Kn

vectors !u, !v
Kn

!u = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )

!v = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ).

ai , b i ∈ K i = [1, n] coefficients
!u !v
dimension

K R
C

1
!u, !v ∈ Kn
Mn×1 (K)
   
a1 b1
 a2   b2 
   
!u =  , !v =  
   
an bn

M1×n (K) (!u)t , (!v )t

inner scalar
product !u, !v ∈ Kn
 !u · !v

!u · !v ≡ (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) · (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )
' n
= a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + · · · + an b n = ai b i .
i=1

orthogo-
nal !u · !v = 0 !u ⊥ !v

! ∈ Kn
!u, !v , w c∈R

! =w
!u · w ! · !u
!u · (!v + w)! = !u · !v + !u · w
!
c(!u · !v ) = (c!u) · !v
!u · !u = 0 !u = !0
!u, !v ∈ Kn

!u · !v ≡ (!u)t!v
= (!v )t !u.

length magnitute norm

!u ∈ Kn ||!u||
!u
√
||!u|| ≡ !u · !u
(
= a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n .

unit vector

R3 {!i, !j, !k}

!i = (1, 0, 0), !j = (0, 1, 0), !k = (0, 0, 1),

xyz
O = (0, 0, 0) R3 !u = (a, b, c)
{!i, !j, !k}

!u = a!i + b!j + c!k.

||!i||2 = ||!j||2 = ||!k||2 = 1, !i · !j = !i · !k = !k · !j = 0.

 KN

n
Rn n∈Z 4.6
!u, !v ∈ Kn c∈R

||!u|| ≥ 0
||!u|| = 0 !u = !0
||c!u|| = |c|||u|| |c| c
||!u + !v || ≤ ||!u|| + ||!v ||
|!u · !v | ≤ ||!u||||!v || Cauchy-Schwarz

Cauchy-Schwarz
!u = (1, 1, 1, 0) !v = (1, 0, 1, 1) R4

!u, !v
!u · !v
) √
||!u|| = (1, 1, 1, 0)(1, 1, 1, 0) = 3,
) √
||!v || = (1, 0, 1, 1)(1, 0, 1, 1) = 3
) √
!u · !v = (1, 1, 1, 0)(1, 0, 1, 1) = 2
√
|!u · !v | = 2 < 3 = ||!u||||!v ||

!u
û
!u
!u
û = .
||!u||
normalization !u

û
* *
√ !u !u !u · !u
||û|| = û · û = · = = 1.
||!u|| ||!u|| ||!u||2

!u · !v
cos θ = ,
||!u||||!v ||

θ !u !v
!u ·!v = 0 θ = (2m+1) π2 m∈Z
!u ' !v
θ = mπ m∈Z !u !v
!u = k!v k∈Z

(k!v ) · !v k||!v ||2

cos θ = 2
= = ±1 ⇒ θ = mπ.
|k|||!v || |k|||!v ||2

!u = (a1 , b1 , c1 ) !v = (a2 , b2 , c2 )

+ + + + + +
+ a1 b1 ++ ++ b1 c1 ++ ++ a1 c1 ++
+ = = = 0.
+ a2 b2 + + b2 c2 + + a 2 c2 +

!u !v R3
θ = mπ m∈Z
( (
!u · !v = ±||!u|| ||!v || ⇒ (a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 ) = ± a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
⇒ (a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 )2 = (a21 + b21 + c21 )(a22 + b22 + c22 )
⇒ (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 + (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 + (a1 c2 − a2 c1 )2 = 0

a1 b2 − a2 b1 = 0, b1 c2 − b2 c1 = 0, a1 c2 − a2 c1 = 0.

!u ' !v !u = λ!v λ ∈ R
a1 = λa2 b1 = λb2 c1 = λc2 λ

a1 b1 c1  a1 b 2 = a2 b 1
= = ⇒ b 1 c2 = b 2 c1
a2 b2 c2 
a 1 c2 = a 2 c1 ,

distance Rn
!u = (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) !v = (b1 , b1 , · · · , bn )

d(!u, !v ) = ||!u − !v ||
)
= (a1 − b1 )2 + (a2 − b2 )2 + · · · + (an − bn )2 .

! ∈ Rn
!u, !v , w

d(!u, !v ) ≥ 0
 KN

d(!u, !v ) = 0 !u = !v
d(!u, !v ) = d(!v , !u)
d(!u, !v ) ≤ d(!u, w)! + d(w,
! !v ).

Rn

||!u + !v ||2 = ||!u||2 + ||!v 2 ||

!u ⊥ !v Rn

||!u + !v ||2 = (!u + !v ) · (!u + !v ) = !u · !u + 2!u · !v + !v · !v = ||!u||2 + ||!v ||2 .

!u · !v = 0 !u !v
R2
!u + 3!v , !u · !v , d(!u, !v )
α) !u = (1, 1), !v = (−5, 0) β) !u = (1, 2), !v = (−2, 1).

!u + 3!v = (1, 1) + 3(−5, 0) = (1 − 15, 1) = (−14, 1).

!u · !v = (1, 1) · (−5, 0) = 1(−5) + 1(0) = −5.
) √
d(!u, !v ) = (1 − (−5))2 + (1 − 0)2 = 37.
!u · !v −5 1 3
cos θ = =√ √ = − √ ⇒ θ = π.
||!u||||!v || 1 +1 5 +0
2 2 2 2 4

!u + 3!v = (1, 2) + 3(−2, 1) = (1 − 6, 2 + 3) = (−5, 5).

π
!u · !v = (1, 2) · (−2, 1) = 1(−2) + 2(1) = 0 ⇒ θ = .
) 2
√
d(!u, !v ) = (1 − (−2)) + (2 − 1) = 10.
2 2

!v w! α
!v (1, 2, 3) !v + w
! = (7, 3, 5)
w
! (1, 2, 3)
!v ' (1, 2, 3) !v = k(1, 2, 3) k ∈ Z
! = (x, y, z)
w

!v + w
! = (7, 3, 5) ⇒ w
! = (7, 3, 5) − !v ⇒ (x, y, z) = (7, 3, 5) − k(1, 2, 3) ⇒
(x, y, z) = (7 − k, 3 − 2k, 5 − 3k).
k

! · (1, 2, 3) = 0 ⇒ x + 2y + 3z = 0 ⇒ (7 − k) + 2(3 − k) + 3(5 − k) = 0 ⇒ k = 2.

w
 !v
z
y
θ x
!u

!u !v ||!u × !v ||

!v = (2, 4, 6) ! = (5, −1, −1).

w

R3

cross product
!u = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) !v = (b1 , b2 , b2 ) R3 !u × !v

+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
!u × !v = + a1 a2 a3 +
+ +
+ b1 b2 b3 +

= !i (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) − !j (a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) + !k (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ).

!u × !v ⊥ !u !u × !v ⊥ !v

||!u × w||
!
!u !v
! ∈ R3
!u, !v , w c∈R

!u × !u = !0
!u × !v = −(!v × !u)
!u × (!v + w) ! = (!u × !v ) + (!u + w) !
(!u + !v ) × w ! = (!u × w)
! + (!v × w) !
c(!u × !v ) = (c!u) × !v = !u × (c!v )
(!u × !0) = !0)
||!u × !v || = ||!u||2 ||!v ||2 − (!u · !v )2
!u × !v = !0 ⇒ !u ' !v
 KN

!z · !u = !z · !v = 0 !z = !u × !v

!z = !u × !v !z = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 , −(a1 b3 − a3 b1 ), a1 b2 − a2 b1 )

!z · !u = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 , −(a1 b3 − a3 b1 ), a1 b2 − a2 b1 )(a1 , a2 , a3 )

= a1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) − a2 (a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) + a3 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
= 0.

!z · !v = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 , −(a1 b3 − a3 b1 ), a1 b2 − a2 b1 )(b1 , b2 , b3 )

= b1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) − b2 (a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) + b3 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
= 0.

!i × !j = !k, !j × !k = !i, !k × !i = !j.

+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
!i × !j = + 1 0 0 +
+ +
+ 0 1 0 +

= !k.

{!i, !j, !k} !i → !j → !k → !i

!u = (4, 3, 6) !v = (2, 5, −1)

!u · !v = (4, 3, 6) · (2, 5, −1) = 17.

+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
!u × !v = + 4 3 6 ++ = −33!i + 16!j + 14!k.
+
+ 2 5 −1 +

!u · !v = !u · w
! !u × !v = !u × w
! !u ,= 0
!v = w
!
 !v
w
!

!u
!u !v
w
! |!v · (!u × w)|
!

!u · !v = !u · w
! ⇒ !u · (!v − w)
! =0
!u × !v = !u × w ! ⇒ !u × (!v − w)
! = 0.

!u !u ,= 0 !v ,= w
!
!u ⊥ (!v − w)
!
!u ' (!v − w)
!
!v ≡ w
!

scalar triple product

!v = (x1 , x2 , x2 ) !u = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ! = (z1 , z2 , z3 )
w R3
!v · (!u × w)
! 3

+ +
+ x1 x2 x3 +
+ +
! = ++ y1
!v · (!u × w) y2 y3 +
+
+ z1 z2 z3 +

= x1 (y2 z3 − z2 y3 ) − x2 (y1 z3 − y3 z1 ) + x3 (y1 z2 − y2 z1 ).

{!v , !u, w}
!

! ∈ R3
!u, !v , w

!u · (!u × !v ) = 0
!v · (!u × !v ) = 0
 !u · (!v × w)
! =w ! · (!u × !v ) = !v · (w
! × !u),
!u × (!v × w) ! = (!u · w)!
! v − (!u · !v )w
!
!u × (!v × w) ! + !v × (w ! × !u) + w ! × (!u × !v ) = 0
(!u × !v ) · (w! × !n) = (!u · w)(!
! v · !n) − (!u · !n)(!v · w).
!

real vector space

Rn n
R1 ≡ R
R 2
xy
R3

Kn M1×n (K) Mn×1 (K)

K
vector space

V
!u, !v ∈ V k∈K

α !u + !v ∈ V
k!u ∈ V.

V K
! ∈V
!u, !v , w

(!u + !v ) + w
! = !u + (!v + w)
!
!0 ∈ V !u + !0 = !0 + !u = !0

(−!u) ∈ V !u + (−!u) = (−!u)+!u =

!0

!u + !v = !v + !u

k(!u + !v ) = k!u + k!v , ∀k ∈ K

(a + b)!u = a!u + b!u, ∀a, b ∈ K

(ab)!u = a(b!u), ∀a, b ∈ K

1!u = !u, 1∈K

 V K
V

K ≡ R V
K≡C V
complex vector space

m Rm
!u = (u1 , u2 , · · · , um ) ui ∈ R i ∈ [1, m]

Mn×m (R) n×m

F (x)
{f, g} : R → R

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

(cf )(x) = cf (x), c, x ∈ R.

k∈N Pk (x)
p(x) = p0 + p1 x + · · · + pk xk
pi , x ∈ R i ∈ [1, k]

Pk (x)

p(x) = p0 + p1 x + · · · + pk xk q(x) = q0 + q1 x + · · · + qk xk
r(x) = r0 + r1 x + · · · + rk xk Pk (x) c∈R

p(x) + q(x) = (p0 + q0 ) + (p1 + q1 )x + · · · + (pk + qk )xk ⇒ p(x) + q(x) ∈ Pk (x)

cp(x) = cp0 + cp1 x + · · · + cpk xk ⇒ cp(x) ∈ Pk (x).

 p(x) + (q(x) + r(x)) = p0 + p1 x + · · · + pk xk
/ 0
+ (q0 + r0 ) + (q1 + r1 )x + · · · + (qk + rk )xk
= (p0 + (q0 + r0 )) + (p1 + (q1 + r1 ))x + · · ·
+(pk + (qk + rk ))xk
= ((p0 + q0 ) + r0 ) + ((p1 + q1 ) + r1 )x + · · ·
+((pk + qk ) + rk )xk
/ 0
= (p0 + q0 ) + (p1 + q1 )x + · · · + (pk + qk )xk
+r0 + r1 x + · · · + rk xk
= (p(x) + q(x)) + r(x).
O(x) = 0 +
0x + · · · + 0xk
p(x) + O(x) = O(x) + p(x) = p(x).
−p(x) = −(p0 + p1 x + · · · + pk xk )
p(x) + (−p(x)) = O(x).

p(x) + q(x) = (p0 + q0 ) + (p1 + q1 )x + · · · + (pk + qk )xk

= (q0 + p0 ) + (q1 + p1 )x + · · · + (qk + pk )xk
= q(x) + p(x).
c∈R
c(p(x) + q(x)) = c(p0 + q0 ) + c(p1 + q1 )x + · · · + c(pk + qk )xk
= (cq0 + cp0 ) + (cq1 + cp1 )x + · · · + (cqk + cpk )xk
= cp0 + cp1 x + · · · + cpk xk + cq0 + cq1 x + · · · + cqk xk
= cq(x) + cp(x).
a, b ∈ R

(a + b)p(x) = (a + b)p0 + (a + b)p1 x + · · · + (a + b)pk xk

= ap0 + bp0 + (ap1 + bp1 )x + · · · + (apk + bpk )xk
= (ap0 + ap1 x + · · · + apk xk ) + (bp0 + bp1 x + · · · + bpk )xk
= ap(x) + bp(x).

(ab)p(x) = (ab)p0 + (ab)p1 x + · · · + (ab)pk xk

= a(bp0 ) + a(bp1 )x + · · · + a(bpk )xk
= a(bp(x)),
 a=b=1
1p(x) = p(x)
k

W V
K subspace V W⊂V
W K
V

V
trivial zero vector space
{0} V

R2 R3

R2 R3

L = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : ax + by = 0}

R2

R2
!u1 = (x1 , y1 ) !u2 = (x2 , y2 ) L

ax1 + by1 = 0
⇒ a(x1 + x2 ) + b(y1 + y2 ) = 0
ax2 + by2 = 0

!u1 + !u2 = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ L

L
!u1 ∈ L c ∈ R
c!u1 = (cx1 , cy1 ) ∈ L ax1 + by1 = 0 a(cx1 ) + b(cy1 ) = 0
!0 = (0, 0) ∈ L
(−!u) = (−x, −y) L
L R
R2 R2
R

A ∈ Mn×m (K)
Kn Km
row collumn space A rowsp(A) colsp(A)
 Kn

rowsp(A) ≡ colsp(At ).

AX = 0
A ∈ Mn×m (K) X ∈ Mm×1 (K) nullspace A
nullsp(A)

A B ¨
A ∼ B B
A

rowsp(A) ≡ rowsp(B).

union inter-
section U W V
U ∩W V 0 ∈ U ∪W
a!u + w
! ∈ U ∩W a∈K !u ∈ U, w! ∈W
U ∪W V
(1, 0) ∈ U (0, 1) ∈ W
(1, 1) ∈
/ U ∪W

U W V

U + W = {!v : !v = !u + w,
! !u ∈ U, w
! ∈ W}

V sum U W

U W V
V direct sum U W
V = U ⊕W !v ∈ V
!v = !u + w
! !u ∈ U ! ∈W
w

V
U W
α V =U +W
U ∩ W = {0}.

R3

U = {(a, 0, b), ∀a, b ∈ R}, W = {(ã, c, 0), ∀ã, c ∈ R}.

 (x, y, z) R3 U W

x x
(x, y, z) = ( , 0, z) + ( , y, 0),
2 2
a = ã = x
2 b=z c=y R3 = U + W
R3 xz xy
U W R3
U W R3
U W (0, b, b) ∈ R3
(0, b, b) = (0, 0, b) + (0, b, 0)
(0, b, b) = (3, 0, b) + (−3, b, 0)

R3

U = {(a, 0, 0), ∀a ∈ R}, W = {(0, b, c), ∀b, c ∈ R}.

(x, y, z) R3
U W

(x, y, z) = (x, 0, 0) + (0, y, z).

R3 = U ⊕ W
R3 x
yz U W

V K
!v ∈ V linear combina-
tion {!u1 , !u2 , . . . , !um } ∈ V
{a1 , a2 , . . . , am } ∈ K

!v = a1 !u1 + a2 !u2 + · · · + am !um .

ai i = [1, m] coordinates
!v

(1, 4, −2, 6) ∈ R4
(1, 2, 0, 4) (1, 1, 1, 3) 3 −2

(1, 4, −2, 6) = 3(1, 2, 0, 4) − 2(1, 1, 1, 3).

 R2

!i = (1, 0) !j = (0, 1).

(x, y) ∈ R3 (x, y) = x!i + y!j

R 3

{!i, !j, !k}

F (x) cos 2x
cos2 x cosh2 x sinh2 x

2, 1 −1

cos 2x = 2 cos2 x−1 = 2 cos2 x−(cosh2 x−sinh2 x) = 2 cos2 x+sinh2 x−cosh2 x.

!v
{!u1 , !u2 , . . . , !um }

!v = x1 !u1 + x2 !u2 + · · · + xm !um

{x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } ∈ K

Rn
n m

!v = AX
/ 0
A = !u1 !u2 . . . !um n×m
/ 0t
vector matrix X = x1 x2 ... xm
coordinate matrix

X = A−1!v ,

!v !ui i ∈ [1, m]

!v = (3, 7, −4)
!u1 = (1, 2, 3) !u2 = (2, 3, 7) !u3 = (3, 5, 6)
 xi i = 1, 2, 3

     
3 1 2 3 −17 9 1
1
!v =  7  , A= 2 3 5  ⇒ A−1 =  3 −3 1 .
4
−4 3 7 6 5 −1 −1

  
−17 9 1 3
1
X = 3 −3 1  7 
4
5 −1 −1 −4
 
2
=  −4  .
3

!v = 2!u1 − 4!u2 + 3!u3 .

Gauss

ρ = 3t2 + 5t − 5

ρ1 = t2 + 2t + 1, ρ2 = 2t2 + 5t + 4, ρ3 = t2 + 3t + 6.

x, y z

ρ = xρ1 + yρ2 + zρ3 ⇒ 3t2 + 5t− 5 = (x+ 2y + z)t2 + (2x+ 5y + 3z)t+ x+ 4y + 6z.

t Gauss

x + 2y + z = 3 (2) → (2) − 2(1) x + 2y + z = 3

(3) → (3) − (1) (3)→(3)−2(2)
2x + 5y + 3z = 5 ⇒ y+z = −1 ⇒
x + 4y + 6z = −5 2y + 5z = −8

x = 3 − 2y − z
y = −1 − z ⇒ ρ = 3ρ1 + ρ2 − 2ρ3 .
z = −2
 linear span
V K
V
{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um } ∈ V
{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um }

span{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um } = {c1 !u1 + · · · + cm !um }, ∀ci ∈ K.

V
span V V
{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um } span{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um } ≡V

{!i, !j} {!i, !j, !k} R2 R3

(x, y) ∈ R2 (x, y, z) ∈ R3

{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um }

V K
α span{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um } V
W V {!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um } ∈W
{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um }
W W span{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !um } ⊆ W

span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 } = R3 !u1 = (1, 1, 0) !u2 =

(5, 1, −3) !u3 = (2, 7, 4) ∈ R3

{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }

span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 } = {c1 (1, 1, 0) + c2 (5, 1, −3) + c3 (2, 7, 4) : c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R}

= {(c1 + 5c2 + 2c3 , c1 + c2 + 7c3 , −3c2 + 4c3 ) : c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R}.

(x, y, z) ∈ R3
c 1 , c2 , c3 (x, y, z)
span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }

(x, y, z) = (c1 + 5c2 + 2c3 , c1 + c2 + 7c3 , −3c2 + 4c3 ).

    
x 1 5 2 c1
 y = 1 1 7   c2 
z 0 −3 4 c3
 (x, y, z)
    
c1 −25 26 −33 x
 c2  =  4 −4 5  y .
c3 3 −3 4 z

/ 0−1
!u1 !u2 !u2 (x, y, z) ∈ R3
ci i = 1, 2, 3
(x, y, z) = c1 !u1 + c2 !u2 + c3 !u3 .
span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 } = R3

{!v1 , !v2 , . . . , !vm } ∈ V K

linear dependent
{a1 , a2 , . . . , am } ∈ K
a1!v1 + a2!v2 + · · · + am!vm = !0.

a1 = a2 = · · · = am = 0
{!v1 , !v2 , . . . , !vm } linear
independent
{!v1 , !v2 , . . . , !vm }
!ui

!v1 = k!v2 ⇒ !v1 − k!v2 = 0, ∀k ,= 0

    
1 1 4
!u =  1  , !v =  3  , ! =  9 .
w
0 2 5

x + y + 4z = 0
(1)→2(1)−(3) 2x + 3z = 0
x!u + y!v + z w
! = !0 ⇒ x + 3y + 9z = 0 ⇒
2y + 5z = 0
2y + 5z = 0
x = − 23 z
⇒ y = − 25 z
z = z.
z=2

−3!u − 5!v + 2w
! = 0.

V ≡ Rn
AX = 0

a1
/ 0  a2 
 
A= !u1 !u2 ··· !um X= .
 
am

!ui i = [1, m]

det(A)
/ 0
A= !u1 !u2 ··· !um
AX = 0
α det(A) ,= 0 !ui i = [1, m]
X=0
det(A) = 0 !ui i = [1, m]

α !u1 = (2, 2, 0), !u2 = (5, 1, −3), !u3 = (2, 7, 4) ∈ R3

!u1 = (1, 2, 3) !u2 = (3, 2, 1), !u3 = (3, 3, 3) ∈ R3 .

  
2 5 2 a1
 2 1 7   a2  = 0
0 −3 4 a3
a1 = a2 = a3 = 0
 
1 5 2
det  1 1 7  = −2 ,= 0.
0 −3 4

 
/ 0 1 3 3
A= !u1 !u2 !u3 = 2 2 3 
3 1 3

det(A) = 0
 (c1 , c2 , c3 ) = (6, 6, −8)

6!u1 + 6!u2 − 8!u3 = !0.

m
n m ,= n

mn
m>n

n×n

n×n
 
1 0 ··· 0
 0 1 ··· 0 
 
I= 
 ··· 
0 0 ··· 1

4.5.3

 
1 3 3 2
U = 0 0 3 1 
0 0 0 0

S = {!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !un }

V S
linear dependent set

linear independent set

 S
orthogonal set
orthonormal set

S = {!u1 , !u2 , . . . , !un }

V K S basis
V
α span{!u1 , !u2 , . . . , !un } = V.
{!u1 , !u2 , . . . , !un }

V
S

!u S=
{!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !un } ai ,= bi : ai , bi ∈ K
i = [1, n]

!u = a1 !u1 + a2 !u2 + · · · + an !un

⇒ !0 = (a1 −b1 )!u1 +(a2 −b2 )!u2 +· · ·+(an −bn )!un .
!u = b1 !u1 + b2 !u2 + · · · + bn !un

S ai = bi , ∀i

standard basis
Rn n∈Z
     
1 0 0
 0   1   0 
     
 0   0   0 
!e1 =  , !e2 =  , ··· , !en =  .
     
     
0 0 1

R2 {!i, !j} ≡{ !e1 , !e2 }

R 3
{!i, !j, !k} = {!e1 , !e2 , !e3 }

!ei · !ej = δij

1
0, i ,= j
=
1, i = j

δij Kronecker
 !u1 = (a11 , a21 , a31 ), !u2 = (a12 , a22 , a32 ), !u3 = (a13 , a23 , a33 ) ∈ R3

 
a11 a12 a13
det  a21 a22 a23  =
, 0.
a31 a32 a33

{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }

!v = (x, y, x) R3 {!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }
!v = x1 !u1 + x2 !u2 + x3 !u3

    
a11 a12 a13 x1 x
!v = AX ⇒  a21 a22 a23   x2  =  y 
a31 a32 a33 x3 z

/ 0 X = A−1!v
A= !u1 !u2 !u3 det(A) ,= 0
span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 } = R3 {!u1 , !u2 , !u3 } R3

S = {!u1 , !u2 , · · · , !un }

V K
α !u ∈ V
S

!u = c1 !u1 + c2 !u2 + · · · + cn !un , c1 , · · · , cn ∈ K.

ci !u
S coordinates of !u with respect to the basis S
(c1 , c2 , · · · , cn ) ∈ Kn vector coor-
dinate
{!v1 , !v2 , · · · , !vr } ∈V r>n

4.6.1 R3

n V
n dimension V
V dim(V) = n
 n ∈ Z)
finite dimensional vector space
infinite dimensional vector
space V {0}
dim{0} = 0

V K
K≡R C dim(V) = n
α V n
n V
V

A ∈ Mn×m (K)

A ∈ Mn×m (K)
α dim(colsp(A)) = dim(rowsp(A)).
dim(colsp(A)) + dim(nullsp(A)) = m m
A

A ∈ Mn (K)
α A Kn
A
A
A
A
A

 
2 4 1
 4 8 2 
A=
 8
.
16 4 
−2 −4 −1

dim(colsp(A)) = 1
    
1 2 0 1 1 2 0 1
A= 0 1 1 0 , U = 0 1 1 0 .
1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0

A
rowsp(A)
SA = {!u1 , !u2 }

!u1 = (1, 2, 0, 1), !u2 = (0, 1, 1, 0).

U
rowsp(U )
S = {w ! 2}
! 1, w

! 1 = (1, 2, 0, 0),
w ! 2 = (0, 1, 1, 0).
w

Gram-Schmidt

S = {!v1 , !v2 , . . . , !vn } V

S
Gram-Schmidt Gram-Schmidt orthonorma-
lization process

Gram-Schmidt V
{!v1 , !v2 , · · · , !vn }
{w ! 2, · · · , w
! 1, w ! n}

!vk · w!1 !vk · w

! k−1
! k = !vk −
w 2
!1 − · · · −
w w
! k−1 , ∀k ∈ [2, n]
||w
! 1 || ! k−1 ||2
||w

! 0 = !0
w ! 1 = !v1
w orthogonal basis V

w
!k
ŵk =
||w
! k ||

orthonormal basis
V
 wi i = [0, n]

!v2 · w !1 !v2 · w!1

!2 · w
w !1 = (!v2 − w! 1) · w ! 1 = !v2 · !v1 − !1 · w
w !1
||w! 1 ||2 ! 1 ||2
||w
!v2 · !v1
= !v2 · !v1 − ||w! 1 ||2 = !v2 · !v1 − !v2 · !v1
||w ! 1 ||2
≡ 0
2 3
!v3 · w !1 !v3 · w!2
!3 · w
w !2 = !v3 − w!1 − w!2 · w !2
! 1 ||2
||w ! 2 ||2
||w
!v3 · w !1 !v3 · w!2
= !v3 · w!2 − w!1 · w !2 − w!2 · w!2
! 1 ||2
||w ! 2 ||2
||w
!v3 · w!2
= !v3 · w!2 − 0 − ! 2 ||2
||w
! 2 ||2
||w
≡ 0.

! j = 0,
!i · w
w ∀i ,= j.

! k , ∀k ∈ Z
w

S = {!u1 , !u2 }
= {(4, 3, 6), (2, 5, −3)}.
Gram-Schmidt

w
!1 = !u1
= (4, 3, 6)
!u2 · w!1
w
!2 = !u2 − ·w!1
! 1 ||2
||w
(2, 5, −3) · (4, 3, 6)
= (2, 5, −3) − (4, 3, 6)
16 + 9 + 36
5
= (2, 5, −3) − (4, 3, 6)
2 61 3
102 290 213
= , ,− .
61 61 61

! 1 , (61)w
{w ! 2 } = {(4, 3, 6), (102, 290, −213)}
 rank A ∈ Mn×m (K)
rank(A)

0 ∈
Mn×m (R)
rank(A) > 0
A ∈ Mn (K) K≡R C

α A
A
A
AX = 0
AX = B B ∈ Kn
A
A
A n rank(A) = n

 
1 1 5 1 4
A= 2 −1 1 2 2 
3 0 6 0 −3

 
1 0 2 0 −1
B= 0 1 3 0 2 
0 0 0 1 3

A
B

A
B
!u1 = (1, 0, 2, 0, −1), !u2 = (0, 1, 3, 0, 2), !u3 = (0, 0, 0, 1, 3)

B
    
1 0 0
!1 =  0  ,
w !2 =  1  ,
w !3 =  0  ,
w
0 0 1
 AX = 0 ⇒ BX = 0
4.6.3 )

dim(nullsp(A)) = m − dim(colsp(A)) = 5 − 3 = 2

m=5 A
BX = 0
X = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 )t
     
−2x3 + x5 −2 1
x1 + 2x3 − x5 = 0  −3x3 − 2x5   −3   −2 
     
x2 + 3x3 + 2x5 = 0 ⇒X=
 x3  = x3 
  1 +x5 
  0 .

x4 + 3x5 = 0  −3x5   0   −3 
x5 0 1
BX = 0

   
−2 1
 −3   −2 
   
!1 = 
w  1 ,
 !2 = 
w  0 .

 0   −3 
0 1

S = {w ! 2}
! 1, w

 
2 0 1 −2
A= 2 1 0 3 .
1 −1 2 0
A

    
  
2 2 1 0 2(λ + µ) = 0
 0   1   −1   0  µ +ν = 0
λ  
 1  + µ 0
+ν

 
 2 = 0
⇒
 λ + 2ν = 0
−2 3 0 0 2λ − 3µ = 0

⇒ µ = ν = λ = 0.

rank(A) = 3

 
1 2 −3 1 2
A= 2 4 −4 6 10  .
3 6 −6 9 13
 A
   
1 2 −3 1 2 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 2 −3 1 2
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 2 4 −4 6 10  −→  0 0 2 4 6 
3 6 −6 9 13 0 0 3 6 7
 
R3 →R3 − 32 R2
1 2 −3 1 2
−→  0 0 2 4 6 .
0 0 0 0 1

rank(A) = 3

     
a11 a12 ··· a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ··· a2n   x2   b2 
     
AX = B A= , X =  , B =  
 ···     
an1 an2 ··· ann xn bn

AX
A X

  
a11 a12 ··· a1n x1
 a21 a22 ··· a2n   x2 
  
AX =   
 ···  
an1 an2 ··· ann xn
 
a11 x1 + a12 x1 + · · · + a1n xn
 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn 
 
=  
 
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ann xn
     
a11 a12 a1n
 a21   a22   a2n 
     
= x1   + x2   + · · · + xn  
     
an1 an2 ann

= x1!c1 + x2!c2 + · · · + xn!cn .

/ {!
0c1 , !c2 , · · · , !cn }
A A= !c1 !c2 ··· !cn
 AX = B B
A B ∈ colsp(A)

   
a11 ··· a1n a11 ... a1n b1
 a21 ··· a2n  5  b2 
  4  a21 ... a2n 
A= , A : B = 
 ···   ··· 
an1 ··· ann am1 ... amn bm

4 5
rank(A) = rank( A : B ) !b = B
A

!b = x1!c1 + x2!c2 + · · · + xn!cn , x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ∈ R.

AX = B A ∈ Mn (R)
4 5 A
A : B

4 5
AX = B A1 = A : B

α rank(A) ,= rank(A1 )
rank(A) = rank(A1 ) = k
k<n n=k

AX = B
   
1 3 −5 1 5 1
 1 4 −7 3 −2   2 
A=
 1
 B= 
5 −9 5 −9   4 
0 3 −6 2 −1 3

 
1 3 −5 1 5 : 1
4 5  0 1 −2 2 −7 : 1 
A : B =  0
.
0 0 1 −5 : 0 
0 0 0 0 0 : 1
4 5
rank(A) = 3 rank( A : B ) = 4 ,= rank(A)
     
25 5 1 x1 106.8
 64 8 1   x2  =  177.2 
89 13 2 x3 280

+ +
+ 25 5 1 +
+ +
det(A) = ++ 68 8 1 ++ = 0.
+ 89 13 2 +

A
rank(A) = 2 4 5
A : B 3×4
3×3
A
+ +
+ 25 5 106.8 +
+ +
+ 68 8 177.2 + = 480 ,= 0.
+ +
+ 89 13 280 +
4 5 4 5
rank( A : B ) = 3 rank(A) ,= rank( A : B )

4 5
A : B
   
25 5 1 : 106.8 25 5 1 : 106.8
R3 →R3 −R2 −R1
 64 8 1 : 177.2  −→  64 8 1 : 177.2  .
86 13 2 : 280 0 0 0 : −4

R3

α) !u = (1, 1, 1), !v = (−5, 0, 5) !u = (1, 2, 3), !v = (3, 2, 1)

!u + 3!v, !u · !v , d(!u, !v )
!u !v !u
!v
 !u + 3!v = (1, 1, 1) + 3(−5, 0, 5) = (−14, 1, 16)
!u · !v = 1(−5) + 1(0) + 1(5) = 0
) √
d(!u, !v ) = (1 − (−5))2 + 12 + (1 − 5)2 = 53.

!u !v

! = !u × !v
w
+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
!u × !v = ++ 1 1 1 ++ = 5!i − 10j + 5!k
+ −5 0 5 +
√
!u !v ! =5 6
||w||

w
! 1
ŵ = = √ (5, −10, 5)
||w||
! 5 6
!u !v

!u + 3!v = (1, 2, 3) + 3(3, 2, 1) = (10, 8, 6)

!u · !v = 1(3) + 2(2) + 3(1) = 10.
) √
d(!u, !v ) = (1 − 3)2 + (2 − 2)2 + (3 − 1)2 = 2 2.
2 3
!u · !v 10 5
cos θ = = √ ⇒ θ = arccos .
||!u|| ||!v || ( 14)2 7

!u !v ! = !u ×!v
w
+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
!u × !v = ++ 1 2 3 + = −4!i + 8j − 4!k.
+
+ 3 2 1 +
√
! =4 6
||w||

1 1
ŵ = √ (−4, 8, −4)) = √ (−1, 2, −1).
4 6 6

!x = −!i + 2!j, !a = !i + !k, !b = !i + !j + !k.

!v !x = !v + w
! !v !a × !b w
!
!a × !b
 !v ' !a × !b
+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
!v = λ(!a × !b) = λ ++ 1 0 1 ++ = λ(−!i + !k)
+ 1 1 1 +

λ∈R λ
!x = !v + w
! ! · (!a × !b) = 0
w

!x = λ(−!i + !k) + w ! ⇒ !x · (!a × !b) = λ(−!i + !k) · (!a × !b) + w

! · (!a × !b) ⇒
!x · (!a × !b) = λ(!a × !b) · (−!i + !k) ⇒ (−!i + 2!j) · (−!i + !k) = λ(−!i + !k) · (−!i + !k)
1
⇒ 1 = λ2 ⇒ λ = .
2

!v = 12 (−!i + !k)

!v , w,
! q!
!v + w
! +!
q=0

!n = !v × w
! +w
! × !q + !q × !v

!n
!v , w,
! q!

!n · !v = (!v × w
! +w
! × !q + !q × !v ) · !v
= (!v × w)
! · !v + (w
! × !q ) · !v + (!q × !v ) · !v
= (w! × !q ) · !v
= (w
! × !q ) · (−w
! − !q )
= −(w! × !q ) · w
! − (w
! × !q ) · !q
= 0.

(!
q × !v ) · !v = (!v × !v ) · !q = 0 = (!v × w)
! · !v
!n · w! = 0 = !n · !q

R3 !u = (a1 , a2 , a3 )
!v = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) θ ∈ [0, π]

α ||!u × !v ||2 = ||!u||2 ||!v ||2 − (!u · !v )2

||!u × !v || = ||!u||||!v || sin θ.

||!u × !v ||2 = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )2 + (a1 b3 − a3 b1 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 .

 ||!u||2 ||!v ||2 − (!u · !v )2 = (a21 + a22 + a23 )(b21 + b22 + b23 ) − (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2

!u ·!v = ||!u||||!v || cos θ

||!u ×!v ||2 = ||!u||2 ||!v ||2 −(!u ·!v )2 = ||!u||2 ||!v ||2 −||!u||2 ||!v ||2 cos2 θ = ||!u||2 ||!v ||2 sin2 θ,

! ∈ R3
!u, !v , w !u · (!v × w)
! ,= 0

!v × w! ! × !u
w !u × !v
!u$ = , !v $ = , !$ =
w .
!u · (!v × w)
! !u · (!v × w)
! !u · (!v × w)
!

α !u$ · !u = 1
!u$ · !v = !u$ · w
! =0

!v $ · !v , w
!$ · w
! !v $ · !u, !v $ · w,
! w! $ · !u, w
! $ · !v

(!v × w)
! · !u !u · (!v × w)
!
!u$ · !u = = = 1.
!u · (!v × w)
! !u · (!v × w)
!

(!v × w)! · !v (!v × !v ) · w

!
!u$ · !v = = =0
!u · (!v × w)
! !u · (!v × w)!
(!v × w)! ·w ! (w ! × w) ! · !v
!u$ · w
! = = = 0.
!u · (!v × w)
! !u · (!v × w)
!

!v $ · !v = 1, ! = 1,
!$ · w
w

!v $ · !u = 0, ! = 0,
!v $ · w ! $ · !u = 0,
w ! $ · !v = 0.
w

! ∈ R3
!u, !v , w
α !u × (!v × w)
! = (!u · w)!
! v − (!u · !v )w!
(!u × !v ) × w
! = (!u · w)!
! v − (!v · w)!
! u
 α ! = (w1 , w2 , w3 ), !u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), !v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )
w
+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
! = ++
!v × w u1 u2 u3 ++ = (v2 w3 − v3 w2 , v3 w1 − v1 w3 , v1 w2 − w1 v2 ).
+ w1 w2 w3 +

+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
! = ++
!u × (!v × w) u1 u2 u3 +
+
+ v2 w3 − v3 w2 v3 w1 − v1 w3 v1 w2 − w1 v2 +

= [u2 (v1 w2 − w1 v2 ) − u3 (v3 w1 − v1 w3 )]!i

+ [−u1 (v1 w2 − w1 v2 ) + u3 (v2 w3 − v3 w2 )] !j
+ [u1 (v3 w1 − v1 w3 ) − u2 (v2 w3 − v3 w2 )] !k

= [v1 (u2 w2 + u3 w3 ) − w1 (u2 v2 + u3 v3 )]!i

+ [v2 (u1 w1 + u3 w3 ) − w2 (u1 v1 + u3 v3 )] !j
+ [v3 (u1 w1 + u2 w2 ) − w3 (u1 v1 + u2 v2 )] !k

= !v (!u · w) ! u · !v ).
! − w(!
(vn un wn )!
α
n = 1, 2, 3 ! = (!i, !j, !k)
α

+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
(!u × !v ) × w
! = ++ u2 v3 − u3 v2 u3 v1 − u1 v3
u1 v2 − v1 u2 +
+
+ w1 w2 w3 +

= [w3 (u3 v1 − u1 v3 ) − w2 (u1 v2 − v1 u2 )]!i

+ [−w3 (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) + w1 (u1 v2 − v1 u2 )] !j
+ [w2 (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) − w1 (u3 v1 − v1 u3 )] !k
= [v1 (u2 w2 + u3 w3 ) − u1 (v2 w2 + v3 w3 )]!i
+ [v2 (u1 w1 + u3 w3 ) − u2 (v1 w1 + v3 w3 )] !j
+ [v3 (u1 w1 + u2 w2 ) − u2 (v1 w1 + v2 w2 )] !k
= !v (!u · w)
! − !u(!v · w).
!
n Rn n∈N
R
Rn !u = (!u1 , · · · , !un ), !v = (!v1 , · · · , !vn )
c∈R
!u + !v = (!u1 + !v1 , · · · , !un + !vn ),
c!u = (c!v1 , · · · , c!vn ).
 ! ∈ Rn
{!u, !v , w}

!u + (!v + w)
! = (!u1 , · · · , !un ) + (!v1 + w
! 1 , · · · , !vn + w
! n)
= (!u1 + (!v1 + w! 1 ), · · · , !un + (!vn + w! n ))
= ((!u1 + !v1 ) + w
! 1 , · · · , (!un + !vn ) + w
! n)
= (!u1 + !v1 , · · · , !un + !vn ) + (w
!1 + · · · + w
! n)
= (!u + !v ) + w.!

!0 = (0, · · · , 0)

!u + !0 = !0 + !u = !u.

−!u = (−!u1 , · · · , −!un )

!u + (−!u) = !0.

(!v + w)
! = (!v1 + w
! 1 , · · · , !vn + w
! n ) = (w
! 1 + !v1 + · · · + w
! n + !vn ) = w
! + !v .

c∈R

c(!v + w)
! = (c(!v1 + w
! 1 ), · · · , c(!vn + w
! n ))
= (c!v1 + cw
! 1 , · · · , c!vn + cw
! n ) = c!v + cw.
!

a, b ∈ R

(a + b)!u = ((a + b)!u1 , · · · , (a + b)!un )

= (a!u1 + b!u1 , · · · , a!un + b!un )
= (a!u1 , · · · , a!un ) + (b!u1 , · · · , b!un )
= a!u + b!u.

(ab)!u = ((ab)!u1 , · · · , (ab)!un )

= (a(b!u1 ), · · · , a(b!un ))
= a(b!u1 , · · · , b!un )
= a(b!u).

1!u = (1!u1 , · · · , 1!un ) = (!u1 , · · · , !un ) = !u.

 Rn R

A!u = !0,

A ∈ Mm×n (K) !u n xi ∈ K
i ∈ [1, n] Rn

Rn
A!u = 0 S w !2 ∈ S
! 1, w
c∈R
!1 = 0
Aw
!1 + w
⇒ A(w ! 2 ) = Aw
! 1 + Aw
! 2 = !0 ⇒ w
!1 + w
! 2 ∈ S.
!2 = 0
Aw

! 1 ) = c(Aw
A(cw ! 1 ) = c !0 = !0 ⇒ cw
! 1 ∈ S.
S Rn

12 3 6
a11 a12
W= : a11 , a12 , a21 ∈ R
a21 0

M2×2 (R)
2 3 2 3
a11 a12 b11 b12
A = B = W
a21 0 b21 0
c∈R
2 3
a11 + b11 a12 + b12
A+B = ,
a21 + b21 0
2 3
ca11 ca12
cA = .
ca21 0

A+B
cA W 2×2
R W ⊂ M2×2 (R)

a, b, c (a, b, c) ∈ R3
!u1 = (1, 2, 3) !u2 = (3, 2, 1), !u3 = (3, 3, 3) ∈ R3

{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }

span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 } = {c1 (1, 2, 3) + c2 (3, 2, 1) + c3 (3, 3, 3) : c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R}

= {(c1 + 3c2 + 3c3 , 2c1 + 2c2 + 3c3 , 3c1 + c2 + 3c3 ) : ∀ci ∈ R}.
 (a, b, c) ∈ span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }

(a, b, c) = (c1 + 3c2 + 3c3 , 2c1 + 2c2 + 3c3 , 3c1 + c2 + 3c3 ) ⇒

    
a 1 3 3 c1
 b  =  2 2 3   c2  .
c 3 1 3 c3
/ 0
3×3 !u1 !u2 !u3
ci i = [1, 3]
a, b, c ∈ R3

a−c = −2c1 + 2c2

⇒ a − c = 2(b − c) ⇒ a − 2b + c = 0.
b−c = −c1 + c2

(a, b, c) ∈ R3 a − 2b + c = 0
span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 } {!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }
R3

!v = (2, 6, 0, 9)t
!u1 = (1, 2, 0, 4) t
!u2 = (1, 1, 1, 3)t

!v !u1 , !u2
a1 a2
     
2 1 1
 6   2   1 
  = a1   + a2   ⇒ a2 = 0
 0   0   1  a1 − .
9 4 3

!v

α 7{(1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 0)} ∈ R3 8

x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1, x3 , x2 + 3x, x2 + 1 ∈ P4 (x)
{(1, 3, 5, 7), (1, 0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1, 1)} ∈ R4

1 = a1 + 2a2
(1, 2, 3) = a1 (1, 0, 1) + a2 (2, 1, 0) ⇒ 2 = a2
3 = a1 .
 x

1 = a1
2 = a2 + a3
x + 2x + 3x + 1 = a1 x + a2 (x + 3x) + a3 (x + 1) ⇒
3 2 3 2 2
3 = 3a2
1 = a3 ,

a1 = a2 = a3 = 1

1 = a1
3 = a2
(1, 3, 5, 7) = a1 (1, 0, 1, 0) + a2 (0, 1, 0, 1) + a3 (0, 0, 1, 1) ⇒
5 = a1 + a3
7 = a2 + a3 ,

a1 = 1, a2 = 3, a3 = 4

α (1, 2, 3), (1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 0) ∈ R3

(1, 2), (3, 5), (−1, 3) ∈ R2
(2, 5, −3, 6), (1, 0, 0, 1), (4, 0, 9, 6) ∈ R4
x2 + 1, x + 1,
2 3x 2+ x ∈ P2 3
2

1 1 1 2 2 2
, ∈ M2×3 .
2 2 2 3 3 3

A
+ +
+ 1 1 2 ++
+
det(A) = ++ 2 0 1 ++ = 6.
+ 3 1 0 +

4.5.1α)

Rn=2
m=3 4.5.2
m>n
Rn=4
m=3 4.5.2
m<n

2a1 + a2 + 4a3 = 0
5a1 = 0
a1 (2, 5, −3, 6) + a2 (1, 0, 0, 1) + a3 (4, 0, 9, 6) = !0 ⇒
−3a1 + 9a3 = 0
6a1 + a2 + 6a3 = 0

a1 = a2 = a3 = 0
 a1 + a3 = 0
a1 (x2 + 1) + a2 (x + 1) + a3 (x2 + x) = 0 ⇒ a2 + a3 = 0 ⇒ a1 = a2 = a3 = 0.
a1 + a2 = 0

M2×3 (R)

2 3 2 3 2 3
1 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 0
a1 + a2 = ⇒
2 2 2 3 3 3 0 0 0
2 3 2 3
a1 + 2a2 a1 + 2a2 a1 + 2a2 0 0 0
= ⇒ a1 = a2 = 0.
2a1 + 3a2 2a1 + 3a2 2a1 + 3a2 0 0 0

!u1 = (a11 , a12 ) !u2 = (a12 , a22 )

R2

2 32 3 2 3
a11 a12 c1 0
c1 !u1 + c2 !u2 = !0 ⇒ = .
a21 a22 c2 0

4.5.1β)
2 3
a11 a12
det = 0.
a21 a22

!u1 !u2

!u = (1 + i, 2i) ! = (1, 1 + i) ∈
w
C2 C

a, b ∈ K K
!u w
!

a(1 + i) + b = 0
a!u + bw
! = !0 ⇒ (a(1 + i) + b, 2ia + b(1 + i)) = !0 ⇒
2ia + b(1 + i) = 0.

K=R a=b=0

K=C a = 1, b = −(1 + i)
!u = (1 + i)w
!
 ! ∈V (K)
{!u, !v , w}

α {!u + !v , !v + w,
! w ! + !u}
{!u + !v − 3w, ! !u + 3!v − w,
! !v + w}
!

{!u + !v − 3w,
! !u + 3!v −
! !v + w}
w, !

k1 (!u + !v ) + k2 (!v + w)
! + k3 (w
! + !u) = !0 ⇒
(k1 + k3 )!u + (k1 + k2 )!v + (k2 + k3 )w
! = 0.

! ∈V (K)
{!u, !v , w}

k1 + k3 = 0
k1 + k2 = 0 ⇒ k1 = k2 = k3 = 0.
k2 + k3 = 0
{!u + !v − 3w,
! !u + 3!v − w,
! !v + w}
!
{!u + !v − 3w,
! !u +
3!v − w,
! !v + w}
!

k1 (!u + !v − 3w)
! + k2 (!u + 3!v − w)
! + k3 (!v + w)
! = !0 ⇒
(k1 + k2 )!u + (k1 + 3k2 + k3 )!v + (−3k1 − k2 + k3 )w
! = 0.

{!u, !v , w}
! ∈ V(K)

k1 + k2 = 0 k1 = −k2
k1 + 3k2 + k3 = 0 ⇒ k2 = k2
−3k1 − k2 + k3 = 0 k3 = −2k2 , ∀ k2 ∈ R,

 
1 2 0 2 1
A =  −1 −2 1 1 0 
1 2 −3 −7 −2

A
   
1 2 0 2 1 R2 → R2 + R1 1 2 0 2 1
R3 → R3 − R1
 −1 −2 1 1 0  →  0 0 1 3 1 
1 2 −3 −7 −2 0 0 −3 −9 −3
 
1 2 0 2 1
R3 →R3 +3R2
→  0 0 1 3 1 .
0 0 0 0 0
 dim(A) = 2
rowsp(A)

!u1 = (1, 2, 0, 2, 1), !u2 = (0, 0, 1, 3, 1).

colsp(A)

 
1 0
!1 =  0  ,
w !2 =  1  .
w
0 0

a, b, c, d ∈ R

 
a a a a
 a b b b 
A=
 a

b c c 
a b c d

A
   
a a a a R2 → R2 − R1 a a a a
R3 → R3 − R2
 a b b b  R4 → R4 − R3  0 b−a b−a b−a 
A=  → 
 0
.
 a b c c  0 c−b c−b 
a b c d 0 0 0 d−c

4.5.3 A

a ,= 0, b ,= a, c ,= b, d ,= c.

{X1 , X2 , · · · , Xm }
W

{X1 , X1 + X2 , · · · , X1 + · · · + Xm }

{X1 , X1 + X2 , · · · , X1 + · · · + Xm } W
W
xi ∈ R i ∈ [1, m]

x1 X1 + x2 (X1 + X2 ) + · · · + xm (X1 + · · · + Xm ) = 0 ⇒
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xm )X1 + · · · + xm Xm = 0.
 {X1 , X2 , · · · , Xm }

(x1 + x2 + · · · + xm ) = 0
= ⇒ x1 = x2 = · · · = xm = 0
xm = 0

{X1 , X1 + X2 , · · · , X1 + · · · + Xm }
X ∈W
{X1 , X2 , · · · , Xm }
ai ∈ R i = [1, m]

X = a1 X 1 + · · · + am X m .

{X1 , X1 + X2 , · · · , X1 + · · · + Xm }
W xi ∈ R
i = [1, m]

X = x1 X1 + x2 (X1 + X2 ) + · · · + xm (X1 + · · · + Xm )
= (x1 + x2 + · · · + xm )X1 + · · · + xm Xm .

xi
ai

x1 + x2 + x3 · · · + xm = a1 x1 = a1 − a2
x2 + x3 + · · · + xm = a2
⇒ =
= xm−1 = am−1 − am
xm = am xm = am .

{X1 , X1 +X2 , · · · , X1 +· · ·+Xm }

W W

 
1 2 1
A= 2 4 3 .
3 6 4

   
R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 2 1 1 2 1
R3 → R3 − 3R1 R3 →R2 −R1
A −→  0 0 1  −→  0 0 1 .
0 0 1 0 0 0

!u1 =
(1, 2, 1) !u2 = (2, 4, 3)
!u1 = (1, 2, 1) !u2 = (0, 0, 1)
 + +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
!u1 × !u2 = ++ 1 2 1 ++ = (2, −1, 0).
+ 2 4 3 +

! 1 = (1, 2, 3)
w
! 2 = (1, 3, 4)
w ! 1 = (1, 0, 0)
w ! 2 = (1, 1, 0)
w

+ +
+ !i !j !k +
+ +
! 2 = ++
!1 × w
w 1 2 3 ++ = (−1, −1, 1).
+ 1 3 4 +

12 3 2 3 2 3 2 36
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
, , ,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

M2 (R)

M2 (R)

ai ∈ R i = [1, 4]
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
2 3 2 3
a1 a2 0 0
⇒ =
a3 a4 0 0

2 a13= a2 = a3 = a4 = 0
x y
M2 (R)
z w

2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
x y 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
= x +y +z +w .
z w 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

12 3 2 3 2 3 2 36
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
span , , , = M2 (R).
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
 R4

!u1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), !u2 = (1, 2, 4, 5), !u3 = (1, −3, −4, −2).

Gram-Schmidt
{w
! i} i = [1, 3]

w
!1 = !u1
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
!u2 · w!1
w
!2 = !u2 − w
!1
! 1 ||2
||w
12
= (1, 2, 4, 5) − (1, 1, 1, 1)
4
= (−2, −1, 1, 2)
!u3 · w!1 !u3 · w!2
w
!3 = !u3 − !1 −
w w
!2
! 1 ||2
||w ! 2 ||2
||w
8 −7
= (1, 2, 4, 5) − (1, 1, 1, 1) − (−2, −1, 1, 2)
4 10
8 17 13 7
= ( ,− ,− , )
5 10 10 5
1
= (16, −17, −13, 14).
10
1/10 w
!3

ŵ = {w ! i ||}
! i /|w i = 1, 2, 3

1
ŵ1 = (1, 1, 1, 1),
2
1
ŵ2 = √ (−2, −1, 1, 2),
10
1
ŵ3 = √ (16, −17, −13, 14).
910

2 3 2 3
1 2 1 2
A= , B= .
3 4 2 4

A B
2 3 2 3
1 2 1 2
A= , B= ,
0 1 0 0
 rank(A) = 2 rank(B) = 1
A
B

12
3 2 36
2 1
rowsp(A) : {(1, 2), (0, 1)}, colsp(A) : , .
1 0
12 36
1
rowsp(B) : {(1, 2)}, colsp(B) : .
0
A

dim(nullsp(A)) = m − dim(rowsp(A)) = 0 ⇒ nullsp(A) = {0},

m = 2 A
B

dim(nullsp(B)) = 2 − dim(rowsp(B)) = 1.

2 3
−2
BX = 0 ⇒ x1 + 2x2 = 0 ⇒ X = x2 .
1

12 36
−2
nullsp(B) : .
1

 
1 a b a
A= a b b 1 .
1 1 1 a

   
1 a b a C1 →
C1 +C4 1 a b a
1+a
 a b b 1  −→  1 b b 1 
1 1 1 a 1 1 1 a
C4 →
C4 −aC1
1−a
 
C3 →
C3 −C2 1 a 1 0
b−a
−→  1 b 0 1 
1 1 0 0
C1 → C3
C2 → C4  
C3 → C1 + C4 − C3 1 0 0 0
C4 → C2 − aC3
−→  0 1 2 b 
0 0 1 1
 A
 
1 0 0 0
B= 0 1 0 b .
0 0 1 1

rank(A) = 3
B
rowsp(A) B
colsp(A)
dim(nullsp(A)) = 4 − rank(A) = 1
(0, −b, −1, 1)t
 
 x1 
1 0 0 0  x2  x1 = 0
BX = 0 ⇒  0 1 0 b    = 0 ⇒ x2 + bx4
 x3  = 0
0 0 1 1 x3 + x4 = 0
x4
   
0 0
 −x4 b   −b 
⇒ X =   
 −x4  = x4  −1  .
x4 1

2 3
a b c
A=
1 1 1
a, b, c A α) rank(A) = 1
rank(A) = 2

2 3 C1 → C1 − C3 2 3
a b c C2 → C2 − C3 a−c b−c c
A= → .
1 1 1 0 0 1

a=b=c rank(A) = 1
rowsp(A) = {(0, 0, 1)}
a ,= c b ,= c rank(A) = 2
rowsp(A) = {(0, 0, 1), (a − c, b − c, c)}

S ⊂ R3

x + 2y + 3z = 0.
! = (−1, −1, 1)t
w S
S w!
 (x, y, x)t ∈ S x+2y +z = 0 ⇒ x = −2y −z
S

   
x −2y − z
 y  =  y 
z z
   
−2 −3
= y 1  + z  0 .
0 1

{(−2, 1, 0)t, (−3, 0, 1)t } S

w
! S x+
2y + 3z = 0 ⇒ −1 + 2(−1) + 3(1) = 0 S
w
! S
(−3, 0, 1)t

x + y − 2z = 1
2x + y + z = 2
3x + 2y − z = 3
4x + 2y + 2z = 4

   
1 1 −2 : 1 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 1 −2 : 1
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 2 1 1 : 2  R4 → R4 − 4R1  0 −1 5 : 0 
  −→  
 3 2 −1 : 3   0 −1 5 : 0 
4 2 2 : 4 0 −2 10 : 0
 
1 1 −2 : 1
R3 → R3 + R4
R4 → R4 + 2R3  0 −1 5 : 0 
−→  .
 0 0 0 : 0 
0 0 0 : 0

z
   
x 1 − 3z
x + y − 2z = 1 x = 1 − 3z
⇒ ⇒  y  =  5z  .
−y + 5z = 0 y = 5z
z z
 x + 2y + z = 3
2x + 5y − z = −4
3x − 2y − z = 5

   
1 2 1 : 3 R2 → R2 − 2R1 1 2 1 : 3
R3 → R3 − 3R1
 2 5 −1 : −4  −→  0 1 −3 : −10 
3 −2 −1 : 5 0 −8 −4 : −4
 
1
R3 →− 28 (R3 +8R2 )
1 2 1 : 3
−→  0 1 −3 : −10 
0 0 1 : 3
 
R1 → R1 − R3 1 2 0 : 0
R2 → R2 + 3R3
−→  0 1 0 : −1  .
0 0 1 : 3

x = 2, y = −1, z = 3.

!u = (1, 2, 3), !v = (0, 1, 2), w

! = (1, −1, 2).

α !v × w
! ! × !u
w
!u · (!v × w)
! = !v · (w
! × !u)

α [x, y] x = 2y
[x, y] x = 2y 2x = y
[x, y] x = 2y + 1
[x, y] xy = 0
R2

!u = (2, 3) !v = (5, 1) R2

α) !u − !v , ||!u||,
!u · (!u − !v ) !u !u − !v .
 P

P = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : ax + by + cz = 0}
R3
k ∈ R
!u = (1, 2, k, 3) !v = (3, k, 7, −5) R4

     
1 −1 −1
!u =  2  , !v =  1  , ! =  7 .
w
3 2 12

α {(25, 64, 144), (5, 8, 12), (1, 1, 1)} ∈ R3

{(1, 2, 5), (2, 5, 7), (6, 14, 24)} ∈ R3
{(25, 64, 89), (5, 8, 13), (1, 1, 2)} ∈ R3
{2x2 + 4x − 3, 4x2 + 8x − 6} ∈ P2
12 − 2r + 5, 2r 3−23r, r + 1} ∈ P2
2 2
{r 36
1 3 −4 −4 −12 16
, ∈ M2×3
5 0 −1 −20 0 4
{(et , sin t, t2 ), (e2 , sin t, cos t)} t ∈ R.

{!u, !v , w}
! ∈ V(K)
{!u + !v , !u − !v , !u − 2!v + w}
!
λ∈R
     
λ −1 −1
X1 =  −1  , X2 =  λ  , X3 =  −1 
−1 −1 λ

R3

!u1 = (1, 1, 1), !u2 = (1, 2, 3), !u3 = (1, 5, 8)

R3
!u1 = (a11 , a12 ), !u2 = (a21 , a22 )
R2

!u1 = (1, 1, 0, −1), !u2 = (1, 2, 1, 3), !u3 = (1, 1, −9, 2), !u4 = (16, −13, 1, 3)
R4
a, b, c ∈ R !v = (a, b, c) ∈ R3
span{!u1 , !u2 , !u3 }
!u1 = (1, 2, 0), !u2 = (−1, 1, 2), !u3 = (3, 0, −4).
{1, x, x2 , · · · , xk }
Pk (R)
t∈R {g1 , g2 , g3 }
g1 (x) = 1, g2 (x) = x + t, g3 (x) = (x + t)2 P2 (R)
S = {(t − 1)3 , (t − 1)2 , t − 1, 1}
P3 (t) !v = 3t3 −4t2 +2t−5

R4
α) !u1 = (1, 2, 1, 0), !u2 = (3, 3, 3, 0), !u3 = (2, −10, 0, 0), !u4 = (−2, 1, −6, 2)
!u1 = (0, 2, 1, 0), !u2 = (1, −1, 0, 0), !u3 = (1, 2, 0, −1), !u4 = (1, 0, 0, 1)
R4

!v1 = (2, −2, 1), !v2 =

(2, 1, −2), !v3 = (1, 2, 2) R3
!u = (−1, 0, 2)

 
a b c
A= 0 d e 
0 0 f

   
0 1 2 3 4 5 9 3
A= 0 1 2 4 6 , B =  3 −5 −6  ,
0 0 1 2 6 1 5 3
   
1 3 −5 1 5 1 1 s2
 1 4 −7 3 −2   1 3 −8 
C=
 1
, D= 
 4 −3 −7  ,
5 −9 5 −9 
0 3 −6 2 −1 1 12 −3
   
1 0 0 1 2 3 4
E= 1 1 0 , F = 0 1 −1 5  .
0 1 1 3 4 11 2
 (1, 4, 4, 1)
(2, 9, 8, 2)

√ √ 
1√3 1√14 ;
Q =  1√3 2 √14 ; 
1 3 −3 14 ;

Gram-Schmidt

!u1 = (0, 0, 1), !u2 = (0, 1, 1), !u3 = (1, 1, 1)


1 1
A =  2 −1  .
−2 4

   
1 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
 2 2 5 0 3   0 1 0 1 1 
A=
 0
, B= ,
0 0 1 3   1 1 1 1 0 
8 11 19 0 11 0 0 1 1 0
 
1 1 2 0 1 3
 2 1 4 0 3 2 
C =
 0
.
0 0 1 3 0 
3 0 2 4 3 2
    
5 9 3 4
α) A= 3 −5 −6  B= 2 
1 5 3 6
   
1 2 4 −1 5 3
A= 1 2 3 −1 3  B= 5 
1 2 0 −4 −3 7
   
1 1 2 0
 1 3 −8   1 
A=
 4
 B= 
 2 
−3 −7 
1 12 −3 4
   
1 2 3 4 1
A= 0 1 −1 5  B= 0 
3 4 11 2 1

AX = B