WOOD, STEEL AND FIELD TESTS

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the importance of wood as construction

material.

2. Familiarize with the different properties of wood.

3. Determine the different Mechanical Testing on woods.

Wood, because of its availability, relatively low

cost, ease of use, and durability (if properly designed),
continues to be an important civil engineering
material. Wood is used extensively for buildings,
bridges, utility poles, floors, roofs, trusses, and piles.
Civil engineering applications include both
natural wood and engineered wood products, such as
laminates, plywood, and strand board.

composed of earlywood, produced by rapid growth

Wood frame used for building structural support.
STRUCTURE OF WOOD
Wood has a distinct structure that affects its
use as a construction material. Civil and construction
engineers need to understand the way the tree grows
and the anisotropic nature of wood to properly design
and construct wood structures.
GROWTH RINGS
The concentric layers in the stem of
exogenous trees are called growth rings or annual
rings. The wood produced in one growing season
constitutes a single growth ring. Each annual ring is
during the spring, and latewood from summer growth.
MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content of a wood specimen is
the weight of water in the specimen expressed as a
percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood. An
oven-dried wood sample is a sample that has been
dried in an oven at 100°C to 105°C until the wood
attains a constant weight. Physical properties such as
weight, shrinkage, and strength depend on the
moisture content of wood (Panshin & De Zeeuw,
1980).
Moisture exists in wood as either bound or free
water. Bound water is held within the cell wall by
adsorption forces, whereas free water exists as either
condensed water or water vapor in the cell cavities. In
green wood, the cell walls are saturated. However, the
cell cavities may or may not contain free water. The
level of saturation at which the cell walls are
completely saturated, but no free water exists in the
cell cavities, is called the fiber saturation point (FSP).
FSP varies from species to species and within the
same species but is typically in the range of 21% to
32%.
WOOD PRODUCTION
A vast industry has developed to harvest and
process wood. Wood is harvested from forests as logs.
They are transported to sawmills, where they are cut
into dimensional shapes to produce a variety of
products for engineering applications:
1. Dimension lumber is wood from 50 mm to
125 mm thick, sawn on all four sides. Common
shapes include 50 * 100, 50 * 150, 50 * 200, 50 * 250,
50 * 300, 100 * 100 and 100 * 150.1 These sizes refer
to the rough-sawn dimensions of the lumber in inches.
The rough-sawn lumber is surfaced to produce
smooth surfaces; this removes 6.5 mm per side. For
dimensions 200 mm and larger, 9.5 mm is removed
per side. For example, the actual dimensions of a 50 *
100 are 37 mm by 87 mm Dimension lumber is
produced in lengths of 2.4 m to 7.2 m in 0.6 m
increments. Dimension lumber is typically used for
studs, sill and top plates, joists, beams, rafters,
trusses, and decking.
2. Heavy timber is wood sawn on all four sides;
common shapes include 150 * 150 and 200 * 200 and
larger. Heavy timber includes Beams and Stringers
(subjected to bending) and Posts and Timbers (used
as posts or columns). As with the case of dimension
lumber, these sizes specify rough-sawn dimensions in
inches. Heavy timbers are used for heavy frame
construction, landscaping, railroad ties, and marine
construction.
3. Round stock consists of posts and poles
used for building poles, marine piling, and utility
poles.
4. Engineered wood consists of products
manufactured by bonding together wood strands,
veneers, lumber, and other forms of wood fiber to
produce a larger and 1 The current standards for
dimension lumber and heavy timber standards were
implemented in 1970. When remodeling older
structures, the dimension of the existing lumber must
be measured. integral composite unit These products
are engineered and tested to have specific
mechanical responses to loads.
Structural engineered wood products include
the following:
■ structural panels including plywood,
oriented strand board, and composite panels,
■ structural glued laminated timber (glulam),
■ structural composite lumber, and
■ composite structural members.
5. Specialty items are milled and fabricated
products to reduce on-site construction time,
includes lattice, handrails, spindles, radius edge
decking, and turned posts.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Specific Gravity and Density
Specific gravity of wood depends on cell size, cell wall
thickness, and number and types of cells. Regardless
of species, the substance composing the cell walls
has a specific gravity of 1.5.
Dry density of wood ranges from 160 kg/m3 for balsa
to 1335 kg/m3 for black ironwood. Most wood types
have densities in the range of 300 to 700 kg/m3.
Thermal Properties
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the rate at which
heat flows through a material. The reciprocal of
thermal conductivity is the thermal resistance
(insulating) value (R). Wood has a thermal
conductivity that is a fraction of that of most metals
and three to four times greater than common
insulating materials. The thermal conductivity ranges
from 0.06 W/(mK) for balsa to 0.17 W/(mK) for rock
elm. Structural woods average 0.12 W/(mK) as
compared to 200 W/(mK) for aluminum and 0.04
W/(mK) for wool. The thermal conductivity of wood
depends on several items including (1) grain
orientation, (2) moisture content, (3) specific gravity,
(4) extractive content, and (5) structural irregularities
such as knots.
Specific heat of a material is the ratio of the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of the
material one degree to that required to raise the
temperature of an equal mass of water one degree.
Temperature and moisture content largely control the
specific heat of wood, with species and density having
little to no effect.
Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the rate at which a
material absorbs heat from its surroundings. The
thermal diffusivity for wood is much smaller than that
of other common building materials.
Coefficient of thermal expansion is a measure of
dimensional changes caused by a temperature
variance. Thermal expansion coefficients for ■ Compression parallel to the grain
completely dry wood are positive in all directions.
■ Compression perpendicular to the grain
Electrical Properties
■ Tension parallel to the grain
Air-dry wood is a good electrical insulator. As
the moisture content of the wood increases, the ■ Tension perpendicular to the grain
resistivity decreases by a factor of three for each 1%
change in moisture content. However, when wood
reaches the fiber saturation point, it takes on the
resistivity of water alone.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Modulus of Elasticity
Strength Properties
Load Duration
Damping Capacity
TESTING TO DETERMINE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
Standard mechanical testing methods for wood are
designed almost exclusively to obtain data for
predicting performance. To achieve reproducibility in
the testing environment, specifications include
methods of material selection and preparation,
testing equipment and techniques, and
computational methods for data reduction.
Flexure Test of Structural Members (ASTM D198)
The flexure test is performed on members in sizes that
are usually used in structural applications. The test
specimen may be solid wood such as 50 mm * 100
mm, laminated wood, or a composite construction of
wood or of wood combined with plastics or metals.
■ Flexure (bending)
■ Compression (short column)
■ Compression (long column)
■ Tension
Flexure Test of Small, Clear Specimen (ASTM D143)
The test is performed on either 50 * 50 * 760 mm or 25
* 25 * 410 mm specimens. The specimen is supported
near its ends and is subjected to center-point loading.
For large specimens, a span of 710 mm is used, and
the load is applied at a rate of 2.5 mm/min.
■ Static bending (flexure)
■ Impact bending
STEEL
Learning Outcomes:
1. Determine the importance and origin of steel reinforcement.
2. Able to know what the different type of steel are used in
construction.
3. Familiarize the different types of mechanical testing in Steel.
The use of iron dates to about 1500 B.C., when
primitive furnaces were used to heat the ore in a
charcoal fire. Ferrous metals were produced on a
relatively small scale until the blast furnace was
developed in the 18th century. Iron products were
widely used in the latter half of the 18th century and
the early part of the 19th century. Steel production
started in mid-1800s when the Bessemer converter
was invented. In the second half of the 19th century,
steel technology advanced rapidly due to the
development of the basic oxygen furnace and
continuous casting methods. More recently,
computer-controlled manufacturing has increased
the efficiency and reduced the cost of steel
production.
Steel products used in construction can be classified
as follows:
1. structural steel (vertical columns) produced by
continuous casting and hot rolling for large structural
shapes, plates, and sheet steel.
2. cold-formed steel (trusses and decking) produced
by cold-forming of sheet steel into desired shapes.
3. fastening products used for structural
connections, including bolts, nuts, and washers.
4. reinforcing steel (rebars) for use in concrete
reinforcement.
5. miscellaneous products for use in such
applications as forms and pans.
Advantages of Steel
• Properly maintained, steel structures can last almost
indefinitely.
• Ductility & Toughness
-Stell has a remarkable ability to withstand
• Large inelastic deformations(ductility)
• Large amounts of energy(toughness)
-These qualities make steel a great choice for both general
structural needs as well as in seismic regions.
• Sustainability
-Structural steel produced in the U.S. contains 93.3%
recycled steel scrap.
-At the end of the life of a given building, 98% of the steel is
recyclable.
• This is done with no loss of its physical properties.
STEEL PRODUCTION
The overall process of steel production is shown in
Figure. This process consists of the following three phases:
1. reducing iron ore to pig iron 2. refining pig iron (and scrap
steel from recycling) to steel 3. forming the steel into
products the materials used to produce pig iron are coal,
limestone, and iron ore. The coal, after transformation to
coke, supplies carbon used to reduce iron oxides in the ore.
Limestone is used to help remove impurities. Prior to
reduction, the concentration of iron in the ore is increased
by crushing and soaking the ore.
The iron is magnetically extracted from the waste,
and the extracted material is formed into pellets and fired.
The processed ore contains about 65% iron. Reduction of
the ore to pig iron is accomplished in a blast furnace. The
ore is heated in the presence of carbon. Oxygen in the ore
reacts with carbon to form gases. A flux is used to help
remove impurities. The molten iron, with an excess of

• Strength & Stiffness

-Steel members have a high strength per unit weight ratio.

• Although steel has a higher than concrete, its effectiveness

is much higher. This means that steel members and framed
systems are generally lighter than concrete structures.
• Uniformity & Permanence
-Steel properties do not change appreciably with time.

• Unlike concrete, where structural members can undergo

creep, shrinkage, etc.
carbon in solution, collects at the bottom of the furnace. o Hardness
The impurities, slag, float on top of the molten pig iron. o Corrosion resistance
o Machinability
o Ductility
o Strength
IRON–CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

• Alloy is a metal made by combining two or more

metallic elements.
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.
- Higher carbon: steel is harder & more brittle.
- Modulus of Elasticity is the same for all these
(same atomic bonds).
- Cast iron :high(>2%) C = B
- High carbon steel :medium(0.8%-2%) C = B
- Structural steel :low(0.15%-0.27%) C = D
Note: C = Carbon; B = Brittle and D = Ductile

• Alloying Agents
- Alloys are added to steel to alter the character of
steel.
- There are 250,000 steel alloys (about 200 of interest
to us).
- Steel properties changed by adding an alloy:
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural steel is used in hot-rolled structural
shapes, plates, and bars. Structural steel is used
for various types of structural members, such as
columns, beams, bracings, frames, trusses,
bridge girders, and other structural applications.
Sectional Shapes

COLD-FORMED STEEL
Cold-formed steel is used for structural
framing of floors, walls, and roofs as well as interior
partitions and exterior curtain wall applications. The
thickness of cold-formed steel framing members
ranges from 0.455 mm to 3.000 mm. Cold-formed
steel was formerly known as “light gauge” steel;
however, the reference nomenclature “gauge”
became obsolete with the adoption of a Universal
Designator System for all generic cold-formed steel
framing members in 2000.
Cold-form Steel shapes
REINFORCING STEEL
Since concrete has negligible tensile strength,
structural concrete members subjected to tensile and
flexural stresses must be reinforced.
Reinforcing steel (rebar) is manufactured in three
forms:
Plain Bars are round, without surface deformations.
Plain bars provide only limited bond with the concrete
and therefore are not typically used in sections
subjected to tension or bending.
Deform Bars have protrusions (deformations) at the
surface; thus, they ensure a good bond between the
bar and the concrete. The deformed surface of the bar
prevents slipping, allowing the concrete and steel to
work as one unit. Wire fabrics are flat sheets in which
wires pass each other at right angles, and one set of
elements is parallel to the fabric axis and are used in
concrete beams, slabs, columns, walls, footings,
pavements, and other concrete structures, as well as
in masonry construction.
Plain wire fabrics develop the anchorage in concrete
at the welded intersections, while deformed wire
fabrics develop anchorage through deformations and
at the welded intersections.
As shown in Figure 3.14, there are four marking
symbols:
1. Letter code for manufacturer
2. Numerical code for bar size, this code may be in
either millimeters or “standard bar numbers,” which
indicates the number of eighths of an inch of the
nominal diameter of the bar
3. Letter code for type of steel (bars marked with both
S and W have steel that meets all the requirements of
types S and W steel)
a. S for billet steel–A615/A615M
b. I Rail steel–A996/A996M
c. A Axle steel–A996/A996M
d. W Low alloy steel–A706/A706M
MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL
Tensile Test
The tension test (ASTM E8/E8M) on steel is
performed to determine the yield
strength, yield point, ultimate
(tensile) strength, elongation, and
reduction of area. Typically, the
test is performed at temperatures
between 10°C and 35°C.
Several Cross-sectional
shapes are permitted, such as
round and rectangular.
Torsion Test specified angle and to a specified inside radius of
curvature.
The torsion test (ASTM E143) is used to
determine the shear modulus of structural materials.
The shear modulus is used in the design of members
subjected to torsion, such as rotating shafts and
helical compression springs. In this test, a
cylindrical, or tubular, specimen is loaded either
incrementally or continually by applying an external
torque to cause a uniform twist within the gauge

length.
The amount of applied torque and the corresponding
angle of twist are measured throughout the test.
Charpy V Notch Impact Test
The Charpy V Notch impact test (ASTM E23) is
used to measure the toughness of the material, or the
energy required to fracture a V-notched simply
supported specimen. The test is used for structural
Hardness Test
Hardness is a measure of a
material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation, such as a
small dent or scratch on the surface
of the material.
One of the methods
commonly used to measure
hardness of steel and other metals
is the Rockwell hardness test (ASTM
E18). In this test, the depth of
penetration of a diamond cone, or a
steel ball, into the specimen is
determined under fixed conditions
(Figure 3.26).
Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing is a nondestructive method

for detecting flaws in materials. It is particularly useful
for the evaluation of welds.

steels in tension members.

Bend Test
The ductility to accommodate bending is
checked by performing the semi guided bend test
(ASTM E290). The test evaluates the ability of steel, or
a weld, to resist cracking during bending. The test is
conducted by bending the specimen through a
FIELD TEST flatness testing measures how close the concrete slab
is too planar, detecting any waves that move across the
Field testing is done at the project site. top.
Certified professionals carry out field testing services
for various construction projects that can include Soil and Aggregate Sampling and Testing
roadways, bridges, utility projects, airports, and
building developments. Typically, soil sampling is a This method describes the processes for
method of removing sub-surface earth materials. preparing untreated aggregate and disturbed soil
These soil samples can be evaluated in the field or samples, as received from the field, for the required
taken back to the lab for further testing. The tests. Separation by screening, weighing, removing
technicians check for moisture and compaction, which soil coatings from coarse aggregate, breaking up
will affect the building's foundation. clods, and splitting out representative test samples of
specified size are described.
It seems obvious, but it is critical to have a
strong foundation, without issues, before construction
begins. This includes the ground to be built upon and
the materials used to build the structure. Material
testing ensures that the project will be successful
before the foundation is laid. Without this testing,
builders and engineers will not be aware of the quality
of the sub-surface and materials and whether they will
meet the project's requirements.

Other types of field testing include:

Soil and Aggregate Sampling and Testing

• Compaction and Density Concrete Sampling and Testing

• Bearing Ratio
• Permeability Testing Air Entrainment Testing

Concrete Sampling and Testing The air entrainment process is crucial for
creating strong concrete that can weather the
• Air Entrainment Testing elements. Air entrainment prevents the expansion of
• Slump Testing water within hardened concrete from causing
• Temperatures cracking, scaling, and other concrete damage during
• Unit Weight freeze-thaw cycles. (ASTM C231)

On-site inspections are necessary to ensure

compliance with the requirements of the project
documents and building code. For example, an
inspector can review rebar, structural steel, and the
bolts and welding that hold these materials together.
Site inspection ensures that any failures are detected
and fixed properly prior to project completion.

There are many tests that can be performed prior

to, during, or after construction to assist in the
conformity of the project. For example, floor moisture
analysis and floor flatness testing define the safety and
longevity of a concrete slab foundation. Floor moisture
analysis detects any wetness or moisture within the
concrete slab, eliminating future flooring issues. Floor
Slump Testing

Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to

determine the workability or consistency of concrete
mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site
during the progress of the work. Concrete slump test
is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform
quality of concrete during construction. The slump
test is the simplest workability test for concrete,
involves low cost and provides immediate results.
(ASTM C143)