent bonds. These free electrons will gain acceleration
and it will start moving across the junction with high velocity. This results in
collision with other neighboring atoms. These collisions in high velocity will
generate further free electrons. This is called Multiplication of charge
carriers. These electrons will start drifting and electron-hole pair
recombination occurs across the junction. This results in net current that
Zener Breakdown
• When we increase the reverse voltage across the pn junction diode,
what really happens is that the electric field across the diode junction
increases (both internal & external). This results in a force of attraction
on the negatively charged electrons at junction. This force frees
electrons from its covalent bond and moves those free electrons to
conduction band. When the electric field increases (with applied
voltage), more and more electrons are freed from its covalent bonds.
This results in drifting of electrons across the junction and electron
hole recombination occurs. So a net current is developed and it
increases rapidly with increase in electric field.
• Zener breakdown phenomena occurs in a pn junction diode with heavy
doping & thin junction (means depletion layer width is very small).
Zener breakdown does not result in damage of diode. Since current is
only due to drifting of electrons, there is a limit to the increase in
current as well.

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Unit 1 f1

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1 downloaded from: studymeteor.

• Half Wave Voltage Doubler

• Full Wave Voltage Doubler

• Voltage Tripler & Quadrupler

This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be calculated by:

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

where Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer

Special Purpose Diodes

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