Section 9

Sight Distance
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
9 SIGHT DISTANCE .................................................................................................................................. 9-1
9.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 9-1
9.2 Sight Distance Parameters .............................................................................................................. 9-1
9.2.1 Truck Sight Distance Check ..................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2.2 Truck Speeds on Grades.......................................................................................................... 9-2
9.2.3 Driver Reaction Time ................................................................................................................ 9-4
9.2.4 Driver Eye Height...................................................................................................................... 9-4
9.2.5 Object Height ............................................................................................................................ 9-4
9.3 Mid- block Sight Distance ................................................................................................................ 9-5
9.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance Derivation .......................................................................................... 9-5
9.3.2 Longitudinal Friction Factors..................................................................................................... 9-5
9.3.3 Car Stopping Sight Distance..................................................................................................... 9-6
9.3.4 Truck Stopping Sight Distance ................................................................................................. 9-7
9.3.5 Overtaking Sight Distance ........................................................................................................ 9-8
9.3.6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves........................................................................................ 9-8
9.4 Intersection Sight Distance ............................................................................................................ 9-10
9.4.1 Roundabouts........................................................................................................................... 9-10
9.4.2 Signalised Intersections.......................................................................................................... 9-10
9.4.3 Unobstructed Sight Distance .................................................................................................. 9-11
9.4.4 Approach Sight Distance (ASD ) (All Intersections, All Roundabouts, All Approaches) ........ 9-13
9.4.5 Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD) (All Intersections, Legs with Priority, Signalised
Intersections)......................................................................................................................................... 9-13
9.4.6 Minimum Gap Sight Distance (MGSD) (All intersections, Turning Traffic, Signalised
Intersections (Filtered Left Turns, Free Right Turns, Right Turn on Red)) ........................................... 9-14
9.4.7 Entering Sight Distance (Cars) ............................................................................................... 9-17
9.5 Interchange Sight Distance............................................................................................................ 9-18
9.5.1 Ramp Sight Distance .............................................................................................................. 9-18

TABLES
Table 9.2.5-A:- Object Heights ....................................................................................................................... 9-4
Table 9.3.2-A:- Longitudinal Friction Factors ................................................................................................. 9-5
Table 9.3.3-A:- Car Stopping Sight Distance ................................................................................................. 9-6
Table 9.3.4-A:- Truck Stopping Sight Distance .............................................................................................. 9-7
Table 9.3.5-A:- Overtaking Sight Distance (Two Way Roads) ....................................................................... 9-8
Table 9.4.5-A:- Observation Distance .......................................................................................................... 9-13
Table 9.4.6-A:- Gap Acceptance Times*...................................................................................................... 9-16
Table 9.4.6-B:- MGSD .................................................................................................................................. 9-17
Table 9.4.7-A:- Entering Sight Distance ....................................................................................................... 9-17

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FIGURES

Figure 9.2.2-A:- Truck Speed on Uphill Grade ............................................................................................... 9-3

Figure 9.2.2-B:- Truck Acceleration on Grades .............................................................................................. 9-3
Figure 9.3.3-A:- Car Stopping Site Distance .................................................................................................. 9-6
Figure 9.3.4-A:- Car Stopping Site Distance .................................................................................................. 9-7
Figure 9.3.6-A:- Visibility Offset on Horizontal Curves ................................................................................... 9-9
Figure 9.4.3-A:- Intersection Sight Distance Concepts................................................................................. 9-12

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9 SIGHT DISTANCE
9.1 General
This section discusses required sight distances along roadways and at junctions.

For additional discussion of sight distances at junctions, refer to

• Section 13 Intersections,
• Section 14 Roundabouts
• Section 16 Interchanges

Sight distance is the distance over which visibility occurs between a driver and an object or between two
drivers at specific heights above the carriageway. For safety on the road, sufficient sight distance must be
provided to enable drivers to control their vehicles to avoid collisions with other vehicles or objects on the
road.

Minimum sight distance based on car braking performance must be obtained at all points along the roadway
for the chosen design speed.

In some circumstances, additional sight distance for trucks may be desirable. These situations include (but
are not limited to):

• horizontal curves on downgrades

• sag vertical curves with overpass structures or sign gantries
• intersections

9.2 Sight Distance Parameters

9.2.1 Truck Sight Distance Check
Roads and junctions must be designed to provide safe operating conditions for both cars and trucks. Both
truck and car stopping distance requirements need to be considered. The design speed for cars shall be as
specified in Section 6, and in urban areas is usually 10km greater than the posted speed limit. The truck
sight distance check shall be undertaken using the speed limit (usually 10km/h less than the car design
speed) or the estimated truck operating speed, whichever is the lower. Allowance for the different operating
speeds of cars and trucks should be made. For example, on an uphill grade truck speeds will be reduced
(see Figure 9.2.2-A) and the truck stopping distance will be reduced by the effect of gravity (see Table
9.3.4-A). Both of these effects reduce the sight distance required, and cars are usually the most demanding
design vehicle. Downhill, truck speeds will be similar to cars and truck stopping distance will increase due to
gravity. In this case, the requirements for trucks usually are the most critical.

The increased height of the truck gives better visibility over crests, median barriers and bridge parapets. In
some circumstances, this extra visibility compensates for the longer stopping distance of trucks. In other
cases, such as on horizontal curves with adjacent retaining walls (or in curved tunnels) the truck driver eye
height does not increase sight distance.

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Sight distance in sag vertical curves that have an overpass or sign gantry over the road is reduced for trucks
to a greater extent than cars.

Truck braking distances increase substantially on steep down grades, and truck sight distance is likely to be
the governing factor on horizontal curves on downgrades.

Trucks require significantly greater time to cross intersections and to turn on and off main roads. The
recognition of the longer gap in opposing traffic flows requires longer sight distances for trucks than cars.
The additional eye height assists obtain the longer sight distance if a crest vertical curve is in the vicinity of
the intersection. However, horizontal curvature and sight distance obstruction by roadside development may
limit the visibility. Intersections with significant truck usage and restricted visibility may require the
installation of traffic signals for safety reasons.

Lower speed limits for trucks may be appropriate if an economic design is not possible otherwise. On long
steep downgrades, trucks may be required to engage low gear in addition to or instead of the speed limit
restriction.

If additional sight distance for trucks is indicated, the cost needs to be considered, and a recommendation
made on the appropriate design or traffic management solution.

9.2.2 Truck Speeds on Grades

Trucks speeds on upgrades can be estimated from Figure 9.2.2-A. The acceleration of trucks on upgrades
and downgrades can be estimated from Figure 9.2.2-B.

Both charts are based on the observed performance of trucks with 120kg weight for each kW of power.
These charts may be used to estimate truck operating speed and the appropriate truck sight distance checks
carried out. On downgrades, the truck should be assumed not to exceed the speed limit.

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120
110 0

Figure 9.2.2 A Truck speeds on grades.vsd

100 1

Grades
90
80 2
70
3
SPEED
(km/h)

60
4
50 5
40 6
7 8
30 9
20

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

DISTANCE (m)

Figure 9.2.2-A:- Truck Speed on Uphill Grade

100
Figure 9.2.2 B Truck acceleration on grades.vsd
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
90
1
80
70 2

60 3
SPEED
(km/h)

50 4
5
40 6
7
30 8

20

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

DISTANCE (m)

Figure 9.2.2-B:- Truck Acceleration on Grades

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9.2.3 Driver Reaction Time

The representative driver reaction time for sight distance calculation purposes is 2.5 seconds. Absolute
minimum stopping sight distances based on a 2.0 second reaction time may be used for mid-block sections
where an economic design cannot be achieved using 2.5 second reaction time. Junction design must be
based on 2.5 second reaction time.

9.2.4 Driver Eye Height

The representative height for design calculations of the car driver’s eye is 1.05m.

The representative height of a truck driver’s eye for design calculations is 2.40m.

9.2.5 Object Height

Table 9.2.5-A shows the heights assumed for calculation of stopping sight distances and the situations
where each object height is applicable.

Table 9.2.5-A:- Object Heights

Car Sight Truck Sight

Object Height m Situation Distance Distance to
to Object Object
Intersection design (ASD) Yes Yes
Sight line to line marking Yes Yes
0.0 (Pavement)
Sight line to freeway exit lane Yes Yes
Sight line to freeway exit nose Yes Yes
Mid-block crest vertical curve design (SSD)
Horizontal curve line of sight (SSD): Yes Yes
• generally
Yes Yes
0.2 (Object on road) • on bridges and where crash barrier
Yes No
present
• in tunnels, past bridge abutments Yes Yes
and retaining walls
Sight lines under bridges/sign gantries at
Yes Yes
sag vertical curves (SSD)
0.6 (Car tail lights and Sight lines to ends of queues at
Yes Yes
turn indicators) intersections (SSD)
Sight line used for gap acceptance object
Yes Yes
(MGSD)
1.05 (Car) Intersection design (SISD) Yes Yes
Horizontal curve line of sight over roadside
1.3 (Car roof) No Yes
safety barrier or bridge parapet

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9.3 Mid- block Sight Distance

9.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance Derivation

SSD = d1 + d1

Where:

d1 = reaction distance (m)= RTV/3.6

d2 = braking distance (m) = V2/254(F1+0.01G)
RT = reaction time (sec)
V = Operating speed (km/h)
F1 = longitudinal friction factor
G =longitudinal grade % (+ for upgrades, - for downgrades)

9.3.2 Longitudinal Friction Factors

Table 9.3.2 A provides longitudinal friction factors for cars and trucks used for stopping distance calculations
for bituminous and concrete surfaces. The car figures are AUSTROADS figures for wet roads. The truck
data is from US testing of unladed semi-trailer trucks on wet roads. (Unladed trucks have greater stopping
distances than laden trucks as the trailer wheels skid easily).

Table 9.3.2-A:- Longitudinal Friction Factors

Operating Speed km/h

Vehicle 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Cars 0.56 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37
Trucks 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.26

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9.3.3 Car Stopping Sight Distance

Table 9.3.3-A:- Car Stopping Sight Distance

Car Speed* km/h

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Friction Factor 0.56 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37
SSD 2.5 sec
Level reaction 39 54 71 91 114 140 170 205
grade time
SSD 2.0 sec
Level grade reaction 33 47 63 82 103 128 157 190
time
Correction 2% 0 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -7
for grade 4% 0 -1 -2 -4 -5 -7 -9 -13
Upgrade 6% -1 -2 -3 -5 -7 -10 -14 -18
8% -1 -3 -4 -7 -9 -13 -17 -23
Correction -2% - - 1 2 3 4 6 7
for grade -4% - 2 3 4 6 8 12 16
Downgrade -6% 1 3 4 7 10 13 18 25
-8% 2 4 6 9 13 19 26 36

* Car speed is design speed for mid-block design. Intersection design are based on 85th percentile speeds,
and the car speed limit is used as an approximation to that value.
Table 9.3.3-A is shown in graphical form in Figure 9.3.6-A.

250
240 - 8%

230 - 6%
220 - 4%
210 - 2%
SSD Level grade
200
2%
190
4%
180 6%
Stopping Distance (m)

170 8%
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Speed (km/h)

Figure 9.3.3-A:- Car Stopping Site Distance

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9.3.4 Truck Stopping Sight Distance

Table 9.3.4-A:- Truck Stopping Sight Distance

Truck Operating Speed km/h

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Friction Factor 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.26
SSD 2.5 sec
Level reaction 50 69 91 116 143 173 201 259
grade time
SSD 2.0 sec
Level grade reaction 44 62 82 106 131 160 197 244
time
Correction 2% -4 -6 -9 -12 -16 -20 -24 -30
for grade 4% -7 -11 -16 -22 -28 -36 -44 -53
Upgrade 6% -10 -15 -22 -30 -39 -49 -60 -73
8% -12 -19 -27 -36 -47 -60 -74 -90
Correction -2% 5 8 11 15 20 25 31 37
for grade -4% 11 18 26 35 46 58 71 86
Downgrade -6% 20 32 46 62 81 102 126 153
-8% 33 52 74 101 132 167 206 249

Table 9.3.4-A is shown in graphical form in Figure 9.3.6-A.

510 - 8%
490
470
450
430
410 - 6%
390
370
350 - 4%
Stopping Distance (m)

330
310
- 2%
290
270
SSD Level grade
250
230 2%
210 4%
190 6%
170 8%
150
130
110
90
70
50
30
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Speed (km/h)

Figure 9.3.4-A:- Car Stopping Site Distance

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9.3.5 Overtaking Sight Distance

Overtaking sight distance is of relevance on two way roads in rural areas. In urban areas, overtaking sight
distance is not usually a design consideration on local streets. Arterial roads and freeways are normally dual
carriageway or multi-lane, and overtaking sight distance is again not an issue. However, the initial
development of a freeway or arterial road may involve the construction of a single carriageway operated two-
way until traffic volumes increase and duplication is necessary. Table 9.3.5 A provides guidelines for use in
this case. Allowing overtaking sight distance will increase the capacity of the initial two way road, but any
additional cost of achieving better sight distance would need to be considered.

Table 9.3.5-A:- Overtaking Sight Distance (Two Way Roads)

Design Speed Overtaking Sight Distance

60 300
70 350
80 450
90 600
100 750
110 900

9.3.6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

Sight distance on horizontal curves is frequently an issue in urban road design. This is due to the need to
use curves of relatively low radius to meet site constraints on the road alignment. These curves may involve
the sight line crossing the verge or residual median.

If this occurs, any road furniture, landscape planting, structure or batter will need to be located clear of the
sight line.

Sight distance standards frequently require widening of the verge or residual median and adjustment of the
proposed structure. These adjustments will then require a wider cross section and longer bridge overpass
structures. Bridges may also require widening so that sight distance to the road pavement is not obstructed
by the bridge parapet.

Bridge widening may be calculated using car stopping sight distance, as truck driver eye height allows
reasonable sight distance over bridge parapets. (Low objects on the pavement will be obscured by the
parapet, but vehicles on the carriageway will be visible. It is impractical to widen bridges to obtain truck
stopping distance to a low object).

Obstructions such as bridge piers and abutments, tunnels, etc. all block truck sight lines as well as car sight
lines, and in these instances the governing design vehicle may be a truck travelling at the expected truck
travel speed. Figure 9.3.6-A shows how truck and car sight distance offsets should be determined.

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Approximate offsets may be read from the chart. Exact values may be calculated using the supplied
formulae in Microsoft Excel. The driver eye location and object are assumed to be in the centre of the lane.
(While the eye location obviously is not in the centre of the lane, the object could also be off the lane
centreline. It is sufficiently accurate to assume both eye and object are centrally located). The graph and
the formulae only apply if the length of the curve exceeds the required stopping distance. CADD packages
can be used to determine sight distance offsets for all curve lengths.

Stopping distance
measured along the Car Visibility Offset
centre of lane

Car driver eye Car Sight Line

height 1.05 m Object height for car
driver 0.2m
Truck driver eye
height 2.40 m Object height for
truck driver 1.3m
Truck sight line

Truck
Visibility

e
rv
Offset
cu
Bridge parapet
t al
or on
riz

crash barrier
ho
of
us
di
Ra

High Obstruction
eg Bridge Approaches and Abutment

Figure 9.3.6 A Sight distance on Horizontal Curves.vsd

15
VISIBILITY OFFSET TO OBSTRUCTION

13
m
00
m

s8

11
m
300
Radius 20m

0m

00
s 60m

m
diu
m

00m
00m

00
m

20
200
iu s
us 10

Ra

00

15

us

9
s6
s4

10
d

us
Radiu

i us

di
Ra

diu

Ra
diu

us

di
Radi

Rad

0m
Ra
di
Ra

00
Ra

Ra

7 3
us m
di 00
Ra s 40
5 di u
Ra

3
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

REQUIRED SIGHT DISTANCE

Figure 9.3.6-A:- Visibility Offset on Horizontal Curves

Trucks travelling on the same direction as the carriageway under design are normally considered a transient
obstruction, and are not treated as a sight distance restriction. However, trucks on an adjacent carriageway
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are considered a potential sight distance restriction to both cars and trucks. If a median barrier is included in
the design, car sight distances must pass in front of the barrier. Truck sight lines may be over the median
barrier, but should be clear of the opposing traffic lane potentially blocked by slow or stationary trucks.

Formula to calculate required offset (for use in Microsoft Excel)

Enter known radius in cell A3 and enter sight distance required in cell B3.

Offset required =(1-COS((28.65*B3)/A3)*PI()/180))*A3 (place formula in cell C3)

Formula to calculate available sight distance

9.4 Intersection Sight Distance

Intersection performance is dependent upon adequate horizontal and vertical sight distance for all entering
traffic.

A feature of intersections is that sight lines are often required at large angles to the users' normal view point.
In a motor vehicle, the driver may have to look through the side windows; pedestrians can be required to
make observations over an arc of 180° (or more). As well, the paths travelled are often significantly curved
which means that stopping distances (measured along the travel path) are more difficult for people to
estimate.

The type and extent of sight distance available will significantly influence the design and location of an
intersection. Both horizontal and vertical sight lines must be taken into account to check for disruption by
natural objects, (eg. trees), structures, (eg. fences and buildings) and roadside furniture (eg. safety barriers,
direction signs).

Trucks sight distance requirements should be ascertained using the estimated truck operating speed to
determine the stopping distance component of a sight distance standard.

Note that the speed limit is used rather than the design speed for car sight distance requirements. This is
because the concepts have generally been developed by AUSTROADS using the 85th percentile speed as
the basis. The speed limit approximates the 85th percentile speed of cars.

9.4.1 Roundabouts
While ASD applies to roundabouts, the other intersection sight distance standards that follow are modified
for application to roundabouts. Details of the sight distance criteria used in roundabout design are included
in Section 14.

9.4.2 Signalised Intersections

Signalised intersections require the following sight distance checks:
• ASD
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• SISD (in case signals are out of order or if there is power failure)
• MGSD (for filtered left turns, free right turns and right turn on red after stopping)
• sight distance to signal lanterns (see Section 18)
Where MGSD is not achievable, the filtering or free movements should be signalized. Sight distance to
lanterns must be achieved, and high mast columns may assist in this regard. SISD on the minor road may
not be required if the signal pedestal carries a sign requiring vehicles to stop if the signals are inoperative or
flashing amber.

9.4.3 Unobstructed Sight Distance

Unobstructed sight distance at an intersection requires SSD between approaching vehicles as shown in
Figure 9.4.3-A. It is usually not feasible to provide this in urban areas.

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SSD SSD

Unobstructed
Unobstructed
Sight Triangle
Sight Triangle

SSD
UNOBSTRUCTED SIGHT
DISTANCE
Centre line of lane

ASD

ASD Zero object

ASD

Figure 9.4.3 A Sight distance at Intersections.vsd

APPROACH SIGHT
DISTANCE

SISD
SISD

7m
(5m m in)

Centre line of lane

SAFE INTERSECTION SIGHT
DISTANCE

M GSD
M GSD

7m
(5m min)

MINIMUM GAP SIGHT

Centre line of lane DISTANCE
(Right turn from Side Road)

ASD 1.05m
MGSD (car)
Eye height

SISD Longitudinal Section 0.6m

Eye
height Conflict point
Object Vehicle (I.05m for SISD, 0.6m for MGSD)
Eye vehicle (Car 1.05m or Truck 2.40m )
Eye & Object Vehicle (1.05m )

Figure 9.4.3-A:- Intersection Sight Distance Concepts

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9.4.4 Approach Sight Distance (ASD ) (All Intersections, All Roundabouts, All
Approaches)
The approaching driver on every leg of an intersection must be able to appreciate intersection geometry and
pavement markings in order to negotiate the intersection, or stop, whichever is required.

Approach Sight Distance, appropriate to the approach speed limit or truck operating speed, is the minimum
to be provided on each leg of an intersection. It is measured between an eye height of 1.05m (2.4m for
trucks) and zero (pavement surface).

The minimum value for ASD is SSD (corrected for grade) from Table 9.3.3-A and Table 9.3.4-A for cars and
trucks respectively. The governing value may be the truck if there is a downgrade to the intersection, but the
height of the truck driver will assist if the intersection is beyond a vertical curve.

9.4.5 Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD) (All Intersections, Legs with Priority,
Signalised Intersections)
Safe intersection Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance which should be available from vehicles
approaching an intersection on legs with priority to vehicles which could emerge from non signalised legs. It
is measured 1.05m to 1.05m for cars, and from 2.40m to 1.05m for truck to car sight distance.

SISD comprises stopping sight distance for the car speed limit* or truck operating speed (SSD) plus three
seconds of travel time (observation time). This provides sufficient distance for a driver on an approach with
priority to observe a vehicle entering from a side street, decelerate and stop prior to a point of conflict. It also
provides sufficient sight distance to see an articulated vehicle emerging from the side street, which has
properly commenced a manoeuvre from a leg without priority, but still creating an obstruction because of its
length.

SISD is viewed between two points 1.05m above the road surface. (2.40 m eye height for trucks). One point
is the driver’s eye height on the leg with priority and the other represents the height of a vehicle (1.05m)
positioned on the side road 7 m (5m min) from the first conflict point in the intersection.

Values of SISD are determined by adding the observation distances (Table 9.4.5-A) to the grade corrected
SSD distances of Table 9.3.3-Aand Table 9.3.4-A for cars and trucks respectively. The SSD should be
based upon the speed limit for cars (representing the 85th percentile speed), and the operating speed or
speed limit for trucks, whichever is the lower.

Table 9.4.5-A:- Observation Distance

(Add to SSD to Determine SISD)

Car Speed Limit* or Truck Operating Speed Observation Distance

50 42
60 50
70 58
80 67
90 75
*Car speed limit is used as an approximation of the 85th percentile speed `for cars.

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9.4.6 Minimum Gap Sight Distance (MGSD) (All intersections, Turning Traffic,
Signalised Intersections (Filtered Left Turns, Free Right Turns, Right Turn on
Red))
Minimum Gap Distance (MGSD) is measured from 1.05m to 0.6m (car driver eye height to height of turn
indicators) for vehicles at an intersection wishing to enter the intersection from a side road or turn from the
main road into a side road. MGSD is measured from the point of conflict (between approaching and
entering vehicles) back along the centre of the travel lane of the approaching vehicle.

If the gap seeking vehicle is in a side street, the vehicle is assumed positioned 7.0m (5.0m min) from the
potential conflict point - i.e. the intersection of the centrelines of the lanes. See Figure 9.4.3-A.for details. If
the vehicle is turning left off a main road, the gap seeking vehicle position is in the left turn lane.

This factor requires vehicles to be oriented so that drivers are able to see traffic which will conflict with the
intended manoeuvre and judge whether there is a gap of sufficient length to make the manoeuvre.

The sight distance required for an entering vehicle to see a gap in the conflicting streams sufficient to safely
commence its desired manoeuvre is dependent upon the length of the gap being sought (gap acceptance
time ta and the speed of approaching traffic, assumed to be travelling at the speed limit.

Gap acceptance time will vary according to:

• type of manoeuvre - left turn/right turn/crossing
• width of carriageway - increased time required for greater widths
• one way or two way traffic flows – increased time required to look both ways
• type and speed of vehicles, (for example, large heavy vehicles; the presence of bicycles)

The choice of design vehicle will depend on the situation. Intersections between arterial roads and freeways
and other arterial roads and roads serving industrial areas with a high proportion of trucks should be located
where there is sufficient sight distance for these longer and slower vehicles to select an adequate gap, and
semi-trailer ta should be used. Intersections where buses turn should also be designed for single unit trucks.
Intersections serving residential areas without bus routes may be designed on the basis of car gap
acceptance, although even these streets have regular servicing by single unit trucks, and single unit truck
sight distances are desirable.

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Table 9.4.6-A values for the gap in traffic ta for cars, single unit trucks and semi-trailers. The distance
traveled for different ta values is given in Table 9.4.6-B.

The distance travelled is the MGSD. Values is calculated from

MGSD (m) = 0.278V x ta where V = Speed limit (km/h) and ta = gap from

The use of MGSD may result in turning vehicles causing some interference to through traffic flow, causing
major road drivers to reduce speed to around 70% of the speed limit.

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Table 9.4.6-A:- Gap Acceptance Times*

Grades 3% or less

Movement Diagram Descriptions Car ta SU Truck Semi-

ta sec trailer ta
sec
sec
Right hand turn A GAP

Interfering with A 6.5 8.5 10.5

T9.4.4A 1.vsd

Crossing GAP

Two lane - two way 6.5 8.5 10.5

Four lane – two way 7.0 9.2 11.2
Six lane – two way 7.5 9.9 11.9
T9.4.4A 2.vsd

Left hand turn GAP

from major road
T9.4.4A 3.vsd

Across 1 lane 5.5 6.5 7.5

Across 2 lanes 6.0 7.2 8.2
Across 3 lanes 6.5 7.9 8.9

Left hand turn GAP

A
from minor road
Interfering with A
One way 6.5 8.5 10.5
Two lane - two way 8.0 10.0 12.0
T9.4.4A 4.vsd

Four lane – two way 8.5 10.7 12.7

Six lane – two way 9.0 11.4 13.4
* gap times from AASHTO 2001

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Table 9.4.6-B:- MGSD

Speed Limit*
40 50 60 70 80 90
5.5 61 76 92 107 122 138
6.0 67 83 100 117 133 150
6.5 72 90 108 126 145 163
7.0 78 97 117 136 156 175
7.2 80 100 120 140 160 180
7.5 83 104 125 146 167 188
7.9 88 110 132 154 176 198
8.0 89 111 133 156 178 200
8.2 91 114 137 160 182 205
8.5 95 118 142 165 189 213
8.9 99 124 148 173 198 223
Gap ta 9.0 100 125 150 175 200 225
9.2 102 128 153 179 205 230
9.9 110 138 165 193 220 248
10.0 111 139 167 195 222 250
10.5 117 146 175 204 234 263
10.7 119 149 178 208 238 268
11.2 125 156 187 218 249 280
11.4 127 158 190 222 254 285
11.9 132 165 198 232 265 298
12.0 133 167 200 234 267 300
12.7 141 177 212 247 282 318
13.4 149 186 224 261 298 335
*Note AASHTO uses design speed to calculate required sight distance – this manual advocates the use of speed limit,
which gives lower values for MGSD.

9.4.7 Entering Sight Distance (Cars)

ESD is a high standard criteria that allows cars to enter a traffic stream from a side road or driveway and
accelerate so that traffic on the major road is unimpeded as detailed in Table 9.4.7 A.

Table 9.4.7-A:- Entering Sight Distance

Speed Limit ESD

40 100
50 125
60 160
70 220
80 300
90 400
100 500

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ESD is rarely achieved except in flat terrain or in a large sag vertical curve. It should be regarded as an
optimum objective. It is unrealistic for trucks to enter traffic streams without some interference.

ESD is measured between two points 1.05m above the travelled way. One point represents the vehicle
height on the non-terminating approach and the other the driver’s eye height in the side street 5.0m
(minimum 3.0m) from the lip or edge line projection.

9.5 Interchange Sight Distance

9.5.1 Ramp Sight Distance
Sight distance on ramps and their diverge and merge areas is an important component of freeway design.
The provision of good sight distance to diverge and merges allows drivers to see the pavement and perform
the necessary manouevres.

A view of the exit ramp pavement is highly desirable:

• 300* m to the start the exit lane pavement chevron (0.0m object height)
• SSD at freeway design speed along the exit lane between the starting chevron and the nose
• 200m - 300*m to the pavement next to the exit ramp nose (0.0m object height)
• 200 m sight distance to the end of 60m of pavement past the nose (i.e. from 140m before the nose
• SSD** at ramp design speed along the ramp between the exit nose and ramp intersection (if a stop
condition ramp) or merge (if a free flow ramp)
• ASD to the ramp terminal intersection (if a stop condition ramp)
• If a free flow ramp, inter-visibility between the ramp and the through carriageway prior to the merge
should be promoted by grading the ramp and the freeway so that 240m of sight distance is available
from the entry ramp (60m before the merge nose) to a vehicle (1.05m) on the through carriageway
• the entry ramp nose should be visible 300m from the through carriageway upstream of the merge so
that vehicles on the through lane have the opportunity to vary their speed or change lanes to
facilitate the merging of entering vehicles

Further details are included in Section 16 (interchanges).

The location of ramps needs to be considered during the initial planning and road location process, as the
sight distance necessary may not be achievable if the diverges and merges are located in the vicinity of
horizontal or vertical curves.

*150 m minimum for urban freeway with speed limit of 80km/h.

** Consider locating ramp shoulder on left side of left hand horizontal curves on bridges – this provides a
visibility offset to the bridge barrier.

Section 9 – Sight Distance FINAL – November 2004

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