APUNTS D’ADQUISICIÓ

FLA: first language acquisition

SLA: second language acquisition

CLI: cross-linguistic influence

INTRODUCTION TO SLA

SLA: the process of learning a second language. Unconscious processes made by our brain
because of exposure. Not a linear process. All learners acquire in different ways.

FACTORS that can affect SLA:

- surrounding
- motivation
- interaction
- attitude
- L1 (similarities)
- quality of the input

FLA/ FOREIGN LANGUAGE/ SLA/ L1/ L2…

→ FLA: mother tongue/ L1

→ SLA: additional language after l1/l2/l3

→ SLA vs. foreign language: foreign language is the one you’re not exposed in your daily life
whereas SLA is exposed

- SLA refers to the language acquisition in a naturalistic context (for example moving in
another country)
- Foreign language acquisition refers to a instructed context (for example studying a
language in a class)

TL: target language

SLA is sometimes used in 2 terms when used in an instructed and naturalistic context.

L1

The L1 can affect the acquisition of the L2.

→ Implicit vs Explicit language:

- implicit: unconscious process

- explicit: conscious process, in class

→ Acquisition vs. Learning

- A: the picking up an L2 through exposure

- L: the conscious study of a second language

→ Rate vs. Route

- Rate: the speed of learning a language

 - Route: the stages of acquisition we all go through

Aptitude/ motivation

The earlier when learning a language is the best, but is not always like this.

→ Mistake vs. error

- M: mistake is done after you know how is spelled or said in a correct way
- E: error is related to acquisition because of the L1 and the stage of development

RESEARCH IN SLA

→ Quantitative vs. qualitative

- Quantitative, it usually follows an experimental design. Testing the effects of

instruction on a group of learners, they are tested before and after the instruction, in
order to compare. (data can be quantified)
- Qualitative is used with means of interpretation rather than statistics. Asking a
participant to write a diary explaining the experiences with the TL while being abroad.

→ Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal

- C: a big group of people can be tested at the same time of different ages.
- L: the same group of children is tested when they are young and then tested years
after.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Pre-language stage​in relation to English:

● Crying
● Cooing: between 6 and 8 weeks, first sounds
● Babbling: around 6-8 months
● Consonant-vowel sounds: bababa, dadada. Longer units.

One-word stage = holophrastic:​12-18 months. Daddy, ball, teddy. Depending on the context,
each word may have different meanings (ball could mean ‘this is a ball’). First words mainly N
and V, more N. Bc the first words are related to the immediate context/time, where the action
is taking place = the here and now context, not able to talk about the past. Adults name objects
in the environment for children to learn.

Two-word stage = telegraphic​18-24 months

Mommy play, daddy ball, wash nana. The main words are used. Mood words. UG is working,
child has been repeating words. Utterance with full meaning, understand meaning when heard
in context, with interaction.

Morphemic and transformational stage 2​-3 years old

Filling in the missing grammatical elements which are not necessarily for interaction with the
parents. Daddy go work.
 🡺 Some children are faster than others. All the stages overlap when going from one stage
to another one. These units appear in combination with the ones in previous stages.
Starting point to start referring to other time references.

CHILD-DIRECTED SPEECH

- intonation
- simple content

Baby talk: the language addressed to children

Factors:

1. phonological features (entonations)

2. lexical features (emphasis noun, v, adj, diminutives)
3. complexity features (simple sentence)
4. redundancy features (repetition)
5. content features (physical entity in order them to understand)

Eliciting: asking questions to learn something.

PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

- Babies are born with a special perceptual system to recognize speech.

- In a few weeks they recognize the mother’s voice. And in one month they distinguish
sounds.
- Importance of babbling.

Developmental order:

1. vowels before consonants

2. stops before consonants
3. labials → alveolars → velars → alveopalatal → interdentals
4. phonemic contrasts appear in word-initial position

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

- Between 18 and 24 months they know around 50 words.

- Entities: people (mum, dad), animals (dog, cat), clothes and others.
- Properties: hat, more, dirty, among others.
- Actions: sit, eat, go…
- Social activities: bye, please…

Vocabulary strategies:

1. the whole object assumption => word: whole object

2. the type assumption => word: type of thing
3. the basic-level assumption => word: similar objects

Errors:

1. Overextensions => word: too general (totes les fruites rodones son una poma)
2. Underextensions => word: too narrow (totes les fruites verdes son una poma)
3. Fast mapping => the speed of learning new words
MORPHEME ACQUISITION

- -ing
- -s plural
- irregular past
- possessive ‘s
- copula
- “the” and “a”
- regular -ed
- -s third person singular
- auxiliary be

NEGATION

Stage 1: No. No, cookie.

Stage 2: Daddy no comb hair. Don’t touch that.

Stage 3: I can’t do it. He doesn't want it.

Stage 4: You didn’t have supper. She doesn’t want it. I don’t have no more candies.

QUESTIONS

Stage 1: cookie? Mummy book?

Stage 2: You like this? what’s that?

Stage 3: Are you happy? Can I go? Do I have a cookie?

Stage 4: Are you going to play with me? Do dogs like ice cream? What’s that?

THE PRE-SCHOOL YEARS

By age 4, children:

- ask questions and give commands

- report real events and create imaginary stories
- correct word order and grammatical markers
- basic structure of language
- use of language in different situations
- basic structure of languages
- use of language in different situations
- metalinguistic awareness

*Order of acquisition: route

*Developmental sequences

Innatism: production of new words or sentences structures

Bilingualism

→ Simultaneous bilinguals: more than one language from childhood.

→ Sequential bilinguals: one of the languages was learnt later.

→ Subtractive bilingualism: the loss of one language when learning another.

→ Additive bilingualism: maintenance of the home language when learning another one.

FLA THEORIES

Behaviorism

Approach to explain learning in general by human beings while learning by stimulus and
response. By repetition. Stimulus= input, response= imitation of the input, learning= final
process.

(1940s-1950s)

(Skinner)

🡺 Imitation + practice = habits of correct use of language.

🡺 Environment is essential for language learning.

Innatism

(Chomsky)

- LAD: language acquisition device

- UG: Universal grammar: the rules, the principles that are common in the world.
🡺 Principles: the rules, the grammar common in all languages in the world
🡺 Parameters: are language specific

🡺 Languages are innate + universal principles underlying all languages.

Gave importance to the input from a strict position of UG being the only position.

- CPH: children period hypothesis: there is a certain period of time where the first
language must be acquired if is not used the language is not learned in regular
standards.

Victor, Genie, Deaf users

Universality

UG: universal and language acquisition. Children have a general knowledge of what languages
have in common.

Divided into:

● Principles: properties common to all languages (core)

● Parameters: specific properties depending on the language (periphery)
→ Linguistic competence = innate knowledge human species is programmed with.

Interactionism

From cognitive and developmental psychologists and psycholinguistics.

🡺 Interplay between innate learning ability environment

Piaget: Language is a symbol system that could be used to express knowledge acquired through
interaction with the physical world.

Vygotsky: (ZPD) Zone of proximal development. The language is learned through interaction.
Thought was internalized speech and emerged in social interaction.

Usage-based learning

Children’s cognitive capacities + connections between language they hear and the experience
with the environment.

LANGUAGE DISORDERS

Diagnostic criteria

Language is significantly below the level expected from age and IQ.

Language difficulties are not caused by brain damage.

Common presenting features

Delay in starting to talk: first ward appearing after 2 years.

Immature production of speech sounds.

Simplified grammatical structure.

Restricted vocabulary.

Weak verbal short-term memory.

Difficult to understand complex language.

WHAT speech language pathologists will check

Follows directions

Names (objects/actions)

Know colors, numbers, letters

Follow routines

Sings songs or repeats rhymes

Changing the talk with different people in different places

Able to get what he needs

*SPL: speech language pathologists

The SPL will see if the kid’s speech is easy to understand. Will look at how his mouth moves to
make sounds. Will have the kid imitate sounds and words.

*Some things like the pacifier or the “bibi” can cause teeth problems that can affect
speaking.

UNIT 2. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Modified input: the input is changed in a way that the learner can understand better what
he/she is learning.

INTERLANGUAGE

Interlanguage is the learner’s language.

Larry Selinker (1972)

The intermediate states (or grammar) of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2.

Interlanguage is influenced by the L1 as well as by the L2. Is a third language system which
differs from the L1 and the L2 as it develops over time.

Characteristics

- Systematic: rules of the learner’s own grammar.

- Dynamic: system of rules frequently changing.
- Reduced system in form, grammatical structures are less complex than the Target
language.
- Reduced system in function, less communicative needs.

L1 vs. L2

Language transfer.

Training transfer.

Communicative strategies: receptive and productive.

FOSSILIZATION

Strong fossilization for L2 learners. Learners are going to stop producing the interlanguage in
some aspects before they reach the target language. You can’t learn more.

WHY? Because of social identity and because of the lack of communicative needs.

Interlanguage initial state:

- L2 isolated words
- L2 routines (chunks)
- Grammar changes

Interlanguage final state/endpoint:

- Controversial point
INTERLANGUAGE AND DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCES

Interlanguage is systematic but also changes, so is also dynamic.

Is easy to know how interlanguage starts to work, but we don’t know when this process of
learning is over.

Fossilization is the stop of learning.

Attrition is when you lose your L1.

The CPH can be a factor to learn the second language in an adapted way.

Input is very important to learn a second language.

Stages of development

Are not “close rooms”.

Each stage shows the emergence of new forms.

Earlier forms do not disappear.

U-shaped behavior: using -ing in the correct form, stopping using it, and finally using it again
correctly.

CA AND EA

Error→ Lack of knowledge. Not acquired things.

Mistake → performance phenomena

Contrastive analysis (CA)

Approach to study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a
comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.

- Influenced by dominant theories: Behaviourism.

- Robert Lado (1975)
- Pedagogical goal → improve efficiency of teaching L2.

CA process of analysis:

- Describing L1 and L2 at each level.

- Compare those elements that might be problematic.
- Look for elements that might be transferred: positive and negative transfer.

Easiest Target language structures to be acquired are those with the same form, meaning and
distribution. This is a positive transfer.

Structures to be learned are those different from the L1 and the target language.

Stages of CA analysis

1. Description: L1 and L2 described from a formal perspective.

2. Selection: some forms selected for contrast.
3. Contrast: relationships between similar items in L1 and L2 is stated.
 4. Prediction: the errors selected are used to predict. Occurrence of the same error in the
learner's production, degree of difficulty is different.

Conclusion

With a CA analysis, we are looking for learner’s errors. These errors are considered a result of
transfer but some of those errors are a result of language development.

RECAP

Contrastive analysis, an approach that came from the theory of behaviourism. The goal of CA is
to compare the languages in order to identify the possible errors of the languages. It has a
pedagogical goal because it is used to teach. The process is to describe both languages, select
the forms, contrast them and predict the possible errors.

Positive and negative transfer. In positive transfer there won’t be any problem in
communication, there are similarities in some words. In negative transfer is when the words
are similar but the meaning is not the same and it can cause conflict when learning.

Transfer is not the only cause of having errors in the process of learning the TL.

EA (ERROR ANALYSIS)

An approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability
to construct language. EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in
L2, rather than on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2.

→ Pit Corder (1976)

L2 errors are used as an example for the learning process because errors provide evidence of
the system of language used by the learner at a particular stage in the L2 development.

Errors are not a sign of interference of old habits as in CA, but showing how the learner
explores the system of the new language.

Stages of EA analysis

1. Collection of learner language data

2. Identification of errors
3. Description of errors
4. Explanation of errors
5. Evaluation of errors

EA may reveal to teachers…

- Areas in which learners are weak.

- Difficult items at one stage should be introduced later.
- items not included in the classroom's syllabus may become necessary at a given stage.
- Areas which are more important for communication at each stage.
- Inadequacies in the syllabus.

EA problems

- Ambiguity in classification.
- Lack of positive data.
 - Potential for avoidance.

*Looking for developmental errors.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the general rules or patterns of negative sentences in English? Looking at the
developmental sequence that has been described for English negation, think about
what learners seem to notice first. Is it word order? Special words? What features
seem hardest for them to acquire?

There are 4 different stages for negative sentences in English. The first stage is when saying no
or not, where this element is sometimes placed before the verb with anything else. (No bicycle,
i no like it)

The second stage is alternated with don’t. (I don’t can sing) The third stage is when the
negative element is placed after auxiliary verbs like are, is and can (you can not go there). The
last stage is when do is marked for tense, person and number is just like the target language (it
doesn’t work, we didn’t have supper)

What learners seem to notice before is the word order instead of learning how the negative
works with the auxiliary verbs which is the hardest thing.

2. How would you collect samples of learner language for a study of the acquisition of
grammatical morphemes? What kind of speaking or writing task would be most
effective in leading learners to create obligatory contexts for each of the morphemes
listed in FIgure 2.1? Do you think some morphemes would be relatively easy to create
contexts for?

I would collect data for different grammatical morphemes and differentiate it in order to
analyze it.

Some speaking or writing tasks to collect grammatical morpheme data could be:

- -ing, plural, to be
- auxiliary (he is going), article
- irregular past
- regular past (-ed), third person singular, possessive ‘s

Writing a story with the first sentence being in the past, and talking about a man or a girl who
is not the person writing. In order to use the third person singular and the possessive ‘s.

Some morphemes may be easier in order to find a way to analyze them but there are some
that can be very complicated.
PRAGMATICS

Definition: Is the study of language from the point of view of the users, especially of the
choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and
the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication.

Factors related to pragmatics:

- The speaker’s meaning

- Interlocutor
- Context
- Distance
- Culture
- Interaction

Pragmatics is the study of how-to-say-what-to-whom-when.

Important terms

- 1960s and 1970s

- Reaction against Chomsky syntactocentrism.
- Reaction by Generative Semantics and the Oxford Philosophers.

Language was seen as the means of communication between people and not as syntax-based.

SPEECH ACTS: Language that performs some kind of action (e.g. refusals, requests, promises).
The way we would perform actions such as complaining, requesting… How we interact with
people.

Austin (1962)

● Locutionary acts (meaningful utterances): e.g. Someone called me at 3 a.m.

● Illocutionary acts (intention of utterances): e.g. Tell me who called (request), this is not
acceptable to me (complaint). Face threatening act.
● Perlocutinary acts (effects of utterances): e.g. I am going to call the police - inducing
fear of consequences.

Searle (1969)
The most widely used taxonomy of speech acts

● Representatives (e.g. assertions: affirming)

● Directives (e.g. requests, orders)
● Comissives (e.g. promises)
● Expressives (e.g. statements of happiness)
● Declarations (e.g. naming, sentencing)

“PRAGMATICALLY APPROPRIATE”

Pragmatics is neglected.

INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATICS (ILP)

A “hybrid of interlanguage and pragmatics”.

It focuses on NNSs(non-native speakers) or L2 learners.

Definition: It studies the learner's knowledge, perception, comprehension, production,
acquisition and development of the L2 pragmatics.

- No punctuation
- Too informal (hey, wanna, :))
- i not capitalized
- its instead of it is
- Use of contractions

Characteristics

The use and acquisition of speech acts have been a key issue in ILP.

Producing a speech act in an ‘inappropriate’ way may lead to communication breakdowns.

The aim of such studies is to see how learners of an L2 produce speech acts and also to see
how they develop over time.

Strategies used have commonly been analyzed in line with politeness.

The most widely studied speech act in both L1 and L2 acquisition.

Classified as a directive in Searle’s taxonomy of speech acts (1969).

→ Considered as a face-threatening act in Brown and Levison’s Politeness theory (1987). This
means that you may sound aggressive, this type of acts may offend somebody.

→ The speaker aims at getting the listener to do something.

The most straightforward classification is between direct and indirect requests.

→ We tend to recognize the conveyed meaning without processing the literal meanings.

→ Speakers might go through a phase where they identify the literal meaning but they always
understand the conveyed meanings unless the request is an ambiguous one.

In order to understand the implied meanings in indirect requests we should consider the
context in which they are performed. We seem to process both literal and conveyed meanings
and take advantage of the context to interpret such speech acts appropriately.
 - The cross-cultural Study of Speech Act Realization Patterns.
- Differences between languages on the use of request and apologies.
- Similar to Ervin-Tripp classification of requests.
- From direct to more indirect.

EXERCICE:

EMAIL SENT FOR APPLYING TO OUR MA PROGRAM

Hey! its xxxx from xxx i just get your email from university side want to get all information
regarding this particular course i have done masters in English (linguistics) and after going
through all the courses i find this course more interesting and its of my supreme interest do let
me know the criteria (mood derivable: imperative) as its my first chance to apply in foreign
university please give me all details (mood derivable: imperative) regarding this course as i
don't wanna miss this great opportunity nor i want to waste my one educational year please do
guide me (mood derivable: imperative). :)

MODIFICATION OR MITIGATION

It refers to how a request is mitigated.

Requests are divided into: head act and peripheral elements.

- Internal modification
- External modification
Could you give me a pencil, please? Please is a peripheral element. Eva, could you give me a
pencil, please? Eva and please are mitigation.

Eva, today I forgot my pencil case at home. This is also mitigation.

→ Strategies used to soften the illocutionary force of the request.

1)power, 2)social distance and 3)degree of imposition.

Regarding directness, the most common finding has been that the movement goes from direct
use in early stages of acquisition to indirect request in more advanced learners.

Regarding the type of request, beginners tend to use imperatives, want and need statements.
More advanced learners tend to produce query preparatory and hedges. Hints are not
common even in advanced learners.

Regarding modification, internal modification seems to be acquired before external

modification. In some cases modification is overused by means of a strategy like the use of
please, or by means of a lack of modification.

→ direct to indirect classification

TYPES OF STUDIES

● Longitudinal
● Cross-sectional
● Experimental (pre/post tests; experimental & control groups)
● Non-experimental
● Quantitative
● Qualitative

Kasper and Rose (2002) provided five stages of development of requests based on Achiba
(2003) and Ellis (1992).

Such stages go from very simple requests, with no syntax, basically produced by means of
formulaic language to more complex structures and more pragmatically elaborate in the
highest stages.
Comments of the table:

- Metapragmatic awareness in point 3 and 4 on the table. Aware of the content.

- Direct to indirect.

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

What aspects of learners' interlanguage are most likely to affect their ability to use language
effectively outside the classroom? Word order? Grammatical morphemes? Vocabulary?
Phonology? Pragmatics? Do you think priorities for classroom interaction and instruction
reflect the importance of these different language features?

Response: The aspects that would affect will be grammatical morphemes, base of vocabulary,
phonology, pragmatics, word order, pronunciation.

If a teacher prioritizes the interaction in the classroom all these different features would be
practiced and developed. Therefore it implies how important interaction is.

DATA COLLECTION

Structure of a research paper

- Title
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Literature review
- Methodology/ the study
- Results
- Discussions
- Conclusion
- References
- Appendices

Research Questions!!!

1. Participants
2. Instruments: This is the task/s that you are going to Elicit the aspects of language that
you want to study. The type of task you choose will be closely related to the aim of
study.

CPH IN SLA (NO examen)

Chomsky: thanks to innate knowledge of UG children acquire language before the critical
period.

What about SLA? Those supporting UG claim that UG is the best perspective to understand
SLA.

The innatist perspective

- UG is available to L1 & L2 .
- UG access is the same for both L1 & L2 learners
- Maybe such access has been somehow altered by other languages acquired.
Those against this perspective claim that the Innatis perspective cannot account for those
learners who have acquired language after the critical period. (Bley-Vroman (1983) and
Schacter (1990).

● In foreignn language contexts

● Barcelona Age factor project
● Education Law implemented in Spain, advancing the age of learning English from 11 to
8

Aim: to investigate whether the Age of Onset affected the acquisition of EFL in a formal context

Findings: late learners outperformed early starters in most of the variables analyzed.

Different schools involved: longitudinal and cross-sectional samples of data from 200 to 800
hours of exposure; more than 2000 participants.

UNIT 3. INFLUENCE BETWEEN L1 AND L2

TRANSFER

A behaviourist definition, the interference from prior knowledge. L1 interference during L2

acquisition. Influence of the learner’s native language.

So, the terms “interference” and “transfer” are too related to behaviourism.

Terminological & historical issues

Why was Behaviorism influencing the concept of ‘transfer’?

→ According to Behaviorism, language learning takes place through repetition,
repeated responses to stimuli, positive feedback to target-like responses, and
correction to non-target like responses
→ Habit formation
→ So, when learning an L2, old habits might get in the way of learning new habits…

Reconceptualization of transfer:

- L1 influence cannot be accounted for habit formation.

- Transfer is not just the interference of the native language.
- Transfer is not only the influence of the L1, but others L2’s may have an effect.

→ So a more neutral term was introduced: crosslinguistic influence.

Crosslinguistic influence is the theory neutral, allowing one to subsume under one heading
such phenomena as “transfer”, interference“, “avoidance”. “borrowing” and L2-related aspects
of language loss and thus permitting discussion of the similarities and differences between
these phenomena.

Old term→ transfer (behaviourist perspective). Cross-linguistic influence.

More recent definitions of transfer:

- Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the
target language and any other language that has been previously acquired.
TRANSFER II

Manifestations of transfer

Errors: due to negative transfer.

(1) Interlingual → L1 influence

(2) Intralingual → Developmental errors, L2 (we don’t acquire the -s of the 3rd person
singular).

Facilitation: due to positive transfer.

Avoidance: avoiding linguistic structures which are difficult for learners due to the differences
btw the L1 and TL

(1) Learners avoid a structure because they know they have problems with the TL
structure
(2) Learners know the TL form but it is too difficult to use it
(3) Learners know the structure and how to use it but they are unwilling to use that
structure

Over-use: over-use of a structure due to the avoidance or underproduction of a difficult

structure.

TASK

Think of examples of errors, facilitation, avoidance and over-use.

- L1 Catalan/Spanish
- TL English

Constraints on transfer

Which factors promote or inhibit transfer?

(1) Linguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors.

(2) Other aspects might be influencing as well, such as individual differences, age, the
nature of tasks, among others.

Language level

Foreign accents in L2 learning.

NSs can easily distinguish the learners’ language backgrounds.

Difference does not always imply difficulty.

Learners do not always transfer L1 phonological features.

Sociolinguistic factors

The importance of social context is that negative transfer is more common in classroom
contexts than in naturalistic contexts.

Markedness (EXAM)

Marked forms are not similar to L1. Unmarked forms are similar to L1.
Some linguistic features are “special” in relation to others which are more basic.

Unmarked forms are similar to L1 forms, whereas marked forms are different from L1 forms.

Prototypicality

According to Kellerman, learners seem to have perceptions of the structure of their L1, and
they consider some of them as transferable and other as non-transferable

These perceptions seem to actually influence what they finally transfer.

→ The learner’s perception of the differences and similarities between languages.

Examples of unmarked structures in language.

- Phonology: syllable structure consonant + vowel (banana)

- Vocabulary: prep. in = location // into
- Syntax: SVO// SOV

Examples of marked structures in languages.

- Some syntactic structures (+ marked: Who did John give the book to?”) // - marked:
“To whom did John give the book?”)
- Some phonological features (English street)
- Idioms (“kick the bucket”)
- Inflectional morphology
- Slang expressions
- Collocations (BUT “make a difference”)

Language distance & psychotypology

The distance between the L1 and the TL should be seen as a:

● Linguistic phenomenon: the actual linguistic difference btw the two languages
● Psycholinguistic phenomenon: what learners think about the degree of difference btw
the two languages

Psychotypology refers to the learners’ perceptions about language distance

Language distance can affect L2 learning through positive and negative transfer:

● Similar L1 and TL will fasten the developmental continuum in contrast to distant L1 and
Tl.

Developmental factors + proficiency

Some studies claim that transfer is more evident in beginners. Some others claim that learners
need to have reached a certain stage before they can transfer L1 aspects.

Most recent studies claim that in fact that sometimes transfer will only be evident at later
stages, whereas others will appear at early ones, and some of them are never eliminated.
Natural principles of language acquisition

The L1 and developmental factors seem to determine IL.

- L1 transfer is evident if learners have reached a stage of developmental that makes

transfer possible.
- Development might be retarded when a universal transitional structure arising
naturally in early IL corresponds to an L1 strucutre.
- Development may be accelerated when an early transitional structure is not reinforced
by the corresponding L2 structure.

Pragmatic transfer

Pragmatic transfer occurs when native language patterns influence learners in inappropriate
ways. PT may lead to impolite or incoherent sequences- PT affects comprehension and
production.