Fundamental structures of the HUMAN BODY
CELL-A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of
life that is responsible for all of life’s processes. Each
HISTORY AND FACTS
1. Discovery of Cells: In 1665, Robert
Hooke first observed and coined the term
"cell" while examining cork under a
microscope.
2. Cell Theory: Proposed by Schleiden,
Schwann, and Virchow in the 19th century,
the cell theory states that all living
organisms are composed of cells, the basic
unit of life, and that cells arise from pre-
existing cells.
3. Cell Types: Cells can be categorized into
two main types - prokaryotic and
eukaryotic.
4. Cell Division: The two primary methods
of cell division are mitosis and meiosis.
-All cells produced from the zygote by mitosis have
identical DNA.
-Cells with identical genetic information differentiate
to become different cells with their own structure and
function.
-Cells can be identical or different according to the
specific genes that are either active or inactive cell.
-Cell differentiation is the term used to name process
in which cells with identical cells with identical
nuclear composition, i.e. same number and types of
genes, become different and specialized in both their
structure and function.
Example:
1. Stem Cells-Stem cells are special cells in our
bodies that have the unique ability to develop
into various types of cells with specific
functions. They act as the building blocks for
our tissues and organs. There are two main
types: embryonic stem cells (found in early
embryos) and adult stem cells (found in
various tissues). Stem cells can divide and
differentiate into specialized cells like nerve
cells, muscle cells, or blood cells. They also
play a vital role in repairing damaged tissues
and promoting growth. Stem cell research
holds promise for treating various medical
conditions and understanding how our bodies
develop and heal.
2. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Carry
oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
and bring carbon dioxide back to the lungs for
exhalation.
cell contains a fluid called cytoplasm, which is
enclosed by a membrane.
3. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Play a
crucial role in the immune system by
defending the body against infections and
foreign invaders.
4. Neurons (Nerve Cells): Transmit electrical
signals throughout the nervous system,
allowing communication between different
parts of the body.
5. Muscle Cells (Myocytes): Contract and relax
to produce movement in the body, including
the movement of limbs and the beating of the
heart.
6. Epithelial Cells: Form protective layers
covering the body's surfaces, such as the skin
and the lining of internal organs, providing a
barrier against pathogens.
7. Fat Cells (Adipocytes): Store energy in the
form of fat, insulate the body, and provide
cushioning and protection for organs.
8. Osteocytes: Found in bone tissue, they
maintain the bone structure by regulating
minerals and participating in the process of
bone remodeling.
9. Hepatocytes: Main cells of the liver, involved
in numerous metabolic processes, including
detoxification, storage of nutrients, and
production of proteins.
10. Pancreatic Cells: Play a role in the endocrine
and exocrine functions of the pancreas,
including the production of insulin and
digestive enzymes.
11. Skin Cells (Keratinocytes): Produce the
protein keratin, which provides strength and
waterproofing to the skin, hair, and nails.
12. Reproductive Cells (Sperm and Egg Cells):
Responsible for reproduction; sperm cells
carry genetic material to fertilize egg cells,
leading to the formation of a new organism.
TISSUES- Cells of the same type are usually
found together in a tissue, held together by
extracellular fluid or fibres.
1. Epithelial Tissue
Location: Covers body surfaces and lines
internal organs.
Function: Acts as a protective barrier,
facilitates absorption and secretion, and
provides sensory functions. Examples include
skin epithelium and lining of the digestive
tract.
  IT FORMS BARRIERS TO KEEP collaborate to perform specific functions. They are
DIFFERENT BODY SYSTEM integral components of organ systems, contributing to
SEPARATELY the overall health and homeostasis of the body.
 THEY CAN BE CLASSIFIED BY
1. Brain
THEIR NUMBER OF LAYERS AND
Location: In the skull, encased by the cranium.
THEIR APPEARANCE: Squamous,
Function: Central control center for the
Cuboidal, Columnar
nervous system, responsible for processing
2. Connective Tissue
information, thought, and coordination of
Location: Throughout the body, supporting
bodily functions.
and connecting various structures.
2. Heart
Function: Provides structural support, connects
Location: In the chest, slightly left of the
and anchors tissues and organs, and transports
center.
substances. Examples include bone, blood, and
Function: Pumps blood throughout the
adipose (fat) tissue.
circulatory system to supply oxygen and
3. Nervous Tissue
nutrients to tissues and organs.
Location: Mainly in the brain, spinal cord, and
3. Lungs
nerves.
Location: In the chest, within the ribcage.
Function: Transmits and receives electrical
Function: Facilitate the exchange of oxygen
signals, allowing for communication and
and carbon dioxide during respiration.
coordination. Composed of neurons and glial
4. Liver
cells, nervous tissue forms the basis of the
Location: In the upper right abdomen.
nervous system.
Function: Performs functions like
4. Blood (Vascular) Tissue
detoxification, metabolism of nutrients, and
Location: Circulates throughout the
production of bile for digestion.
cardiovascular system.
5. Kidneys
Function: Transports oxygen, nutrients,
Location: Behind the abdominal organs, on
hormones, and waste products. Consists of red
either side of the spine.
and white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
Function: Filter blood, remove waste products,
5. Cartilage
and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance.
Location: Found in joints, the nose, ears, and
6. Stomach
between vertebrae.
Location: In the upper abdomen, beneath the
Function: Provides support and flexibility,
diaphragm.
acting as a cushion between bones. It is more
Function: Digests food through the secretion
rigid than other connective tissues.
of digestive enzymes and acids.
Number of muscles required to smile? 17
7. Intestines
Number of muscles required to frown? 43
Small Intestine Location: Extends from the
6. Muscle Tissue
stomach to the large intestine in the abdominal
Location: Attached to bones (skeletal muscle),
cavity.
in the walls of organs (smooth muscle), and in
Large Intestine Location: Surrounds the small
the heart (cardiac muscle).
intestine.
Function: Contracts to generate movement and
Function: Absorb nutrients and water from
force. Skeletal muscle allows voluntary
digested food.
movement, smooth muscle controls
8. Pancreas
involuntary functions, and cardiac muscle
Location: Behind the stomach.
powers the heart.
Function: Produces enzymes for digestion and
Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal muscle,
regulates blood sugar by secreting insulin and
Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle
glucagon.
7. Lymphoid Tissue
9. Spleen
Location: Found in lymph nodes, tonsils, and
Location: Upper left side of the abdomen.
the spleen.
Function: Filters blood, removes damaged
Function: Plays a key role in the immune
blood cells, and stores platelets.
system, producing and housing immune cells
10. Gallbladder
that help defend the body against infections.
Location: Attached to the liver.
ORGANS- Organs are complex structures within the Function: Stores and releases bile produced by
human body, made up of different tissues that the liver to aid in fat digestion.
11. Skin
Location: Covers the entire body.
Function: Protective barrier, regulates
temperature, and houses sensory receptors.
12. Muscles
Location: Throughout the body, attached to
bones.
Function: Contract and relax to facilitate
movement.
13. Bones
Location: Throughout the body.
Function: Provide structural support,
protection, and contribute to blood cell
production.
14. Bladder
Location: In the pelvic area.
Function: Stores urine produced by the
kidneys before excretion.
15. Adrenal glands
Location: On top of each kidney.
Function: Produce hormones (e.g., adrenaline,
cortisol) involved in the body's stress response.
16. Thyroid
Location: In the neck, below the Adam's apple.
Function: Produces hormones that regulate
metabolism.
17. Reproductive organs:
Male reproductive organs:
Testes Location: In the scrotum.
Prostate Location: Surrounds the urethra.
Penis Location: External genitalia.
Female reproductive organs:
Ovaries Location: In the pelvic cavity.
Uterus Location: In the pelvic cavity.
Vagina Location: Connects the uterus to the
external genitalia.
18. Thymus
Location: In the upper chest, behind the
breastbone.
Function: Plays a role in the development of
the immune system.
19. Pituitary gland
Location: Below the hypothalamus in the
brain.
Function: Regulates the functions of other
endocrine glands and produces various
hormones.
20. Parathyroid glands
Location: Four small glands on the thyroid.
Function: Regulate calcium levels in the body.