1.

1 Definition and Categories of Suboptimal Food

1.1.1 Definition of Suboptimal Food

Due to its potential effects on reducing food waste and encouraging

sustainable consumption patterns, the idea of suboptimal food has recently
drawn more and more attention. Although the terms surplus food, defective
food, and expired food are sometimes used interchangeably, suboptimal food
has unique qualities that tell it apart . The classification of unsatisfactory food
takes into account a number of elements, including aesthetic flaws, a limited
shelf life, and overproduction.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations offers one
widely used definition of unsatisfactory food. Suboptimal food, according to
the FAO, is defined as food that is nonetheless safe and nutrient-rich for
ingestion even though it does not fulfill the usual aesthetic requirements or
retail specifications (Huang et al., 2020). This definition emphasizes the
importance of distinguishing between food quality and food safety, as
suboptimal food may possess visual imperfections or deviations from market
expectations but remains perfectly edible and wholesome.

A crucial aspect of suboptimal food quality is aesthetic flaws. These flaws can
appear in a variety of ways, including wrinkly fruits and vegetables, bruised or
discolored products, and irregularly sized bakery goods. Retailers' demands
for visually appealing produce to match consumer expectations frequently
lead to these aesthetic abnormalities (Lagerkvist et al., 2023). However, these
flaws have little impact on the food's flavor or nutritional content (Mookerjee,
Cornil, & Hoegg, 2021). Suboptimal food is regularly thrown out by shops and
customers due to its appearance even if it is entirely safe and wholesome,
resulting in enormous food waste.

Another distinguishing trait of suboptimal food is a short shelf life. Fresh

produce, dairy products, and baked goods are examples of perishable goods
that have a finite shelf life during which they can be consumed at their peak
quality. Although they are still safe to consume, certain products may be
deemed subpar as their expiration date draws near. A food's "best before"
date, which designates the window of peak quality but does not always signal
a risk to the consumer's health right away, is also included in this category
(Newsome et al., 2014). Due to ignorance of or misconceptions about
expiration dates, retailers and customers frequently discard these products
despite the fact that they still have nutritional value and are edible
(Kavanaugh & Quinlan, 2020).

Another factor that goes into the classification of suboptimal food is

overproduction. Accurately predicting consumer demand is a problem that
food businesses, eateries, and agricultural producers frequently encounter,
which leads to surplus inventory. This excess food, while still entirely safe for
ingestion, may be considered suboptimal because it could outpace market
demand and go to waste. According to Taghikhah, Voinov & Shukla (2019),
overproduction can happen for a number of reasons, including shifts in
consumer tastes, unpredictable weather that affects crop yields, or logistical
difficulties in the supply chain. Managing and redistributing this surplus food
effectively can significantly contribute to reducing food waste and maximizing
resource utilization. As such, suboptimal food encompasses food that may
deviate from aesthetic standards, possess a limited shelf life, or result from
overproduction. It is crucial to differentiate between food quality and safety
when discussing suboptimal food, as these products remain safe, nutritious,
and perfectly edible. Aesthetic imperfections, short shelf life, and
overproduction are factors that contribute to the classification of suboptimal
food.

1.1.2 Categories of Suboptimal Food

Suboptimal food includes a range of food types that are deemed surplus or
imperfect due to issues including ugliness, short shelf life, or overproduction.
Understanding these categories is crucial for creating strategies that
effectively combat food waste and encourage sustainable consumption habits.

One prominent category of suboptimal food is fruits and vegetables with

cosmetic imperfections. Retailers frequently have precise requirements for
how fresh food should look, prioritizing uniformity in size, shape, and color.
Retailers frequently reject fruits and vegetables that differ from these visual
standards because they are seen as subpar (de Hooge et al., 2018).
Blemishes, scars, discolorations, or uneven shapes are typical cosmetic
flaws. The nutritional value and flavor of certain fruits and vegetables are
unaffected by these flaws (Ali et al., 2020). Initiatives and organizations
dedicated to reducing food waste have made an effort to encourage
consumers to accept and use these "ugly" produce items in order to reduce
waste (Calvo-Porral, Medn, & Losada-López, 2017).

Another type of suboptimal food is bakery products that are close to their
expiration dates. Due to their vulnerability to staling and microbiological
deterioration, freshly baked items like bread, pastries, and cakes have a short
shelf life. While still safe and edible, these products may be deemed
suboptimal as they get closer to their expiration dates (Aschemann-Witzel,
2018). They are frequently taken off store shelves or thrown away by retailers
and customers because they are believed to be of lower quality or freshness.
However, creative strategies have been employed to divert these bakery
products from waste and direct them to people in need, such as discounted
sales, donation programs, or partnerships with food rescue organizations
(Goodman-Smith, Mirosa & Skeaff, 2020).

Another type of suboptimal food is excess stock from restaurants and other
food service businesses. Food firms have trouble controlling their inventory
and correctly anticipating client demand, which results in an overabundance
of food (Aschemann-Witzel, 2018). This excess food, which may include
cooked meals, ingredients, or leftover produce, might be categorized as
suboptimal since it may exceed market demand and go to waste. Improved
inventory management systems, portion control, menu planning, or
collaboration with food donation networks to redistribute surplus food are
some solutions that can be used to address this type of suboptimal food
(Taghikhah, Voinov, & Shukla, 2019). Furthermore, it's crucial to remember
that classifying suboptimal food isn't always simple. According to several
variables, food items might belong to numerous categories at once or change
between categories. For instance, a bakery item that is initially deemed
suboptimal because of its impending expiration date may later be classified as
excess if it goes unsold. This complexity highlights the necessity for a
sophisticated grasp of the several classifications and the elements that go into
them.

Fruits and vegetables with visual flaws, bakery goods close to expiration, and
excess stock from food service establishments are all examples of suboptimal
food. These categories show the wide range of food products that can be
deemed less than ideal because of flaws in appearance, a limited shelf life, or
overproduction. Innovative methods, such as acceptance campaigns for
defective produce, bakery product redirection, and enhanced inventory
management systems for extra food, are needed to address food waste in
these categories.

1.2 Extant Studies about Suboptimal Food

1.2.1 Food Waste and Environmental Impact

Numerous studies have been conducted recently on the subject of suboptimal
food and its effects on reducing food waste, sustainability, and resource
conservation. Numerous researchers have looked into a range of topics
related to suboptimal nutrition, such as its effects on the environment,
financial consequences, social repercussions, and potential solutions. We can
uncover gaps in our understanding and obtain important new insights into the
state of the field by analyzing the studies that are already available.

The effects of suboptimal food on the environment have received significant

attention in study. Studies have shown how inadequate food has a significant
impact on food waste and its related environmental effects. According to
Chen, Chaudhary, & Mathys (2020), approximately one-third of all food
produced for human use is lost or wasted globally. Suboptimal food makes a
large contribution to this waste, which causes enormous water use,
greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental damage. Suboptimal food is
produced, processed, transported, and disposed of in a way that wastes finite
resources and contributes to climate change (Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2015).
Additionally, methane gas, a strong greenhouse gas that worsens global
warming, is produced by food waste in landfills (Davison et al., 2022). These
findings highlight the critical need to eliminate inadequate food waste as a
critical component of environmental sustainability efforts.
In addition to environmental issues, experts have also looked at the financial
costs of eating suboptimal food. For a variety of stakeholders, food waste,
especially food that isn't at its best, has significant financial ramifications.
Venkat (2012) calculated that food waste in food supply chains results in
annual economic costs in the billions of dollars. Suboptimal food can cause
food enterprises to lose money because of rejected inventory and increased
costs for trash management and disposal. Due to these expenditures,
companies are now looking into new methods to reduce suboptimal food
waste and boost financial performance, such as streamlining inventory
management systems and introducing cutting-edge marketing tactics
(Mookerjee, Cornil, & Hoegg, 2021). It is essential to comprehend the
financial effects of inadequate food waste in order to motivate stakeholders to
adopt sustainable behaviors and create affordable solutions.

Researchers have also looked at the social effects of suboptimal and its
potential to combat poverty and food insecurity. Alongside the huge worldwide
concerns of food instability and malnutrition, there is food waste, including
suboptimal food. A significant proportion of food is wasted along the supply
chain while billions of people go hungry and have insufficient access to
nourishing food (Hawkes & Ruel, 2012). Insufficient food redistribution
systems, including as food banks, neighborhood efforts, and cutting-edge
technologies, have been investigated for their capacity to close the gap
between surplus food and those in need (Bech-Larsen, Ascheman-Witzel, &
Kulikovskaja, 2019). These programs seek to lessen food waste while also
addressing social injustices and advancing a more just food system.
Existing research on suboptimal food has illuminated its effects on the
environment, the economy, and society. These research have stressed the
critical importance of promoting sustainable consumption habits and reducing
food waste. Nevertheless, there are still a number of gaps in the literature
despite the advancements gained. For instance, additional study is required to
examine consumer attitudes and behavior toward suboptimal food, the
effectiveness of legislative interventions in reducing subpar food waste, and
the potential for technical advancements to maximize the use of subpar food
resources.

1.2.2 Extant Studies on Consumer Behavior and Perception of Suboptimal

Food

For addressing the issues associated with suboptimal food and creating
successful marketing strategies, it is essential to understand customer
behavior and perception. In order to better understand the variables driving
customers' acceptance or rejection of suboptimal food, several research have
investigated consumers' attitudes, motivations, and behaviors surrounding this
category of food.

The impression of the quality and safety of suboptimal food is one component
of consumer behavior that has been looked at in recent studies. Consumers'
desire to buy and eat such products can be significantly impacted by their
worries about the quality and safety of subpar food. According to research,
customers may be concerned about the nutritional value, freshness, taste, or
potential health concerns of suboptimal food (Pinto et al., 2021). For instance,
while having high nutritional content, consumers may mistakenly believe that
fruits and vegetables are less fresh or of lesser quality if they have visible
visual flaws (Makhal et al., 2021). Consumer trepidation can be reduced, and
their acceptance increased by addressing these issues and giving clear
information about the safety and quality of suboptimal food.

Additionally, research has looked into how information and communication

tactics can affect how consumers view and accept suboptimal food. Effective
communication techniques that inform consumers of the causes of suboptimal
food and its possible advantages can have a favorable influence on their
attitudes and habits. For instance, Aschemann-Witzel et al. (2015) discovered
that educating consumers about the environmental and social advantages of
consuming suboptimal food boosted their desire to support initiatives aimed at
reducing food waste through purchases. Similar to this, marketing tactics such
as branding or labeling that emphasize environmental benefits or the
advantages of buying inferior food might raise customers' perceptions of value
(Hartmann, Jahnke & Hamm, 2021). Marketers can sway consumers' opinions
and persuade them to accept inferior food goods by employing persuasive
and informative communication tactics.

The effect of price tactics on consumers' willingness to purchase suboptimal

food is a crucial topic of inquiry. According to research, price has a significant
influence on how people decide. Discounts and lower pricing may serve as
persuasive inducements for customers to select suboptimal food goods
(Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2017). According to a study by Verain et al. (2015),
consumers were more willing to buy subpar food when it was priced lower
than similar traditional goods. Thus, price promotions and creative pricing
techniques can be effective instruments for boosting consumer approval and
lowering food waste related to suboptimal food.

Additionally, studies have looked at the influence of human traits, such as

environmental awareness and attitudes about food waste, on customers'
propensity to buy and consume suboptimal food. According to research, those
who care more about the environment and have pro-environmental views are
more inclined to accept and buy suboptimal food (Welsch & Kühling, 2010).
According to these customers, the environmental advantages of minimizing
food waste outweigh any potential negative effects related to suboptimal food
(Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2017). Marketers may effectively engage and
influence customers to make poor food choices by targeting certain consumer
categories based on their values, attitudes, and behaviors.

2.0 Theory

2.1 The Theory of Planned Behavior

A popular theoretical framework for understanding and forecasting human

behavior, especially consumer behavior, is the Theory of Planned Behavior
(TPB). The Theory of Predictive Behavior (TPB), created by Ajzen in 1985,
expands on the preceding Theory of Reasoned Action and offers a thorough
understanding of the variables affecting people's intentions and subsequent
behaviors (Ajzen, 2011).

The TPB asserts that individual intentions, which are impacted by three
crucial elements—attitudes, subjective standards, and perceived behavioral
control—are what essentially determine consumer behavior (Ajzen, 2011). An
individual's attitude toward the conduct in question reflects whether they
believe the behavior to have positive or negative consequences. The social
pressures and influences people feel from their social environment, such as
the expectations and beliefs of close friends and family, are captured by
subjective norms. When considering elements like innate abilities, available
resources, and external restraints, people's perceptions of their capacity to
carry out an activity successfully are referred to as perceived behavioral
control.

When the TPB is applied to the context of consumer behavior, attitudes

regarding buying suboptimal food products are quite important. Consumers'
perceptions and assessments of suboptimal food, which take into account
aspects like freshness, flavor, nutritional content, and potential hazards,
influence their views (Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2015). Positive views about
suboptimal food, motivated by ideas of reduced food waste, cost savings, or
environmental advantages, are likely to increase consumer intention to buy
these goods. On the other side, unfavorable views fueled by worries about the
quality, safety, or social stigma associated with suboptimal food may have a
detrimental impact on purchase intentions (Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2017).

Another major aspect affecting consumer behavior is subjective norms, as

people's sense of social expectations and approbation can have a big impact
on their intentions. Family, friends, classmates, and opinion leaders are just a
few examples of the many social influencers. For instance, consumers are
more likely to create a positive intention to engage in this action if they believe
that their social circle supports the purchase of substandard food due to
environmental or social benefits (Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2017). On the
other hand, if societal norms forbid the purchase of suboptimal food due to
worries about its quality or social stigma, it can have a negative impact on
people's intentions and subsequent actions.
Regarding suboptimal food, customer intentions and behaviors are greatly
influenced by perceived behavioral control. Consumers' perceptions of their
capacity to get beyond obstacles and restraints that prevent them from buying
subopotimal food, such as lack of familiarity, accessibility, and pricing, can
have a big impact on their intentions (Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2017).
Consumers' intents are likely to be enhanced and their chances of engaging
in the action will likely improve when there are higher levels of perceived
behavioral control present, such as the availability of convenient purchase
options or favorable prior experiences with suboptimal food. It's crucial to
remember that intentions that are influenced by attitudes, arbitrary rules, and
perceived behavioral control may not always be translated into actions. The
link between intentions and behaviors may be mediated by additional
elements like situational restrictions or unanticipated events. The TPB,
however, offers a useful framework for comprehending the psychological and
cognitive processes that influence consumer intentions, emphasizing the role
of attitudes, subjective standards, and perceived behavioral control in
determining behavior.

2.2 Consumer Perceived Value Theory

2.2.1 Definition and Components of Consumer Perceived Value

Consumers' assessments of the overall value or benefits they anticipate

receiving from a product or service in exchange for the expenditures invested
are related to the notion of consumer perceived value (CPV), which is crucial
to marketing (Hansen, Samuelsen & Silseth, 2008). It includes customers'
subjective assessments of the qualities, benefits, and features of the product
while taking into consideration their unique requirements, preferences, and
objectives. CPV is an important consideration in consumer decision-making
because it affects how consumers view the usefulness and desirability of a
good or service. CPV consists of a number of elements that work together to
influence how customers perceive value generally. These elements cover the
various facets of the good or service that customers take into account when
making an evaluation. The essential elements of CPV are monetary value,
functional value, and social value.

A consumer's view of a product's price in relation to its perceived benefits and

quality is reflected in the term "monetary value," which refers to the economic
or financial components of CPV. Based on their expectations and the
perceived value they receive, consumers determine whether a product or
service's pricing is fair and justified (Lin, Sher, & Shih, 2005). If a product has
a higher monetary value, consumers are more likely to believe it is worth the
price paid when taking affordability, discounts, and perceived value for money
into account. The utility and performance-related advantages that consumers
get from a good or service are referred to as functional value. According to
Hansen, Samuelsen & Silseth (2008), it includes the material characteristics,
features, and functions that satisfy the functional needs and demands of
customers. Customers assess how well a good or service fulfills their
functional needs, including those for performance, quality, dependability, and
convenience. A higher level of functional value suggests that the good or
service is thought to be highly functional and able to produce the required
results.

The subjective or emotional benefits that customers receive from a good or

service are captured by emotional value. According to Bharadwaj et al. (2022)
it relates to the sentiments, sensations, and experiences connected to using
or owning a thing. Aesthetics, design, sensory appeal, emotional attachment,
and the overall satisfaction or pleasure experienced during consumption can
all have an impact on emotional value. Products and services are more likely
to be seen as having higher emotional worth if they produce pleasant feelings
and meaningful experiences. The social or interpersonal advantages that
customers get from a good or service are referred to as social value. It reveals
how customers feel about a product's potential to improve their social
standing, relationships, or sense of self (Hansen, Samuelsen, & Silseth,
2008). Brand image, reputation, social impact, and the degree to which the
product conforms to customers' social ambitions or group standards are all
elements that affect social value. Products or services that permit self-
expression, promote social interaction, or represent particular social ties may
be viewed as having higher social worth.

It is significant to keep in mind that the relative weight and importance of

these factors may change depending on the product categories, consumer
groups, and environments. Consumers' views of value are arbitrary and
vulnerable to individual influences, including cultural norms, past experiences,
and personal objectives (Kim & Chung, 2011). It is essential for marketers to
comprehend the particulars of CPV and their relative importance to target
consumers in order to build effective marketing strategies that are in line with
consumers' expectations for value and preferences.

2.2.2 Factors Influencing Consumer Perceived Value

The concept of customer perceived value (CPV) refers to how consumers

view the entire value or benefits of a good or service. These elements are
crucial in determining how consumers perceive value, which in turn affects
how they choose to make purchases. Product traits and features, pricing and
cost concerns, brand image and reputation, and social influences are
important variables that affect how consumers perceive value. Product
qualities and traits have a key role in determining CPV. Consumers judge a
product or service's perceived value by looking at its qualities, functions, and
distinguishing aspects (Ulaga & Chacour, 2001). Products with improved
performance, novel features, longevity, or customizability possibilities are
probably seen as having higher value. Perceived value can also be impacted
by elements including design aesthetics, dependability, usability, and fit with
customers' demands and preferences.

Cost and price factors have a substantial impact on CPV. According to

Hansen, Samuelsen, and Silseth (2008), consumers consider a product or
service's pricing in relation to the benefits and quality they believe it to
provide. When consumers believe that they are getting a good deal between
the price they pay and the value they receive, lower prices or discounts can
increase perceived value. Price and perceived value, however, have a
complicated relationship because customers may also equate higher costs
with exclusivity or quality, which raises perceived value. Consumer perception
of value is significantly shaped by brand image and reputation. Due to their
links with excellence, dependability, and trustworthiness, strong brands
frequently command higher perceived value (Susanti et al., 2020). Customers
may be prepared to pay more for goods or services connected with well-
known brands because they believe they are getting more for their money.
Consumers' views of value can be influenced by brand traits including brand
equity, brand loyalty, and brand personality.

Consumer perception of value is also influenced by social factors. According

to Hansen, Samuelsen, and Silseth (2008), social standards, advice from
others, and personal ideas all have an impact on consumer behavior. Positive
word-of-mouth, social media buzz, and endorsements from powerful people
can raise perceived worth by denoting acceptability by the public. Customers
might also place a higher value on goods or services that help them express
their identities, participate in social relationships, or be a part of particular
social groupings.