Definition of Polynomial Functions

n n−1 n−2
A polynomial function is a function of the form P ( x )=a n x +an−1 x + an−2 x +…++ a1 x +a 0, a n ≠ 0 , where n
is a nonnegative integer , a 0 , a 1 , … , an are real numbers called coefficients (numbers that appear in each
n
term) , a n x is the leading term, a n is the leading coefficient, and a 0 is the constant term (number without a
variable). The highest power of the variable of P ( x ) is known as its degree.
There are various types of polynomial functions based on the degree of the polynomial. The most
common types are:
 Zero Polynomial Function (degree 0): P ( x )=a x 0=a
 Linear Polynomial Function (degree 1): P ( x )=a x 1+ b=ax+ b
 Quadratic Polynomial Function (degree 2): P ( x )=a x 2+ bx+ c
 Cubic Polynomial Function (degree 3): P ( x )=a x 3 +b x 2+ cx+ d
 Quartic Polynomial Function (degree 4): P ( x )=a x 4 +b x 3 +c x2 + dx+ e where a , b , c , d∧e are constants.

Other than P ( x ), a polynomial function can be written in different ways, like the following:
n n−1 n−2
f ( x )=an x + an−1 x +a n−2 x + …+a 1 x +a0 ,
n n−1 n−2
y=an x + an−1 x +a n−2 x + …+a 1 x+ a0 ,

Therefore, a polynomial must NOT have the following:

a. Negative exponent
b. Variable in the denominator
c. Fractional exponent

Example:

Degree of Type of Leading Leading Constant

the Function Term Coefficient Term
Polynomial
1. y=8 x 4 −4 x3 +2 x +22 4 Quartic 8x
4
8 22
2. y=3 x 2 +6 x 3+ 2 x 3 Cubic 6x
3
6 0

Writing Polynomial Functions in Standard Form and in Factored Form

A polynomial function is a function of the form
n n−1 n−2
P ( x )=a n x +an−1 x + an−2 x +…++ a1 x +a 0, a n ≠ 0.
The terms of a polynomial may be written in any order. However, if they are written in decreasing
powers of x, then the polynomial function is in standard form.
Types of Special Products
1. Square of Binomial
This special product results into Perfect Square Trinomial (PST).
¿ ¿
Example: ¿
2. Product of Sum and Difference of Two Terms
This results to Difference of Two Squares.
( a+ b ) ( a−b )=a2−b 2
Example: (x +2)(x−2)=x 2−4
3. Square of Trinomial
This would result to six (6) terms.
¿
Example: ¿
4. Product of Binomials
The result is a General Trinomial. F.O.I.L (First, Outer, Inner, Last) method is usually used.
 ( a+ b ) ( c +d )=ac+ ( bc + ad )+ bd
2
Example: ( x +2 ) ( x +3 )=x + ( 2 x +3 x )+ 6
2
¿ x + 5 x +6
5. Product of Binomial and Trinomial
The result is a Sum or Difference of Two Cubes.
2
(a+ b)(a −ab+b )=a +b
2 3 3
( a−b ) ( a2+ ab+b 2 )=a 3−b 3
Example: ( x +2)( x2 −2 x + 4)=x 3 +8
Methods of Factoring
Method When is it Possible Example
1. Factoring out the If each term in the 2
2 x +8 x
Greatest Common polynomial has a common The common factor of both terms is 2x.
Factor (GCF) factor. 2
2 x +8 x=2 x ( x +4 )
2. The Sum-Product If the polynomial is of the 2
x + 5 x +6
Pattern (A-C Method) form x 2+ bx+ c and there The factors of 6 that if added will get 5 are 2
are factors of c that if and 3.
added will get b .
2
x + 5 x +6=( x +2 ) ( x +3 )

3. Grouping Method If the polynomial is of the 2

form ax 2 +bx +c and there
are factors of ac that if
added will get b .
Steps:
2 x + 9 x−5
The factors of ac= ( 2 )(−5 )=−10 that if
added will get 9 are 10 and −1.
 Split up middle term
2
2 x + 9 x−5=2 x +10 x−1 x−5
2

 Split up middle  Group the terms (make sure to group the

term. terms with common factors)
 Group the terms. ¿(2 x ¿¿ 2−1 x)+(10 x−5)¿
 Factor out GCFs of
 Factor out GCFs of each group
each group.
¿ x (2 x−1 ) +5 ( 2 x−1 )
 Factor out the
common binomial.  Factor out the common binomial
¿ ( 2 x−1 ) (x +5)
4. Perfect Square If the first and last terms 2
4 x +12 x+ 9
Trinomials are perfect squares and The first and last terms are perfect squares:
the middle term is twice
the product of their roots.
√ 4 x 2=2 x √9=3
The middle term is twice the product of their
roots: 2 ( 2 x ) ( 3 )=12 x
2
4 x +12 x+ 9=¿
5. Difference of Squares If the expression x −4
2

represents a difference of Square roots of the terms:

two squares
√ x 2=x √ 4=2
2
x −4=( x +2)(x −2)

Writing Polynomial Function in Standard Form

When giving a final answer, you must write the polynomial function in standard form. Standard form
means that you write the terms by decreasing exponents.
Here’s what to do:
1. Write the term with the highest exponent first.
2. Write the terms with lower exponents in descending order.
 3. Remember that a variable with no exponent has an understood exponent of 1.
4. A constant term always comes last.

Examples: Write the following polynomial functions in standard form.

1. y=1+2 x + x 5−4 x3 +2 x 4 +5 x 2
Term with Term/s with lower exponents Constant term Standard form
highest in descending order
exponent
x
5 4 3 2
2 x , −4 x , 5 x , 2 x 1 5 4 3
y=x +2 x −4 x +5 x +2 x+ 1
2

2. f ( x )=5 x +9 x 2−3 x 8
Often, the polynomial function does not contain all of the exponents. You still follow the same
procedure listing the highest exponent first (8) then the next (2) and finally the term with just a variable
(understood exponent of 1).

Term with Term/s with lower Constant term Standard form

highest exponents in descending
exponent order
−3 x
8 2
9x ,5x 0 8 2
f ( x )=−3 x +9 x +5 x

3. y=x (x 2−5)
With a factored form of a polynomial function, you must find the product first.
In finding the product of a monomial and a binomial, recall the Distributive Property.
Multiply the monomial to the first term of the binomial x ( x2 ) =x 1+2=x 3
Multiply the monomial to the second term of the binomial
x (−5 )=−5 x
Arrange the exponents in descending order.
Therefore, the standard form is
3
y=x −5 x

4. f (x)=−x (x−4)( x+ 4)
Use the special product, Sum and Difference of two terms, in answering this function.
Get the product of the sum and difference of two terms. ( x−4 ) ( x+ 4 )=x 2−16
Multiply -x to the product. 3
−x (x ¿¿ 2−16)=x +16 x ¿
Thus, the polynomial function in standard form becomes 3
f ( x )=x +16 x .

Writing Polynomial Function in Factored Form

We will focus on polynomial functions of degree 3 and higher. The polynomial function must be
completely factored.
Examples: Write the following polynomial functions in factored form.
1. y=64 x 3+125
This is of the form a 3+ b3 which is called the sum of cubes. The factored form of a 3+ b3 is
(a+ b)(a ¿ ¿2−ab+ b ) . ¿ To factor the polynomial function follow the steps below:
2

Find a∧b
(a is the cube root of the first term) a=4 x
(b is the cube root of the second term) b=5
Substitute the values of a and b in 2
y= ( 4 x +5 ) [(4 x )¿ ¿ 2−( 4 x ) (5)+ ( 5 ) ]¿
(a+ b)(a ¿ ¿2−ab+ b ) ¿
2

So the factored form is y= ( 4 x +5 ) ¿ ¿)

 2. y=3 x 3 +6 x 2+ 4 x +8
a c
This is of the form ax 3 +bx 2 +cx +d . This can be easily factored if = . To factor the polynomial
b d
function, follow the steps below:
Group the terms (ax ¿ ¿ 3+ bx2 )+( cx+ d) ¿ y=(3 x ¿ ¿ 3+6 x )+( 4 x +8) ¿
2

Factor x 2 out of the first group of terms. 2

y=x (3 x +6)+(4 x +8)
Factor the constants out of both groups. 2
y=3 x ( x +2)+ 4 ( x+2)
Add the two terms by adding the coefficients 2
y=3 x (x +2)+ 4 (x+2)
y=(3 x ¿¿ 2+ 4)(x +2)¿
So, the factored form is y=(3 x ¿¿ 2+ 4)(x +2)¿

3. y=45 x 3+18 x 2−5 x−2

This is of the form ax 3 +bx 2 +cx +d . Follow the steps below:
Group the terms (ax ¿ ¿ 3+ bx2 )+(cx+ d)¿ y=(45 x ¿ ¿ 3+18 x )+(−5 x−2)¿
2

Factor x 2 out of the first group of terms. 2

y=x ( 45 x +18 ) +(−5 x−2)
Factor the constants out of both groups. 2
y=9 x ( 5 x +2 ) −(5 x +2)
Add the two terms by adding the coefficients 2
y=9 x ( 5 x +2 ) −1(5 x+2)
y=(9 x ¿¿ 2−1)(5 x+2)¿
This can be further factored as a difference of
two squares y=(3 x+ 1)(3 x−1)(5 x+ 2)
So, the factored form is y=(3 x+ 1)(3 x−1)(5 x+ 2)
4
4. y=81 x −16
This is of the form a 4−b4 . We can factor a difference of fourth powers (and higher powers) by
treating each term as the square of another base, using the power to a power rule. Follow the steps below:
Treat a 4 as (a 2)2 and b 4 as (b 2)2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
(a ) −(b ) y=(9 x ) −(4 )
It shows difference of two squares, factor it.
2 2 2
(a ) −( b ) =(a +b )(a −b ) y=(9 x ¿¿ 2+4)( 9 x −4) ¿
2 2 2 2 2 2

This can be further factored as a difference of

squares y=(9 x ¿¿ 2+4)(3 x +2)(3 x−2)¿
So, the factored form is y=(9 x ¿¿ 2+4)(3 x +2)(3 x−2)¿

5. y=x 4−4 x2 −45

This is of the form ax 4 + bx 2+ c. In similar manner, we can factor some trinomials of degree four by
treating x 4 as (a 2)2. Follow the steps below:
Treat a 4 as (a 2)2
2 2
2 2
( x ) −b( x ¿¿ 2)−c ¿ y=( x ) −4( x¿¿ 2)−45 ¿
Let x 2=x , thus, it shows a quadratic trinomial:
2
2
ax +bx +c y=x −4 x−45
Factor it: y=(x−9)(x +5)
Put it back. (Substitute x=x 2) 2 2
y=( x −9)( x +5)
This can be further factored as a difference of
squares y=( x +3)( x−3)( x +5)
2

So, the factored form is 2

y=(x +3)( x−3)(x +5)
A. Choose the letter that best answers each question
For numbers 1-4, use the given function f ( x )=5 x 3 + x 2+ 3 x +15 and choose your answers below:
A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 15
1. Which of the choices is the leading coefficient of the function? _______
2. What is the constant term of the function? ________
3. What is the degree of the function? _______
4. Which is not a coefficient of the function? ________

5. What type of polynomial function is f ( x )=5 x 3 + x 2+ 15?

A. Cubic Polynomial Function C. Quartic Polynomial Function
B. Quadratic Polynomial Function D. Zero Polynomial Function
6. What type of polynomial function is f ( x )=(x +2)(2 x−8) ?
A. Cubic Polynomial Function C. Quartic Polynomial Function
B. Quadratic Polynomial Function D. Zero Polynomial Function
For numbers 7-10, use the polynomial function in number 6.
7. What is the leading term of the function?
A. x 2 B. 2 x 2 C. 4 x 2 D. 8 x 2
8. What is the constant term of the function?
A. – 24 B. – 16 C. – 8 D. – 4
9. What is the degree of the function?
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
10. Which is the leading coefficient of the function?
A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8

B. Complete the table below. The first one is done for you.

Polynomial Function Term with Term/s with lower Constant Standard form
highest exponents in term
exponent descending order
4 4 2
1. f ( x )=4+ 4 x 4 + 8 x−x 2 4x −x , 8 x
2
4 y=4 x −x +8 x +4
2. f ( x )=3 x 3−2 x 2+ 8 x−3
3. y=1+2 x + x 3
4. y=−5+5 x 10 +5 x 5
5. f ( x )=x 2−9 x 5 +6

C. Write the factored form of the following polynomial functions by completing the table:
1. y=343 x 3 +27
Find a∧b
(a is the cube root of the first term) a=¿ ¿
(b is the cube root of the second term) b=¿ ¿
Substitute the values of a and b in
(a+ b)(a ¿ ¿2−ab+ b ) ¿
2
y=¿ ¿
So, the factored form is y=¿ ¿)

2. y=27 x 3−8
Find a∧b
(a is the cube root of the first term) a=¿ ¿
(b is the cube root of the second term) b=¿ ¿
Substitute the values of a and b in
(a−b)( a ¿ ¿ 2+ab+ b ) ¿
2
y=¿ ¿
So, the factored form is y=¿ ¿)

3. y=x 3 +3 x 2−4 x−12

Group the terms (ax ¿ ¿ 3+ bx2 )+(cx+ d)¿ y=¿ ¿
Factor x 2 out of the first group of terms.
2
Factor the constants out of both groups. y=x ¿
Add the two terms by adding the coefficients y=¿ ¿
This can be further factored as a difference of y=¿
squares
So, the factored form is y=¿

4. y=x 4−5 x 2+ 4
Treat a 4 as (a 2)2
2 2
(x ) −b( x ¿¿ 2)+ c ¿ y=¿ ¿

Let x 2=x , thus, it shows a quadratic trinomial:

2 2
ax +bx +c y=x −¿ + ¿ ¿
Factor it: y=¿
Put it back. (Substitute x=x 2) y=¿
This can be further factored as a difference of Two
 squares y=¿
So, the factored form is y=¿

A. Directions: Complete the table below. If the given is a polynomial function, give the degree, leading
coefficient and its constant term. If it is not, then just give the reason.

Polynomial Reason Degree Leading Constant

Function or
Coefficient Term
Not

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0

2. 𝑥

3. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥

4.
5. 3
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
√3𝑥

6. 𝑥

7. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 𝑥2

8. 𝑦 = −𝑥−1

9. 𝑦 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥3

10. 𝑦 = 1 − 4𝑥2

11. 𝑃(𝑥) = 2020

3
15. 𝑃 ( 𝑥 ) =
x −1
 The Leading Coefficient Test
A polynomial function is a function of the form: F(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + … + a1 x + a0
where an are real numbers called coefficients and n is a positive integer, and anxn is the leading term,
an is the leading coefficient, a0 is the constant term and an ≠ 0.

End behavior is a description of the values of the function as x approaches positive infinity or negative
infinity. The leading coefficient and the degree of a polynomial function determine its end behavior and it is
very much helpful in graphing polynomial function.

Polynomial End Behavior

Leading Coefficient Degree Graph Comparison End Behavior

Positive Even The graph rises to the

a>0 right and rises to the
left

Negative Even The graph falls to the

a<0 right and falls to the left

Positive Odd The graph rises to the

a>0 right and falls to the left

Negative Odd The graph rises to the

a<0 left and falls to the right.
 Here are the examples of the four cases of the Leading Coefficient Test.

A. On the positive leading coefficient and even degree.

Steps Expression Discussion

1. Look at the given polynomial f(x)= 2x4 – 3x3 + x -1

function
2 is the leading coefficient and it is
4
2. Identify the leading term, its 2x positive.
leading coefficient and degree 4 is the degree and it is an even
number.
3. Identify the end behavior of the 2x4 The graph rises to the right and
graph. rises to the left

4. Graph The leading coefficient of the

polynomial is positive and its degree
is an even number.

B. On the negative leading coefficient and even degree.

Steps Expression Discussion

1. Look at the given polynomial

function f(x)= -3x2 – 6x + 4
-3 is the leading coefficient and it is
2. Identify the leading term, its -3x2 negative.
leading coefficient and degree 2 is the degree and it is an even
number.
3. Identify the end behavior of the -3x2 The graph falls to the right and falls
graph. to the left
4.Graph
The leading coefficient of the
polynomial is negative, and its
degree is an even number.

C. On the positive leading coefficient and odd degree.

Steps Expression Discussion

1. Look at the given polynomial f(x)= x3 + 5

function
1 is the leading coefficient and it is
2. Identify the leading term, its x3 positive.
leading coefficient and degree 3 is the degree and it is an odd
number.
3. Identify the end behavior of the x3 The graph rises to the right and falls
graph. to the left
4. Graph
The leading coefficient of the
polynomial is positive and its degree
is an odd number.

D. On the negative leading coefficient and odd degree.

Steps Expression Discussion

1. Look at the given polynomial f(x)= -x5 + x4 -2x3 + 1

function
2. Identify the leading term, its
leading coefficient and degree
3. Identify the end behavior of the
graph.
4.Graph
-1 is the leading coefficient and it is
5
-x negative.
5 is the degree and it is an odd
number.
-x5 The graph rises to the left and graph
falls to the right.
The leading coefficient of the
polynomial is negative and its
degree is an odd number.
I. Observe the graphs given below and answer what is asked for each item. The first one is done for you.
One point check is given in each blank.
Leading term: anxn where an ≠ 0
Leading coefficient : an ˃ 0  positive
an < 0  negative
Degree : even or odd

Example: 1. Polynomial function: y = x3 – 7x + 6

Leading term: x3
Leading coefficient : 1  positive
Degree : odd

2. Polynomial function: y= -3x3- 2x2 + 8x

Leading term: ___________
Leading coefficient : ______________
Degree : ______________

3. Polynomial functions: y = x4 – 3x2 – 3

Leading term: ___________
Leading coefficient : ______________
Degree : ______________

4. Polynomial Functions: y = -3x2 – 6x + 4

Leading term: ___________
Leading coefficient : ______________
Degree : ______________

5. Polynomial functions: f(x) = x3 + 4

Leading term: ___________
Leading coefficient : ______________
Degree : ______________

II. Determine the end behavior of the graph of each polynomial function. Show your answer by filling in the
blanks and show the possible sketch of the graph. The first one is made for you. One point check is given in
each blank. Sketching the graph would earn 3 points.

Example:

a. y = -x4 + 10x2 - 9
1. The leading term is -x4
 2. The leading coefficient is -1 and it is negative.
3. The degree is 4 and it is even.
4. Since the leading coefficient is negative and the degree is even, then the graph falls to the left and
falls to the right.
5. Possible sketch:

b. y = -2x3 + x2 + 18x – 9
1. The leading term is ____
2. The leading coefficient is ______ and it is _________.
3. The degree is _____ and it is ______.
4. Since the leading coefficient is _________ and the degree is ____, then the graph _______ to the
left and _______ to the right.
5. Possible sketch:

c. y = 4x3 – 4x2 – 19x +10

1. The leading term is ____
2. The leading coefficient is ______ and it is _________.
3. The degree is _____ and it is ______.
4. Since the leading coefficient is _________ and the degree is ____, then the graph _______ to the
left and _______ to the right.
5. Possible sketch:

d. y = x4 – 10x2 + 9
1. The leading term is ____
2. The leading coefficient is ______ and it is _________.
3. The degree is _____ and it is ______.
4. Since the leading coefficient is _________ and the degree is ____, then the graph _______ to the
left and _______ to the right.
5. Possible sketch:

III. For the given polynomial function, do the following and sketch the graph. (Lesson2)
y = x4 + 5x3 + 2x2 – 8x
1. describe the leading term (2 pts)
2. determine the end behaviors (2 pts)
3. find the x-intercepts and y-intercepts (3 pts)
4. create table of values (3 pts)
5. sketch (4 pts)