Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Chat-GPT; validating Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in education

sector via ubiquitous learning mechanism
Naveed Saif a, Sajid Ullah Khan b, Imrab Shaheen c, Abdullah ALotaibi d, Mrim M. Alnfiai e,
Mohammad Arif f, *
a
Institute of Management Sciences, University of Science and Technology Bannu, Pakistan
b
Department of Computer Science & IT, University of Lakki Marwat, Pakistan
c
University of Kotli AJK, Pakistan
d
Department of Information Science, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
e
Department of Information Technology, College of Computers and Information Technology, Taif University, Taif, 21944, Saudi Arabia
f
Department of Computer Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, 13120, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Prof. Paul Kirschner The current study aims to establish a connection between students’ behavioral concerns, namely stress and
anxiety, related to the completion of academic tasks, and their integration of technology using the Technology
Keywords: Acceptance Model (TAM) through the utilization of Chat-GPT via ubiquitous learning (UL) procedure. To achieve
TAM this objective, data was collected from 156 students studying management science who were engaged in their
Chat-GPT
final year research projects or internship reports from selected universities in Pakistan. The gathered data un­
Management sciences students
derwent analysis through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using Smart PLS software. The findings reveal a
Higher education
Ubiquitous learning (UL) procedure significant relationship: students’ stress contributes to the emergence of anxiety, which in turn motivates the
adoption of technology-assisted solutions, specifically Chat-GPT, to efficiently complete assigned tasks within
deadlines working through any device from anywhere. Consequently, the perceived ease of use and usefulness
associated with Chat-GPT’s AI-generated text contribute to shaping students’ favorable attitudes toward utilizing
Chat-GPT and also play a role in reducing their stress levels. Furthermore, the study confirms that the devel­
opment of a positive attitude in students acts as a driving force, compelling them to engage with Chat-GPT
through ubiquitous learning (UL) procedure, ultimately resulting in increased actual usage of Chat-GPT. This
pattern, in turn, contributes to stress and anxiety reduction among management science students. The study’s
outcomes corroborate the TAM model, which aligns with the social exchange process, demonstrating its appli­
cability within the context of the educational setup in management sciences and its potential to enhance the
learning experiences of researchers.

1. Introduction autonomous agents (Hauptman et al., 2023), evolutionary algorithms

Artificial intelligence (AI) represents a paradigm shift in technology,
fundamentally altering our perspective on and interaction with ma­
chines. Through advanced algorithms and computational models, AI
empowers computers to emulate human intelligence and judgements.
The support for this idea is evidenced by research from (Aghion, Jones,
& Jones, 2018; Flavián et al., 2022; Raisch & Krakowski, 2021). As
asserted by (Garud, Jayaraj, & Lee, 2021), AI emerges as an intelligent
learning system utilizing mathematical algorithms to perform tasks that
traditionally necessitate human cognitive abilities. AI tools, such as
(Chaudhry, Varano, & Xu, 2000), and artificial neural networks (Alah­
mari, Naim, & Alqahtani, 2023)are now integrated into corporate set­
tings. The extensive adoption of AI has been particularly prominent in
various fields, including the education sector (Chen et al., 2020), this is
exemplified by the emergence of AI-powered virtual tutors, personalized
learning platforms, and innovative educational tools that redefine the
learning experience (Bhutoria, 2022).
Machine learning (ML), situated within the domains of both super­
vised and unsupervised learning, plays a vital function in the advance­
ment of AI systems (Sarker, 2021). As evidenced by a study conducted

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mohammadarif911@gachon.ac.kr (M. Arif).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.108097
Received 16 September 2023; Received in revised form 16 November 2023; Accepted 10 December 2023
Available online 27 December 2023
0747-5632/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Saif et al.
by (Alpaydin, 2020), ML holds a crucial function in optimizing AI’s
performance, enabling it to make predictions or decisions based on data
without explicit programming for each task. Through customized algo­
rithms, ML facilitates the identification of data patterns, leading to ac­
curate predictions and recommendations (Raschka, Patterson, & Nolet,
2020). This aligns with the insights of (Berente et al., 2021)who
emphasize that AI technologies are now employed to address diverse
challenges while significantly contributing to the digital landscape
(Cooper, 2023). In the context of education, technological innovations
encompass facial recognition for attendance and security (Selwyn,
Campbell, & Andrejevic, 2023), natural language processing for intel­
ligent tools and grading (Alqahtani et al., 2023), interactive robotic
teaching systems (Thomaz & Breazeal, 2008), as well as virtual agents
serving as student assistants for inquiries and guidance (Rickel, 2001).
On the other side in recent decades, AI has permeated numerous
aspects of our daily existence, becoming a ubiquitous presence. Ubiq­
uitous computing can be viewed as the latest trend in the realm of in­
formation and communication (Pimmer, Mateescu, & Gröhbiel, 2016).
The primary and most crucial function of ubiquitous computing tech­
nology in the context of u-learning is to establish a pervasive learning
environment, facilitating learning opportunities for individuals
Fig. 1. Ubiquitous learning process for Chat-GPT.
2
Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097
regardless of their location or time. The findings of (Pimmer et al., 2016;
Aljawarneh, 2020) validate the importance of ubiquitous learning in the
work context of Higher education institutions. Last study tries to vali­
date the role of ubiquitous learning (UL) in software engineering
through the application of chat-GPT as shown in Fig. 1 (Sridhara, &
Mazumdar, 2023).
A groundbreaking form of generative AI, referred to as Chat-GPT
(Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer), has emerged, demon­
strating the capability to produce text that closely resembles human
language (Haleem, Javaid, & Singh, 2022). Artificial intelligence tech­
nologies, like Chat GPT, aim to create sophisticated text that mirrors
human communication, achieved through training using ML algo­
rithmsfor assessing information of enormous volumes, understand the
structure of language, and generate pertinent content across various
contexts (Lund et al., 2023). Consequently, Chat GPT gained rapid
popularity, attracting over 100 million users following its introduction
in November 2022 by Open-AI Limited Partnership (Eysenbach, 2023).
Users have evaluated Chat GPT’s versatility across real-life applications
(Atlas, 2023)such as coding, daily guidance, storytelling and poetry
creation (Shidiq, 2023), mathematical computations, statistical ana­
lyses, and document translation (Karakose, 2023; Karakose et al., 2023;
N. Saif et al.
Mhlanga, 2023; Scharth, 2022; Van Dis et al., 2023). Within educational
contexts, AI-powered chatbots, particularly Chat GPT, are employed to
aid students in assignment completion (Javaid et al., 2023a). These
chatbots are designed to offer instantaneous responses to user queries
and assist in formulating accurate answers (Wadhawan, Jain, & Gal­
hotra, 2023). While the utilization of Chat GPT has yielded promising
results in enhancing students’ learning experiences (Firat, 2023),it’s
imperative to delve into the aspects that could shape users’ willingness
to successfully finish assignments, through this technology.
One such factor that demands attention is the users’ level of stress
and anxiety. In contemporary times, a substantial segment of the urban
population finds itself entwined in a fast-paced lifestyle rife with diverse
stressors and pressures (Rojas-Carvajal et al., 2022). This modern way of
life has left a profound impact, resulting in a noteworthy surge in stress
and anxiety levels. Research by (Devane et al., 2005; O’Connor, 2006),
underscores the mounting awareness of the pronounced health impli­
cations linked to stress and anxiety in today’s society. These conditions
are progressively recognized as significant health concerns of our era,
often labeled as pervasive maladies of the 21st century.
An enlightening study conducted by (Bandelow & Michaelis, 2022),
sheds light on how societal, economic, and environmental shifts have
contributed to the escalation of anxiety disorders. Their research illu­
minates how these changes have spurred an uptick in the prevalence of
anxiety disorders, indicating an alarming trend in society. Empirical
findings from a study by (Pearlin & Bierman, 2013), underscore an
apparent increase in the number of individuals grappling with stress in
recent times.
In the medical domain, research by (Colligan & Higgins, 2006)offers
deeper insights into stress and categorizes it into three distinct forms
based on timeframes: acute stress, acute episodic stress, and chronic
stress. Similarly, (Gottschalk, Domschke, & Schiele, 2020) categorize
the contexts in which stress surfaces, encompassing stress associated
with employment, routine stress, and tension stemming from a low so­
cioeconomic background.
As highlighted by (Otu, Charles, & Yaya, 2020)distinct symptoms of
stress have been observed, encompassing nervousness, disorientation,
difficulty concentrating, persistent thoughts, and excessive worrying.
These indicators offer valuable insights into the diverse ways through
which stress can impact individuals’ overall well-being. (Stalmirska &
Mellon, 2022), emphasize that stress and anxiety are commonplace
experiences among students, especially concerning academic tasks such
as assignments. The pressure to excel, meet deadlines, and produce
high-quality work can contribute to heightened stress and anxiety levels
(Zhang et al., 2023). These negative emotions can impede students’
productivity and influence their academic performance (Cutumisu &
Lou, 2020).
Studies have demonstrated that AI applications can confer significant
advantages to students, offering convenience, accessibility, and user-
friendliness (J. Lee, Zo, & Lee, 2014). These apps are accessible
anytime and anywhere, enabling students to seek assistance and guid­
ance at their convenience (Jabbar et al., 2023). The portability of mobile
phones as platforms for AI apps empowers students to engage with
educational resources even while on the go (Xie, Siau, & Nah, 2020).
Additionally, AI applications could specifically aid students who expe­
rience anxiety related to academic tasks (Okonkwo & Ade-Ibijola,
2021). The swift and straightforward access to these apps allows stu­
dents to attain immediate feedback and support, alleviating un­
certainties and assignment-related concerns (Urh, Vukovic, & Jereb,
2015). Through the integration of AI technologies, students can access
personalized assistance and guidance tailored to their unique re­
quirements, fostering a sense of competence and alleviating anxiety
(Wang, Liu, & Tu, 2021).
Research also underscores the favorable impact of technology
adoption, including AI apps, on students’ perception of the value of
maintaining digital connectivity (Yan, Filieri, & Gorton, 2021). In an
increasingly digitized world, technology assumes a pivotal role in
3
Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097
preserving connectivity and facilitating seamless communication (Dhar
Dwivedi et al., 2021). The utilization of AI apps allows students to
maintain connections with peers, educators, and educational resources,
cultivating a sense of belonging and diminishing sensations of isolation
or anxiety (Kamel Boulos & Wheeler, 2007).
Nevertheless, the adoption of novel technologies, especially AI apps,
must be recognized as potentially inducing anxiety in certain students
(Behrend et al., 2011). Apprehensions about technological malfunction,
unease regarding dependence on AI for academic tasks, and the unfa­
miliarity with using such tools can contribute to students’ negative
sentiments (Dixon, Hawe, & Hamilton, 2020). Hence, educational in­
stitutions must provide students with appropriate guidance and support
during the transition to using AI apps, addressing concerns and fostering
a positive perception of these technologies (El Said, 2021). According to
Pimmer et al. (2016), ubiquitous computing can be regarded as the most
recent development in the field of information and communication. Its
paramount role within u-learning lies in the creation of an
all-encompassing learning environment, enabling individuals to access
learning opportunities irrespective of their location or the time.
This study’s main goal is to gain insight into how stress and anxiety
affects users’ intention to utilize Chat-GPT for completing assignments
and working from any location. In pursuit of this goal we will embrace
the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) put forth by (Davis, 1989) as
our conceptual framework and introduce additional variables to
enhance the model’s comprehensiveness. While the TAM variables have
been extensively studied across various domains (Kamal, Shafiq, &
Kakria, 2020; Li, Qi, & Shu, 2008; Yousafzai, Foxall, & Pallister, 2007),
there has been a lack of research specifically focusing on these variables
within the unique context of utilizing Chat-GPT for assignment tasks. By
investigating stress, anxiety, and their impact on users’ intention in this
novel context, our study aims to provide valuable insights that add to the
current body of knowledge on academic assistance technologies.
Notably, our research introduces a fresh perspective by integrating
the Social Exchange Theory (SET) (Kacprzyk & Fedrizzi, 2012) into the
established TAM framework, culminating in the development of the
Technology Social Exchange Model (TSEM). This innovative fusion of
SET and TAM marks the first endeavor to explore the potential synergies
between these theories and sheds light on the mediating role of social
exchange processes in technology acceptance and usage.
2. LiteratureReview
Widely acknowledged framework for assessing technology usage by
users is TAM as proposed in a study by (Tao et al., 2020). TAM was
originally conceptualized by Davis (1989) to elucidate how consumers
perceive and adopt new technologies (Al-Mamary, 2022). The central
premise of TAM posits that perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease
of use (PEOU) are pivotal factors affecting customers’ inclination to
embrace technology (Silva, Dias, & Rodrigues, 2022). Specifically, PU
and PEOU gauge how confident users are that the technology will
improve their performance and how easily they anticipate to utilize it,
respectively (Granić & Marangunić, 2019).
The TAM model further recognizes that beyond these two elements,
external factors such as stress and anxiety (Gangwar, Date, & Ram­
aswamy, 2015) could also impact individuals’ technology adoption
(Dewi & Chen, 2019). In the domain of information systems, TAM has
been extensively employed to elucidate users’ intentions to adopt and
utilize emerging technologies.
The landscape of human-machine interaction has been revolution­
ized by AI and natural language processing (NLP) (Mah, Skalna, &
Muzam, 2022). One prominent form of this interaction is through
chatbots, powered by AI and NLP. In recent years, the utilization of
Chat-GPT for task completion has witnessed a notable surge (Lewis,
Guzman, & Schmidt, 2019). Nonetheless, scant research has delved into
the effects of anxiety and stress on users’ intentions to utilize Chat-GPT
for assignment submission. This literature aims to explore the
N. Saif et al.
relationship between stress, anxiety, and users’ intention to complete
assignments using Chat-GPT, leveraging TAM as the underlying
framework.
2.1. Relationship between stress and anxiety among students
In the realm of making assignments, among the vast majority of
technological tools for accessing online resources today are mobile de­
vices as suggested by (Haleem, Javaid, Qadri, et al., 2022). Users of
mobile devices can conveniently download and utilize mobile apps
anytime and anywhere (Hung, Chang, & Ma, 2021). For instance, there
are several apps available that enable users to make assignments without
the need to physically leave their homes (Sattarov & Khaitova, 2019).
When using mobile apps for chores related to assignments, users can
benefit from this ease and save time and effort. Overall, several factors
influence students’using particular apps, including stress and anxiety,
intention to complete tasks, and perceived values (Al-Hamad et al.,
2021). Individuals often experience stress and anxiety when they feel
overwhelmed by the lack of time to accomplish their various tasks,
which can lead to stress and anxiety. Extensive research has been con­
ducted on the correlation between stress and anxiety within the fields of
medicine and psychology (Aftab et al., 2021; Dragun et al., 2020; Yuan
et al., 2023)with a heightened emphasis on the period during and
following the COVID-19 pandemic. The study of (Debasa, Gelashvili,
Martínez-Navalón, & Saura, 2023) investigate the direct relationship
between customer’s stress and anxiety will using mobile application for
online booking.
Individuals regularly confronted with heavy workloads or
demanding assignments may encounter intensified degrees of both stress
and anxiety (Cui et al., 2020, pp. 1135–1145). Previous investigations
have established a connection between stress and anxiety, indicating a
positive relationship between the two (Lázaro-Pérez et al., 2020;
Rodríguez et al., 2020). Moreover, additional substantiation arises from
research conducted by (Rogowska, Kuśnierz, & Bokszczanin, 2020, pp.
797–811), revealing that individuals with a heightened perception of
task demands tend to exhibit elevated anxiety levels. The frequency of
assignments can serve as a stressor, triggering a sense of overwhelm and
subsequently inducing anxiety. Elevated anxiety levels of this kind can
result in challenges with focus, disruptions in sleep patterns, and phys­
ical manifestations such as headaches or muscle tension (Savarese et al.,
2020).
For instance, regardless of ethnic background, another investigation
by (Magnavita et al., 2020), discovered link amid high occupational
stress and increased symptoms of anxiety and depression. This empha­
sizes that anxiety and mood disorders might manifest more readily as a
consequence of stress. Consequently, we anticipate that anxiety will
indeed be positively influenced by the stress induced by frequent
assignments.
H1. Stress will exert a positive influence on anxiety among Manage­
ment Sciences Final Year students.
2.2. Stress and perceived usefulness of technology
Research by (Phillips-Wren & Adya, 2020), has indicated that stress
can detrimentally affect decision-making processes, including the
assessment of technology usefulness. When individuals experience
elevated stress levels, they might be less inclined to perceive a tech­
nology such as Chat GPT as beneficial for assignment completion as
suggested by (George & George, 2023). This outcome could stem from
various factors, including compromised cognitive processing, height­
ened distractibility, and diminished motivation (Ali et al., 2023). Pre­
vious inquiries have underscored significance of PU as a pivotal
technology adoption determinant (Vahdat et al., 2021).
If individuals fail to perceive Chat GPT as valuable for assignment
completion, their likelihood of utilizing the technology may decrease,
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Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097
potentially impacting their future intent to use it (Qadir, 2023).
Consequently, we anticipate that stress will exert unfavorable effects on
the perceived usefulness of Chat GPT for assignment completion.
H2. Stress will have an adverse impact on the perceived usefulness of
Chat GPT for assignment completion among Management Sciences Final
Year students.
2.3. Perceived usefulness and attitude toward using Chat-GPT
PUSF is recognized as a pivotal factor within the TAM, significantly
shapes an individual’s perspective about technology adoption in
research carried out by (Ge, Qi, & Qu, 2023). When individuals perceive
a technology as valuable, they tend to develop a favorable attitude to­
ward its utilization (Kasilingam, 2020). In the context of Chat-GPT, in­
dividuals are likely to approach its usage more positively if they believe
it enhances their ability to complete assignments as indicated by
(Malinka et al., 2023).
Furthermore, earlier investigation by (Malinka et al., 2023), have
demonstrated that attitude has considerable part in technological
adoption decisions. Consequently, if individuals hold a positive attitude
towards using Chat-GPT for assignment completion, they are prone to
embracing the technology and continue its usage over time (Dwivedi
et al., 2023). Therefore, we anticipate that attitudes toward using Chat
GPT for assignment completion will indeed be positively influenced
through perceived usefulness.
H3. We hypothesize that PUSF will exert a positive influence on the
attitude towards using Chat GPT for assignment completion among
Management Sciences Final Year students.
2.4. Perceive usefulness of Chat-GPT and students stress during work
assignments
PUSE, as posited by the TAM, holds significant sway over the choice
to embrace novel technology (S. Singh, Sinha, & Liébana-Cabanillas,
2020). People are more likely to embrace technology if they view it as
user-friendly (Nuryyev et al., 2020). In the specific context of Chat GPT,
individuals may exhibit greater willingness to adopt and utilize the
technology if they are convinced of its ease of use for completing as­
signments (Malinka et al., 2023).
Moreover, research by (Liébana-Cabanillas et al., 2020), has indi­
cated that PEU can mitigate the stress linked to technology use. When a
technology is perceived as user-friendly, individuals are less likely to
encounter stress during its utilization (N. Singh, Sinha, &
Liébana-Cabanillas, 2020). This effect can be attributed to factors such
as reduced cognitive load, diminished frustration, and heightened con­
fidence in operating the technology (Brachten et al., 2020). Thereby, we
anticipate that PUSE might indeed exert a stress-reducing effect.
H4. We hypothesize that perceived ease of use will exert a negative influ­
ence on stress.
2.5. Relationship between perceived ease of use (PUSE) and perceived
usefulness (PUSF)
One of the pivotal determinants guiding users’ adoption and utili­
zation of information technologies is the parameter of PUSE within the
TAM framework (Unal & Uzun, 2021). The users’ attitude towards in­
formation technologies is another influential factor shaping their
behavior (Zhong, Oh, & Moon, 2021). Notably, users’ attitudes are
considered to significantly impact customer satisfaction, reflecting their
favorable or unfavorable emotions about engaging in specific practices
(Chen et al., 2022).
Within the Technology TAM, PUSE signifies how much a user be­
lieves that engaging with a specific technology is straightforward be­
sides uncomplicated (Saadé & Bahli, 2005a). Conversely, PU pertains to
N. Saif et al.
how an individual perceives the ways in which a technology can
strengthen their efficiency or productivity (Igbaria, Schiffman, &
Wieckowski, 1994). The TAM, founded on the premise that people are
more likely to use a technology they endorse as user-friendly and
beneficial, aligns with the notion that PUSE could positively influence
PUSF(Mac Callum & Jeffrey, 2013). The underlying idea here is, people
are more inclined to adopt a technology if they find it convenient to use
recognizing its value and benefits, subsequently fostering a positive
perception of its usefulness.
Empirical studies have consistently supported this hypothesis,
revealing a robust correlation between PUSF and PUSE across diverse
technology contexts, encompassing e-commerce (Sun, Tai, & Tsai,
2010), social media (Mazman & Usluel, 2009), and educational tech­
nologies (Saadé & Bahli, 2005b). This implies that PUSE plays an
essential component in forming user evaluations of a technology’s
relevance. As a result, we are poised to examine whether user percep­
tions of usability influence attitudes towards using Chat-GPT for
assignment completion within the framework of this hypothesis.
H5. ; PUSE has significant relationship with PUSF of using Chat-GPT
for assignment completion among Management Sciences Final Year
students.
2.6. Relationship between perceived ease of use and attitude towards
using chat GPT for assignment completion
Building upon existing research by (Guidetti 2019), it is conceivable
that PUSE could positively shape individuals’ inclinations towards uti­
lizing Chat GPT for assignment completion, when considered alongside
other factors such as PUSF and technology acceptance. The proposition
that PEU could foster positive attitudes towards using Chat-GPT for
assignment completion holds merit as put forth by (Kasneci et al., 2023).
Attitude towards using Chat GPT for assignment completion pertains to
individuals’ favorable or unfavorable emotions, evaluations, or judg­
ments concerning the utilization of Chat GPT for academic purposes
(Köbis & Mossink, 2021). Users are more likely to harbor positive sen­
timents towards Chat-GPT utilization if they find it user-friendly for
assignment completion (Vaishya, Misra, & Vaish, 2023).
Enhanced ease of use may amplify the perceived convenience, effi­
ciency, and effectiveness of Chat-GPT as an academic tool. Conse­
quently, this enhancement could contribute to fostering a positive
attitude towards its utilization for assignment completion (Gill & Kaur,
2023). It’s essential to clarify that perceptions of technology are shaped
by a multitude of factors, including perceived usefulness, social norms,
trust, and prior experience (Classen et al., 2021). Therefore, while PUSE
may indeed play a role in influencing attitudes towards using Chat-GPT
for assignment completion, it’s unlikely to be the sole determining
factor.
Empirical research concentrated on attitudes towards utilizing
technology for academic purposes has highlighted a positive correlation
between PUSE and favorable attitudes, as demonstrated by (Das et al.,
2023). As such, it is plausible that PUSE could indeed exert a favorable
impact on perceptions of utilizing Chat GPT for assignment completion.
H6. We hypothesize that PUSE will exert a positive influence on attitude
towards using Chat GPT for assignment completion.
The attributes of behavioral intention to use and actual system
implementation were initially incorporated into the TAM model for
research on computerized support systems (Das et al., 2023). Subse­
quent model testing unveiled a direct and advantageous connection
among actual system usage and the inclination to participate in such
behavior (Hunde, Demsash, & Walle, 2023). These constructs have since
undergone extensive investigation across various fields and are recog­
nized as crucial predictors of user behavior in diverse contexts
(Schweiker et al., 2020).
The hypothesis that a positive attitude towards using Chat GPT for
assignment completion would yield a positive influence on the
5
Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097
behavioral intention to employ it aligns with the Theory of Reasoned
Action (TRA) and TAM frameworks. In accordance with TRA and TAM,
one’s attitude towards a particular behavior, such as using Chat GPT for
assignment completion, significantly shapes their decision to engage in
said behavior (Guidetti, 2019). Attitude towards using Chat GPT for
assignment completion pertains to one’s feelings, evaluations, or judg­
ments regarding the technology’s use for academic purposes (Malik
et al., 2023). On the other hand, behavioral intention to use Chat GPT for
assignment completion refers to one’s readiness to exhibit the behavior
of using Chat GPT for academic tasks (Bays et al., 2023a). When an
individual holds a positive attitude towards employing GPT for assign­
ment completion, they are likely to exhibit stronger determination to use
it (Javaid et al., 2023b).
A favorable attitude towards using Chat GPT signifies that an indi­
vidual perceives it as useful, easy to use, and beneficial for assignment
completion (Mizumoto & Eguchi, 2023). These positive perceptions may
consequently translate into a heightened behavioral intention to use
Chat GPT for assignment completion (Farrell, Bogodistov, &
Mössenlechner, 2023). Empirical evidence by (Mailizar, Almanthari, &
Maulina, 2021), demonstrates a positive correlation between attitudes
and behavioral intentions towards using technology for academic pur­
poses. As a result, it is plausible that a positive attitude towards using
Chat GPT for assignment completion indeed exerts a beneficial impact
on the desire to utilize it (Tlili et al., 2023). Nevertheless, it’s decisive to
recognize that additional factors like subjective norms and perceived
behavioral control can also stimulate one’s judgment to use Chat GPT for
assignment completion (Bays et al., 2023b).
It is conceivable that the attitude towards using Chat GPT for
assignment completion might exert a favorable influence on the
behavioral intention to use this technology, in conjunction with other
factors like PU and PEU(Iqbal, Ahmed, & Azhar, 2022; Iqbal et al.,
2022).
Given the cumulative findings of several studies, it is reasonable to
infer that if students perceive Chat GPT as beneficial and user-friendly
for assignment completion and harbor a positive attitude towards its
utilization, this could indeed positively affect their intention to utilize i.
H7. We hypothesize that attitude towards using Chat-GPT will exert a
positive influence on behavioral intention to use Chat GPT for assignment
completion.
H8. We hypothesize that behavioral Intention to use Chat-GPT will exert a
positive influence on actual system use.
The TAM framework underscores that the most pivotal determinant
shaping an individual’s actual utilization of technology is their behav­
ioral intention to do so (Prasetyo et al., 2021). Within the context of
TAM, someone’s behavioral intention to adopt technology is influenced
by their PUSF and PUSE regarding that technology (Panergayo, 2021).
Subsequently, a substantial predictor of their tangible utilization of the
technology is their behavioral intention to use it (Lee et al., 2020).
Empirical evidence supports this notion, highlighting that behavioral
intention to use serves as a reliable indicator of actual technological
adoption (Cao et al., 2021). This hypothesis posits that individuals
harboring a positive behavioral intention to use Chat-GPT are more in­
clined to engage it for completing assignments. However, it’s worth
considering that their levels of stress and anxiety could potentially in­
fluence the extent to which they employ the technology for assignment
completion.
The research framework suggested in this study is visually repre­
sented in Fig. 2. Our investigation synthesizes the TAM model with
supplementary factors such as stress and anxiety induced by the use of
Chat-GPT for final year assignment (research report/thesis/project/
internship reports) completion among management sciences students.
N. Saif et al.
Fig. 2. Conceptual research Model (based on TEM & Social Exchange).
3. Research methodology
3.1. Population and sampling
In the current study questionnaire were distributed among final
years (MBA) Management Sciences discipline students of different uni­
versities in southern zone. The selection of students was based on the
reason that MBA students in final semester are trying to complete
various assignments, short research papers and completion of final year
project that ae mandatory to achieve the final degree. Hence time
shortage and lack of guidance as well as pressure on completion degree
within stipulate time frame exert pressure on the students that leads to
anxiety. Thus in such kind of situation student mostly looking for
assistance from peers/friends/and technology to complete their task
timely. In order to measure the adequate sample size G-Power analysis
procedure (Verma & Gustafsson, 2020) was followed with (f2 = 0.15
with α = 0.05, having power ration of 0.95 and total criterion variables
= 6). Based on the formula the minimum sample size required in the
current study context is 146, while most of the previous studies favor to
use power analysis procedure to determine effective and representative
sample size (Khag., 2021). Based on the sample size determined through
power analysis total 200 questionnaire were distributed among the
elected MBA’s final year students of various universities. In response
total 165 filled questionnaire were received and after removing the
missing values total 156 useable questionnaires were used for further
analysis. According to the findings most of the respondents were male
while only 31 (20%) represent female gender. In response to subject
specialization most of the respondents belongs to finance/accounting
(57.69%) followed by (32.12%) HRM and (10.25%) marketing/supply
chain.
3.2. Measurement of variables
The measurement items for the current study were adopted from
previous studies and then slight modification were made in accordance
to the current study requirement.
3.2.1. Anxiety and stress
Anxiety and stress were measured through five and three items scales
adapted from the study of (Debasa et al., 2023) conducted among
Spanishrestaurants reservation. However, in the current study items
were slightly modified and sample item for measuring students stress is
“I feel like I can’t control important aspects when using traditional sources to
make assignments” with (α = 0.81), while sample item of student’s
anxiety is “Using Chat GPT for assignments is a little intimidating for me
“with (α = 0.78).
6
Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097
3.2.2. Perceived ease of use
Perceived ease of use attribute of chat GPT for making final year
assignment was assessed through 5 items adapted construct of (Liu,
2010; Debasa et al., 2023) and sample item to measure ease of using
Chat-GPT for assignment was “Interaction with Chat GPT for assignments is
clear and understandable” with reliability of (α = 0.78).
3.2.3. Perceived ease of use
Similarly perceived usefulness attribute of TAM model related to
Chat-GPT for assignment completion was assessed through 4 items
adapted scale from the study of (Singh, Sharma, & Paliwal, 2021; Debasa
et al., 2023) and sample item for PEAS is “Using Chat GPT for assignments
improves my performance related to complete final year Project” with reli­
ability of (α = 0.82).
3.2.4. Attitude toward using Chat-GPT
Attitude toward using Chat GPT for assignment and final year project
was investigated through 4 item scale adapted from the study of (Debasa
et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2020) and sample item to represent ones atti­
tude is “Using Chat GPT for assignments increases my productivity in aca­
demic tasks” with reliability of (α = 0.73).
3.2.5. Behavioral intention toward using Chat-GPT
Finally, Behavioral intention use Chat-GPT was also assessed through
4 items scale adapted from the study of validated by (Debasa et al.,
2023) with sample item “I will recommend the use of Chat GPT for as­
signments to my peers and colleagues” having reliability value of (α =
0.80).
3.3. Data analysis procedure indicate in flow chart
The structural equation model (SEM) was estimated through the
utilization of the partial least squares (PLS) technique for data analysis
(Smart PLS.4). This analytical approach relies on variance and facilitates
the statistical assessment of the hypotheses that underlie the study’s
model. Smart PLS is an advanced statistical software used to conduct
SEM analysis, aiming to uncover both direct and indirect effects among
the variables under study, relying on theoretical assumptions. In the first
step after data cleaning through missing data, initial CFA was performed
through Smart PLS and all the items having loading values lower than
(0.7) were removed. The results of initial CFA reliability are depicted in
measurement section and the first step of Flow Diagram is fulfilled).
In the second step two step procedure was adopted to validate the
interrelation among construct under study. Again overall sample (165)
obtained through target segment was analyzed through initial CFA and
validate the results based on (Cronbach Alpha, CR-AVE, Fornel and
Larcker as well as HTMT) statistical procedure (See flow diagram of
N. Saif et al.
Fig. .3. Flow chart of Predictive Modeling.
Fig. 3). Finally, SEM is one of the most highly recommended procedures
to validate structural models in the fields of social and management
sciences. In the view of (Ramayah, Cheah, Chuah, Ting, & Memon,
2018) Smart PLS stands out as a crucial software for comprehending
newly formulated concepts via visual representation. In this ongoing
study, Smart PLS-4 has been employed to grasp the underlying concepts
that align the social exchange process between human psychological
aspects and TAM attributes through path co efficient, t-statistics, and R2
as well as f2. This is done while examining Chat-GPT’s role as a source
mechanism for accomplishing assigned tasks. (The detail flow chart
explain all the mandatory steps to conduct the current research study.
See Fig. 3, Flow chart of predictive modeling).
4. Discussion
To validate the results generated by Smart PLS, a comprehensive
evaluation of the model is essential, encompassing both inner and outer
assessment procedures. In the initial stage, the construct’s reliability and
validity are meticulously examined through item loadings and alpha
values, which are then followed by validating composite reliability
through the computation of the construct reliability (CR) and the
average variance extracted (AVE). Subsequently, the discriminant val­
idity of the model is assessed using the Fornell-Larcker Criteria (FLC)
and the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) correlation procedure. Finally,
7
Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097
the hypotheses are subjected to testing through the validation of the
structural model using the path analysis procedure (Sarstedt, Hair Jr,
Nitzl, Ringle, & Howard, 2020).
The assessment of construct validity and reliability involves an
analysis of alpha coefficients, factor loading values, CR, and AVE.
Referring to the results presented in Table 1, it is in accordance with the
recommendations put forth by Hair, Sarstedt, Hopkins, and Kuppel­
wieser (2014) that items with loading values exceeding 0.70 are
retained in the model for further analysis (Sarstedt, Ringle, & Hair,
2014). Following these guidelines, the items ANX3 and ATU4 were
removed during the initial Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), as their
loading values did not meet the threshold. Conversely, the remaining
items displayed loading values surpassing the recommended levels,
aligning with the validations established by various studies worldwide
(see Fig. 4).
Inter-item consistency was rigorously evaluated using Cronbach’s
alpha (α) value, revealing that the alpha values for all constructs fell
within the range of 0.719–0.913. These values comfortably exceeded the
threshold of 0.6, as recommended by (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994) (see
Fig. 3). Furthermore, the comprehensive reliability of the constructs was
assessed through the Composite Reliability (CR), with results indicating
that the CR values for all constructs surpassed the recommended
threshold of 0.7. In parallel, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
values, which gauge the extent to which constructs encapsulate the
N. Saif et al. Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097

Table 1
Details of research work related to Chat-GPT usage, TAM and Stress.
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

Latest work on CHAT GPT

1. Aghion, Jones, & USA “Book Title: The “Chapter Title: Artificial The study does Academia N/A The study
Jones Economics of Intelligence and Economic not explicitly emphasizes the
Artificial Growth” mention specific significance of
Intelligence: An variables related comprehending how
Agenda”-(2018) to the impact of AI may alter the
artificial process of
intelligence (AI) developing new
on economic concepts and
growth. technologies,
possibly assisting in
the solution of
challenging issues
and scaling creative
endeavor.
However, the It suggests that
authors discuss economic growth
the potential may be constrained
effects of AI on not by what we do
innovation and well, but rather by
growth, as well as what is essential and
the automation of yet hard to improve
routine tasks by
traditional
software and AI.
2. Raisch, & EU & “Academy of “Artificial Intelligence and There recent Academia 3 books on AI The paper discusses
Krakowski Switzerland Management Management: The books on AI were the concepts of
Review”-(2021). Automation–Augmentation explored by automation and
Paradox” authors augmentation in the
management
domain. It argues
that automation and
augmentation are
interdependent and
cannot be neatly
separated.
Overemphasizing
either automation or
augmentation can
lead to negative
outcomes. The
paper suggests that
organizations
should adopt a
broader perspective
that includes both
automation and
augmentation to
achieve
complementarities
that benefit business
and society. The
paper also
emphasizes the need
for management
scholars to be
involved in research
on the use of AI in
organizations and
calls for a change in
how AI research is
conducted to
develop meaningful
theory and provide
practical advice.
3. Flavián, Pérez- USA “Journal of “Intention to use analytical Technology Automation of Data set of 404 The study’s findings
Rueda, Belanche Service artificial intelligence (AI) in readiness, services, North American- showed that
& Casaló Management”- services–the effect of Service particularly in based potential consumers’
(2022) technology readiness and awareness to use sectors such as customers of propensity to utilize
awareness” analytical AI banking and robo-advisors robo-advisors is
investment financial increased by their
services. investment optimism about
Moderating technology and
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

factors: The decreased level of

potential uneasiness.
customers’ Surprisingly, even
characteristics, resistance to
such as age, technology had a
gender, and beneficial impact on
previous robo-advisor
experience with acceptance, defying
financial accepted wisdom on
investment the subject. The
services. study also looked at
how clients learn
about robo-advisors
and how that
knowledge affects
their willingness to
use these automated
financial
instruments. These
results underscore
the need of taking
into account user
views when
implementing
technology and
provide light on the
complex interaction
between consumer
attitudes,
technology, and the
adoption of robo-
advisors.
4. Chen, Xie. Zou & Hong Kong “Computers and “Application and theory gaps The research Artificial Analyzed 45 This research
Hwang Education: during the rise of artificial analyzed various Intelligence in articles reveals a growing
Artificial intelligence in education.” aspects, Education interest and impact
Intelligence”- including annual (AIEd). of Artificial
(2020) distribution, Intelligence in
leading journals, Education (AIEd)
institutions, research,
countries/ underlining its
regions, increasing
commonly used significance in the
terms, and the educational
theories and landscape.
technologies However, it points
adopted in AIEd out a significant gap
studies as deep learning
technologies,
despite their
potential, remain
underutilized in
educational
contexts. Instead,
traditional AI
techniques like
natural language
processing (NLP) are
commonly
employed, while
more advanced
methods are less
prevalent. The study
also highlights a
crucial need for
deeper integration
between AI
technologies and
established
educational
theories. To advance
AIEd, scholars are
encouraged to
explore AI’s
potential in
traditional
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9
N. Saif et al. Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097

Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

classrooms,
investigate intricate
relationships within
intelligent tutoring
systems, embrace
advanced deep
learning algorithms,
utilize NLP for
personalized
education, and
foster tighter
alignment between
AI technologies and
educational
theories.
5. Hauptman, USA “Computers in “Adapt and overcome: - Amount of Academia The study This study
Schelble, Human Perceptions of adaptive autonomous recruited 103 uncovered a
McNeese & Behavior”- autonomous agents for control AI participants to noteworthy insight:
Madathil (2023) human-AI teaming. agents have complete a it’s possible to gauge
Computers in Human over their factorial survey how much freedom
Behavior” decisions and conducted adaptive AI agents
- Changes in the 22 follow-on should have in a
control of AI qualitative team, and this
agents and how interviews to depends on how
it affects the explore the structured and
rest of the team participants’ predictable the tasks
cognitively perceptions of an are during a work
- Autonomy AI teammate’s cycle. In simpler
levels of AI adaptive terms, the more
teammates in capabilities in orderly and
incident incident predictable the
response response tasks, the more
contexts contexts. autonomy AI agents
- AI teammate’s can handle. But
level of here’s the
autonomy and interesting part – AI
its impact on agents need to adapt
team like humans do.
performance They can’t just
and follow set rules; they
cohesiveness must be flexible and
- Participants’ responsive, just like
perceptions of we are when we
the AI work together. So,
teammate as a the study suggests
full teammate that if we want
and capable of human-AI teams to
performing work well, we
independently should design AI
- Participants’ teammates that can
feelings about adapt dynamically,
the AI almost like humans.
teammate’s This way, they can
legitimacy as a boost productivity
teammate and and create positive
how altering its vibes in the team,
autonomy level which is a win-win
would affect for everyone.
those feelings
- Team training
to understand
and accept the
AI teammate
- Human beings’
inherent fear of
new
technologies
and how it
resolves over
time
- Manual
adaptation
hindering team
performance
and creating
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

power
imbalances
- Designing
adaptive agents
to dynamically
adapt and be
perceived as
natural
behavior
adjustment by
the team
- Recognition of
changes in the
team’s work
cycle by the AI
agent for
appropriate
adaptation
- Need for
leadership
open to
adopting new
technologies
for their fullest
extent.
6. Bhutoria USA, China, “Computers and “Personalized education and The paper Education The paper The review’s
and India Education: Artificial Intelligence in the analyzes the use employed a conclusions show
Artificial United States, China, and of AI in the systematic how well AI works
Intelligence”- India: A systematic review education sector, review using a in all three countries
(2022) using a Human-In-The-Loop specifically in Human-In-The- at adapting to
model" personalized Loop natural students’ unique
education language learning styles,
processing preferences, and
model of aptitudes and
literature from leading them down
the past two the most efficient
years learning paths.
(2019–2021) in While raising issues
English language with data privacy,
from IEEE the accessibility of
Xplore on digital resources,
countries China, and financial
India, and the limitations, AI also
USA. The enhances
shortlisted instructional
sample for in- content and
depth analysis customizes it for
consisted of 353 individual
relevant papers requirements. These
issues pose obstacles
to the widespread
implementation of
AI in education.
7. Thomaz & USA “Artificial “Teachable robots: Experimental Education 18 volunteers In this experimental
Breazeal Intelligence”- Understanding human platform with a from the campus study researchers
(2008) teaching behavior to build simulated RL community of found interesting
more effective robot robot and present MIT, Georgia. things about how
learners.” an analysis of USA. people teach a
real-time human Reinforcement
teaching Learning agent.
behavior found in They used rewards
a study in which not just for feedback
untrained but also to guide the
subjects taught agent’s future
the robot to actions. Plus, they
perform a new tend to be positive in
task. their feedback,
which seems to
motivate the agent.
As participants got
to know the robot
learner, they change
how they teach it.
So, we made some
changes to our
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11
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

robot, ran more

experiments with
people teaching it,
and saw some
significant
improvements in
how it learns. This
highlights how
understanding the
human-robot
teaching
partnership helps
design better
algorithms that suit
human teaching
styles and enhance
the robot’s learning.
8. Atlas India “Sustainable “ChatGPT for higher Review Study Academia N/A The outcomes of this
Operations and education and professional study highlight how
Computers”- development” - To study the digital technology
(2023) need for digital may revolutionize
technologies in schooling. It
education; demonstrates how
- To brief about technology can
the importance speed up
of digital administrative
classroom in tasks, give students
education and responsibility in
identify the how they use
role of digital technology, and
technologies encourage lifelong
applications in learning through
education; individualized
- To identify the digital content. The
significant transition to digital
challenges of classrooms is
digital considered as a way
technologies in to improve learning
education and progress
monitoring. The
report also
recognizes the
broader effects of
contemporary
technologies in
addressing
environmental and
ecological issues
while encouraging
economic and social
development.
9. Karakose Turkey “Educational “The utility of ChatGPT in This study Academia Anticipations This study
Process: educational provides succinct and analysis of elaborated that
International research—Potential overview of the scholars from amazing AI
Journal”-(2023) opportunities and pitfalls.” opportunities and different fields of developments in
challenges of research recent years have set
using ChatGPT in the stage for more
educational sophisticated
research systems that can
address ChatGPT’s
shortcomings in
supporting scientific
study. In order to
bridge the gap until
more sophisticated
AI systems are
developed, scientists
in education should
continue to
investigate its
possibilities and
collaborate to set
ethical norms for
responsible
integration into
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12
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

scientific research
and publishing.
10. Okonkwo& Ade- South “Computers and “Chatbots applications in Chatbots Education A systematic This thorough
Ibijola Africa Education: education: A systematic applications in review approach evaluation compiles
Artificial review” education was used to findings from earlier
Intelligence”- analyse 53 investigations on
(2021) articles from chatbots in
recognized education. It
digital databases discusses current
studies, highlighting
the advantages,
difficulties, and
prospective
possibilities for the
future of utilizing
Chatbot technology
for improving
education. In
educational
contexts, chatbots
are considered as a
useful tool for
enhancing learning.
STRESS & ANXIETY research work
11. Aftab, Abadi, Pakistan, “International “COVID-19 Pandemic Affects Psychological Medical 418 The COVID-19
Nahar, Ahmed, Saudi Journal of the Medical Students’ impact of the students undergraduate pandemic has had a
Mahmood, Arabia, Environmental Learning Process and pandemic, and severe psychological
Madaan, & India Research and Assaults Their Psychological learning postgraduate impact on medical
Ahmad Public Health”- Wellbeing." difficulties medical students students all across
(2021) from all over the the world, resulting
world in problems
including brain fog,
inattention, and
learning difficulties,
as this research
highlights. The
critical necessity for
preventative actions
to support pupils’
mental health and
academic
performance is
emphasized. The
study advocates for
a thorough, long-
term assessment
into the effects on
medical students’
learning and
wellbeing over the
long run and
underscores the
persistent threat
posed by changing
coronavirus strains.
Additionally, it
implies that
conducting clinical
trials to adopt stress
counseling and
resilience training
could be crucial in
minimizing these
negative impacts
during the
pandemic.
12. Cutumisu, & Lou Canada “Computers in “The moderating effect of Mindset, critical University 155 According to the
Human mindset on the relationship feedback- students Undergraduate study, students who
Behavior”- between university students’ seeking, learning, students at a ask for criticism are
(2020) critical feedback-seeking and revision choices, University in more likely to edit
learning” poster Western Canada their posters and do
performance better in the game.
The students’
modification
decisions provided a
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

comprehensive
explanation of the
relationship
between soliciting
critical feedback
and performance.
The
conceptualization of
the mentality
construct was found
to have an influence
on the link between
critical feedback-
seeking and
learning, with
varying outcomes
depending on the
conceptualization.
13. Debasa, Spain “European “Do stress and anxiety Stress and Tourism 672 customers of The technology
Gelashvili, Research on influence users’ intention to Anxiety Spanish acceptance model
Martínez-Navalón Management make restaurant reservations restaurants was used in this
& Saura and Business through mobile apps?” study to evaluate
Economics”- how stress and
(2023) anxiety affect users’
intentions to make
restaurant
reservations via
mobile apps.
Surprisingly, stress
did not show a
direct correlation
with attitude toward
use, perceived
usefulness, or
convenience of use.
But it did turn up
some other
interesting
connections
between user
attitude and
perceived
usefulness. Stress
and anxiety have
increased due to
societal and
environmental
conditions,
especially in Spain,
which have been
identified as
widespread 21st-
century illnesses.
Stress, which can be
acute, acute
episodic, or chronic
in nature, has spread
across society.
14. Stalmirska, & UK “Journal of “It feels like a job …” Motivations, Higher 14 commuter This study found
Mellon Hospitality, Understanding commuter engagement, education students at a that, due to
Leisure, Sport & students: Motivations, learning university in the increased tuition
Tourism engagement, and learning experiences UK rates and worries
Education”- experiences” about their mental
(2022) health, commuter
students frequently
choose to stay at
home to save
money. Although
academic
integration is a
priority for them,
their sense of
belonging is
negatively impacted
by their low social
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

involvement and
extracurricular
activity
participation.
Universities should
think about putting
suggestions to
improve commuter
students’ sense of
belonging into
practice to solve
these issues. This
change from
traditional
relocation to more
students commuting
from home indicates
shifting dynamics in
education.
15. Zhang, Sunindijo, China “Safety science”- “Work stressors, coping Key stressors Construction 336 respondents This study
Frimpong, & Su. (2023) strategies, and poor mental commonly working for highlights the
health in the Chinese experienced by different types of significant stressors
construction industry.” employees organizations faced by Chinese
across 60 construction
Chinese cities. workers, including
demanding
schedules, low pay,
workplace threats,
work-family
conflicts, limited
social support, and
poor working
conditions. Among
these, demanding
schedules notably
impact mental
health. Work-family
conflict is the most
influential factor
leading to poor
mental health
outcomes. Workers
often use problem-
focused coping, but
maladaptive coping
is linked to worse
mental health.
Alarmingly, Chinese
construction
workers have higher
rates of depression,
anxiety, and stress
compared to other
employee groups in
China, underscoring
the urgency of
mental health
interventions.
Technology Acceptance Model research work
16. Tao, Wang, China “Computers in “A systematic review and User acceptance Academia 67 studies on The systematic
Wang, Zhang, Human meta-analysis of user of consumer- user acceptance review and meta-
Zhang & Qu Behavior”- acceptance of consumer- oriented health of CHITs analysis support the
(2023) oriented health information information Technology
technologies” technologies Acceptance Model’s
(CHITs) (TAM) ability to
accurately predict
user acceptance of
consumer health
information
technologies. The
study finds a
number of
antecedents,
including as self-
efficacy, subjective
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

norm, trust,
perceived
behavioral control,
and facilitating
situations, to be
significantly
correlated with the
key TAM
characteristics. The
results also imply
that these
correlations can
differ depending on
elements like user
type, technology,
and country of
origin. CHITs are
acknowledged as
effective methods
for engaging
patients in their
healthcare
decisions.
17. Nuryyev, Wang, Taiwan “Sustainability”- “Block chain technology Factors Tourism and 101 SMEs in This study on the
Achyldurdyyeva, (2020) adoption behavior and influencing the hospitality Taiwan, use of crypto
Jaw, Yeh, Lin, & sustainability of the business intention to employing a currency in the
Wu in tourism and hospitality adopt total of 15,831 tourism industry has
SMEs: An empirical study” cryptocurrency people. direct applications
payments among for increasing the
small to medium- competitiveness of
sized enterprises SMEs. It highlights
(SMEs) in the novelty of
tourism and bitcoin technology
hospitality and how it can
change how SMEs in
the travel and
hospitality
industries conduct
business. The study
emphasizes how
important it is to
comprehend the
important elements
that affect SMEs’
intents to accept
bitcoin payments.
18. Kamal, Shafiq & Pakistan “Technology in “Investigating acceptance of Perceived ease of Healthcare 275 participants The study reveals
Kakria Society”-(2020) telemedicine services use, that telemedicine
through an extended technological service adoption in
technology acceptance anxiety, social rural Pakistan is
model (TAM)” influence, influenced by
perceived ease of factors such as ease
usefulness, trust, of use, technological
facilitating anxiety, social
conditions, influence,
perceived risk, usefulness
and resistance to perception, trust,
technology facilitating
conditions,
perceived risk, and
technology
resistance. It
validates the
Technology
Acceptance Model
(TAM) while
incorporating
additional variables
for telemedicine
adoption in
developing nations.
These findings offer
valuable insights for
policymakers and
healthcare
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Table 1 (continued )
S. Author/s Country Journal Title Variable/s Segment/ Sample Findings
N Sector

providers, aiding in
the understanding of
factors that promote
or hinder the
implementation of
telemedicine
services.
19. Unal & Uzun Turkey “British Journal “Understanding university Factors Education 218 university In this research, an
of Educational students’ behavioral influencing students expanded version of
Technology”- intention to use Edmodo students’ the technology
(2021) through the lens of an behavioral acceptance model
extended technology intention to use was employed, and
acceptance model.” the educational the data was
social network examined using a
site Edmodo statistical technique
known as partial
least squares
structural equation
modeling. The
outcomes of the
study underscored a
strong connection
between the factors
that lead students to
want to use Edmodo
and their actual
intention to use the
platform.
20. Yousafzai, Foxall UK “Journal of “Technology acceptance: a Technology Academia Meta-analysis of The investigation
& Pallister Modeling in meta-analysis of the TAM” acceptance 569 findings report points out
Management”- model (TAM) from 95 TAM gaps in the prior
(2007). studies studies on the
Technology
Acceptance Model
(TAM) and makes
recommendations
for further research.
It notably draws
attention to how
little emphasis is
placed on the
“attitude”
component in
empirical studies.
This prompts
questions regarding
why attitude isn’t
taken into account
in the TAM, if the
updated TAM can be
successfully used in
both necessary and
voluntary contexts,
and why actual
usage isn’t as
frequently measured
as intents and self-
reported usage.

underlying variance, also exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.5 as
prescribed by (Legate, Hair Jr, Chretien, and Risher,2021). The combi­
nation of these statistics collectively validates the robustness and reli­
ability of the measurement model (Hair, Matthews, Matthews, &
Sarstedt, 2017), thereby augmenting the study’s validity and contrib­
uting to a more comprehensive comprehension of the intricate re­
lationships between the variables.
Finally, discriminant validility was also performed through FLC as
well as HTMT statistical procedure (see Table 2). FLC depict the variance
contributed to due to the its relevant indicators, and it is state that
average shared variance among own construct must be greater than the
variance with other constructs. According to the results from table (2)
FLC criterion values are depicted at diagonals quoted with Parenthesis.
Results clearly indicate that Fornel-Lacker criteria values at diagonals
are greater than the shared variance with subsequent construct of the
model. in the next Phase HTMT values for the current model is assessed
and it is suggested that the HTMT values must be lower than (0.9).
HTMT values are used to validate variance based SEM analysis and it
shows the correlation of Hetrotrait-Hetromethod with Monotrait-
Metromethod approach (Henseler et al., 2019). Results from Table 3
indicate that HTMT values are lower than threshold level, hence the
construct under study can be used for further statistical modeling.
4.1. Structural model assessment
To validate the path analysis through Beta coefficient and t-statistics,

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N. Saif et al. Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097

Table 2 relationships is outlined in Table 4. Specifically, our findings elucidate

Measurement model assessment. that students experiencing heightened stress due to time constraints for
Variables Items Loading А rho_a CR AVE task completion encounter elevated levels of anxiety (β = 0.545; p <
0.05), consequently leading to the acceptance of H1. Furthermore, when
Actual use of Chat GPT ACUS1 0.879 0.782 0.784 0.874 0.699
ACUS2 0.860 students experience elevated stress, they tend to seek assistance from
ACUS3 0.764 technology, particularly Chat-GPT, for task completion. As a result, a
Anxiety ANX1 0.883 0.719 0.719 0.877 0.780 direct relationship between Perceived Usefulness (PUSF) and stress is
ANX2 0.884 established, confirming the acceptance of H2. Conversely, while the
Attitude toward using ATU1 0.862 0.726 0.76 0.843 0.643
Chat GPT ATU2 0.771
perception of ease of using Chat-GPT reduces students’ stress levels, the
ATU3 0.769 positive nature of this relationship leads to the rejection of H4. The
Behavioral Intention BHI1 0.753 0.761 0.774 0.845 0.577 study’s findings align with the fundamental premise of the TAM model,
to use Chat GPT BHI2 0.766 predicting that the perception of ease of using Chat-GPT augments stu­
BHI3 0.765
dents’ inclination toward recognizing the usefulness of the technology
BHI4 0.753
Perceived _Ease of Use PUSE1 0.732 0.867 0.877 0.904 0.655 for task completion. This fundamental notion of TAM is upheld in the
PUSE2 0.781 study’s results, confirming the acceptance of H5 in the current research
PUSE3 0.775 context (see Fig. 4).
PUSE4 0.889 The study’s outcomes unveil several noteworthy insights. Firstly, the
PUSE5 0.861
Perceived _Usefulness PUSF1 0.913 0.867 0.877 0.904 0.655
research identified that a positive perception of the ease of using Chat-
PUSF2 0.923 GPT is positively linked to a favorable attitude toward utilizing it as a
PUSF3 0.902 technological aid for task completion. However, a particularly inter­
PUSF4 0.883 esting revelation is the unexpected negative correlation within the
PUSF5 0.904
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) between the perceived usefulness
Perceived Stress STR1 0.953 0.93 0.935 0.951 0.828
STR2 0.841 of Chat-GPT and the attitude toward its utilization. Consequently, the
STR3 0.929 anticipated association, as hypothesized in H6, was found to be unsup­
STR4 0.911 ported. Moreover, the findings underscore the substantial impact of the
attitude toward using Chat-GPT on management students, motivating
them to consistently integrate it into tasks such as project reports and
the present study undertook an investigation into both direct and indi­
term papers. In line with the TAM framework, the research’s conjecture
rect relationships among constructs using a SEM approach, involving
that students’ growing behavioral intention to employ Chat-GPT for task
5000 bootstrap resampling procedures. The SEM results were evaluated
completion (H7) would inherently augment their actual usage of the
against multiple criteria, including addressing multicollinearity through
technology, received empirical validation, thus corroborating the
Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), explaining variance using R2, analyzing
acceptance of H8 (see Fig. 5).
beta coefficients, and assessing model relevance using f2. Examination
Moreover, to delve further, the direct linkages between the con­
of VIF values for all constructs indicated values below 1.29, which falls
structs were probed through the analysis of effect values, specifically
within the acceptable range. The validation of hypothesized

Fig. 4. Measurement model analysis.

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N. Saif et al. Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097

Table 3
Validation of measurement Model through Discriminant Validity.
Fornel-Lacker Criteria

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.Actual use of Chat GPT 0.836

2.Anxiety 0.132 0.883
3.Attitude toward using Chat GPT 0.166 − 0.323 0.802
4.Behavioral Intention _to use Chat GPT 0.619 0.184 0.234 0.759
5.Perceived Stress 0.067 0.564 0.614 0.014 0.910
6.Perceived _Ease of Use 0.081 0.412 0.087 0.019 0.416 0.809
7.Perceived _Usefulness − 0.079 0.54 − 0.591 0.021 0.837 0.427 0.905
HTMT
1.Actual use of Chat GPT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2.Anxiety 0.181
3.Attitude toward using Chat GPT 0.224 0.417
4.Behavioral Intention _to use Chat GPT 0.774 0.262 0.328
5.Perceived Stress 0.118 0.692 0.698 0.088
6.Perceived _Ease of Use 0.132 0.518 0.122 0.083 0.459
7.Perceived _Usefulness 0.123 0.655 0.683 0.081 0.656 0.468

“Perceived Stress - > Anxiety,” “Perceived Stress - > Perceived Useful­

Table 4
ness,” and “Behavioral Intention to use Chat GPT - > Actual use of Chat
Results for Hypothesis testing.
GPT” showcase notably stronger effect sizes. These outcomes highlight
Std Std t- P f2 Decision the pivotal role of aligning the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Beta Error values
with the intricate dynamics of social exchange processes among in­
Attitude toward 0.237 0.054 4.406 0.02 0.059 Accepted dividuals, particularly within the context of employing technological
using Chat GPT -
guidance. Notably, the utilization of Chat GPT as a means to mitigate
> BHI
Behavioral 0.619 0.032 19.079 0.00 0.622 Accepted
students’ stress levels aptly demonstrates the relevance of this
Intention _to use alignment.
Chat GPT - >
ACUS 5. Conclusion
Perceived Stress - > 0.564 0.041 13.623 0.00 0.466 Accepted
Anxiety
Perceived Stress - > 0.416 0.034 12.052 0.01 0.209 Accepted The present study delves into the dynamic interplay between stu­
PUSE dents’ stress and anxiety stemming from the workload associated with
Perceived Stress - > 0.797 0.022 36.467 0.00 1.085 Accepted final year projects, internship reports, and term paper finalization within
PUSF
stipulated timeframes. This investigation is carried out within the
Perceived _Ease of 0.203 0.043 4.769 0.01 0.054 Accepted
Use - > ATU
context of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), employing the
Perceived _Ease of 0.041 0.049 0.813 0.41 0.002 Rejected assistance of Chat-GPT among students specializing in management
Use - > BHI sciences. The study’s findings highlight that all proposed hypotheses
Perceived _Ease of 0.096 0.027 3.49 0.07 0.026 Accepted were supported based on responses collected from students at selected
Use - > PUSF
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). However, it is noteworthy that two
Perceived − 0.677 0.033 20.484 0.00 0.608 Rejected
_Usefulness - > significant paths—perceived ease of use and behavioral inten­
ATU tions—were found to be insignificant (see Fig. 6). Moreover, a critical
observation is that the strength between perceived usefulness and the
attitude toward using Chat-GPT is negative, leading to the rejection of
indicated by the f2 statistics. Consistent with established guidelines, f2 the associated hypothesis. These results resonate with a study conducted
values falling between the range of 0.02 and 0.15 are indicative of weak by (Debasa et al., 2023), where it was similarly found that perceived
effects, those between 0.15 and 0.35 suggest moderate effects, while ease of use and attitude towards utilizing a mobile application for hotel
values surpassing 0.35 point to substantial effect sizes. The insights reservations held no significance. Additionally, a parallel study revealed
derived from the present model unveil that solely three hypothesized a negative relationship between Perceived Usefulness (PUSE) and stress.
relationships exhibit weak effect sizes. In contrast, relationships such as

Fig. 5. Results of structural Model (Author generated Based on Smart-PLS results).

19
N. Saif et al.
Fig. 6. Graphical representation of structural model.
The study also validates one of the critical aspects of ubiquitous
learning, which is that the perceived usefulness and ease of use attri­
butes of TAM (Technology Acceptance Model) improve students’ abili­
ties to complete assignments without limitations related to time and
space.
5.1. Theoretical contributions/implication
Based on the results of current study and by synthesizing SET (Cro­
panzano & Mitchell, 2005) and TAM (Marangunić & Granić, 2015) we
have formulated the Technology Social Exchange Model (TSEM). This
model posits whether an individual’s desire for utilizing a technology is
influenced by interplay of perceived social benefits as well as costs, as
proposed by SET, along with PU and PEU, as outlined in TAM.
In the context of users’ intentions to utilize Chat-GPT for assignment
submission, TSEM underscores the significance of accounting for
perceived social benefits and costs associated with the technology’s use.
For instance, individuals might perceive benefits such as heightened
productivity or reduced workload through Chat-GPT. Conversely, they
might also perceive costs, such as diminished face-to-face interaction or
increased dependence on technology. Furthermore, TSEM suggests that
stress and anxiety can impact the perception of social benefits and costs
linked to Chat-GPT’s usage. For instance, heightened stress and anxiety
levels might lead to an amplified perception of the social benefits, such
as greater efficiency or workload reduction when using Chat-GPT.
Nevertheless, they might also heighten the perception of social costs,
such as decreased face-to-face interactions or heightened expectations of
constant availability. It’s noteworthy, however, that currently, there is a
scarcity of earlier studies examining direct link between perspectives on
using Chat GPT for assignment creation and stress and anxiety.
5.2. Managerial implications
The findings of the current study hold potential significance for
various stakeholders, including departmental top management, psy­
chologists, and educational institution leadership. These results can aid
in the formulation of policies that strategically align and integrate
technology for the efficient accomplishment of academic tasks. More­
over, there exists an opportunity to enhance students’ knowledge and
capabilities through appropriate mechanisms that guide the ethical use
of Chat-GPT. This involves discouraging overreliance on entirely
generated text from chat bots due to their occasional provision of
inaccurate information. However, Chat-GPT can be effectively
20
Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097
employed to refine students’ written work by rectifying grammatical
errors, enhancing coherency, and crucially, eliminating spelling and
syntax errors. These insights can guide higher education institutions’
policy makers in formalizing the use of Chat-GPT through approved
protocols, akin to the utilization of other computer applications such as
computer simulations and statistical software (e.g., SPSS, Smart PLS,
NVivo, G-Power, AMOS, STATA). These applications streamline diverse
statistical and mathematical procedures, offering researchers efficient
analysis tools at their fingertips.
5.3. Limitation and future research directions
The present study aims to explore the intricate connection between
students’ stress and anxiety, aligned with various attributes of the
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Nonetheless, the study does have
certain limitations that warrant attention from future researchers.
Firstly, the study collected responses from a specific target sample in a
single instance, which might not comprehensively capture the complete
range of responses. Future researchers are encouraged to gather data at
different time intervals—such as before commencing work on MBA/BBA
final-year projects and after their completion—using Chat-GPT to ensure
a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics. Additionally, the
study’s focus was limited to selected Higher Education Institutions
(HEIs) in a single province of Pakistan, potentially limiting the gener­
alizability of the findings across the entire country. To mitigate this,
future research could involve data collection from various provinces to
obtain a more accurate representation of management students’ re­
sponses and psychological mechanisms related to Chat-GPT usage in the
learning process. Furthermore, extending the evaluation of the current
model to other academic disciplines (such as science or computer-
related courses, as well as subjects demanding creativity and innova­
tion) would provide a more detailed insight into the intricate relation­
ship between anxiety, stress, and technology adaptation.
Author’s contribution details
Dr Naveed Saif; Detail Data collection and analysis through Smart
PLS, Sajid Ullah Khan; Aligning the concept of using Chat GPT through
ubiquitous learning and designing conceptual framework. Abner Rubin;
Conceptual design and introduction as well as literature write up.
Abdullah ALotaibi; Conceptual design and introduction as well as
literature write up. Mrim M. Alnfiai; Conceptual design and introduction
as well as literature write up. Mohammad Arif; Conceptual design and
N. Saif et al. Computers in Human Behavior 154 (2024) 108097

introduction as well as literature write up. Cutumisu, M., & Lou, N. M. (2020). The moderating effect of mindset on the relationship
between university students’ critical feedback-seeking and learning. Computers in
Human Behavior, 112, Article 106445.
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wellbeing via interference of artificial intelligence. Telematics and Informatics Reports,
Article 100065.
There is no conflict of interest in this study. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of
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