LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

Chapter 40

The Animal body

Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

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Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges

• Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an

organism

• Physiology is the study of the biological

functions that an organism perform.

• The comparative study of animals reveals that

form and function are closely correlated

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Concept 40.1: Animal form and function
are correlated at all levels of organization
• Size and shape affect the way an animal
interacts with its environment.

• Size and shape are defined as body

plan

• Many different animal body plans have

evolved and are determined by the
genome

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Body plan is a result of a pattern
of development that are
programmed by the genome.
Genome is the product of millions
years of evolution.
Evolution of Animal Size and Shape
• Physical laws govern strength, diffusion, movement,
and heat exchange limit the range of animal forms.

• As animals increase in size, their skeletons must be

proportionately larger to support their mass.

• Evolutionary convergence reflects different species’

adaptations to a similar environmental challenge (Seal,
Penguin, Tuna).

• As a body dimension increases, thicker skeletons are

needed to provide suitable support.

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Figure 40.2

Seal

Penguin

Tuna

Figure 40.1: convergent evolution in fast swimmers

Exchange with the Environment

• Materials such as nutrients, waste

products, and gases must be exchanged
across the cell membranes of animal
cells.

• Rate of exchange is proportional to a

cell’s surface area while amount of
exchange material is proportional to a
cell’s volume

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• A single-celled protist Amoeba, living in water has
a sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to
service its entire volume of cytoplasm.

• Multicellular organisms with a saclike body plan

have body walls that are only two cells thick,
facilitating diffusion of materials.

• Hydra has two cell layers thickness. direct Gas

exchange occurs because gastrovascular cavity
opens to the external environment.

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Figure 40.3

Mouth

Gastrovascular
Exchange cavity
Exchange

Exchange

0.1 mm

1 mm
(a) Single cell (b) Two layers of cells

Figure 40.4: direct exchange with the environment.

 • In flat animals such as tapeworms, the distance
between cells and the environment is
minimized.

• More complex organisms have highly folded

and branched internal surfaces for exchanging
materials. Branching and folding greatly
increase the surface area.

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Figure 40.4

The digestive, respiratory, and excretory have folded and

branched exchange surfaces

External environment
Food CO2O2
Mouth

250 m
Animal
body
Respiratory
system Lung tissue (SEM)

Heart Cells
Digestive
system Interstitial
NutrientsCirculatory
fluid
system
100 m

Excretory

50 m
system

Lining of small Anus Blood vessels in

intestine (SEM) kidney (SEM)
Unabsorbed Metabolic waste products
matter (feces)(nitrogenous waste)

Figure 40.4: internal exchange surface of complex animals

 • In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled
with interstitial fluid, which allows for the
movement of material into and out of cells.

• A complex body plan includes a circulatory fluid

such as: blood. Exchange between the interstitial
fluid and circulatory fluid enables cells to obtain
nutrients and get rid of water.

• Body plan helps an animal living in a variable

environment to maintain a relatively stable
internal environment.
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Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans

• Cell is the basic unit of structure and function.

• Most animals are composed of specialized cells

organized into tissues that have different
functions.

• Tissues make up organs, which together make

up organ systems.

• Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to

more than one organ system.
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Table 40.1
 Exploring Structure and Function in Animal
Tissues

• Different tissues have different structures that are

suited to their functions.

• Tissues are classified into four main categories:

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

• Classification of tissues depends on their

structure and origin.

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• Each kind of tissue is composed of cells with
characteristic sizes, shapes, and arrangements; and
each type of tissue is specialized to perform a
specific function or group of functions.

• For example, some tissues are specialized to transport

materials, whereas others contract, enabling the
animal to move. Still others secrete hormones that
regulate metabolic processes. As we discuss each
tissue type, notice the relationship between its form and
its function.
Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines
the organs and cavities within the body.

• Epithelial cells are closely packed with tight junctions,

they function as a barrier against mechanical injury,
pathogen, and fluid loss.

• For example, epithelium cells that lines the nasal

passages is crucial for the sense of smell.

• The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like dice),

columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor
tiles).
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 • The arrangement of epithelial cells may be
- simple (single cell layer).
- stratified (multiple layers of cells).
- pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of
varying length).

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Figure 40.5aa

Epithelial Tissue
Stratified squamous
epithelium

Pseudostratified
Cuboidal Simple columnar Simple squamous columnar
epithelium epithelium epithelium epithelium
Cuboidal epithelium

- Dice-shaped cells specialized for secretion.

- Make up the epithelium of kidney tubules

and many glands (Thyroid gland, Salivary
gland).
Simple columnar epithelium
- Large brick-shaped cells.

- Found where secretion or active absorption is

important.

- Lines the intestines, secreting digestive juices

and absorbing nutrients.
Simple squamous epithelium
- Sigle layer of platelike cells. Thin and leaky.

- Functions in the exchange of materials by diffusion.

- Lines blood vessels and air sacs of the lung, where

diffusion of nutrients and gases is critical.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Single layer of cells varying in height and the
position of their nuclei.

- Found in ciliated cells forms a mucous membrane

that lines portion of the respiratory tract.
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Multilayered and degenerates rapidly.

- New cells formed by division near the basal surface

push outward, replacing cells that are sloughed off.

- Found on surfaces subject to abrasion, such as

outer skin and the linings of the mouth, anus, and
vagina.

Apical surface

Basal surface
Figure 40.5ab
Apical surface

Polarity of epithelia
Basal surface
- All epithelia are polarized, Basal lamina

40 m
have two different sides:
1. apical surface
2. Basal surface

- Apical surface faces the lumen or outside the organ, so it

is exposed to fluid or air.

- Specialized projections often cover this surface, like apical

surface of the epithelium lining the small intestine is covered
with microvilli to increase the surface area available for
absorbing nutrients.
Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue contains sparse population

of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.

• It holds many tissue and organs together and in

place.

• The matrix consists of a web of fibers

embedded in a liquid, jellylike, or solid
foundation.

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 • Within the matrix, numerous cells are found:

– Fibroblasts that secrete fiber protein.

– Macrophages that engulf foreign particles

and cell debris by phagocytosis.

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 • There are three types of connective tissue fibers:

– Collagenous fibers provide strength and

flexibility.
– Reticular fibers join connective tissue to
adjacent tissues
– Elastic fibers make tissue elastic.

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Figure 40.5ba

Connective Tissue
Loose connective tissue
Collagenous fiber Blood
Plasma
White
blood cells
120 m

55 m
Elastic fiber Red blood cells
Cartilage
Fibrous connective tissue
Chondrocytes

100 m
30 m

Chondroitin sulfate
Nuclei Bone Adipose tissue
Central
canal Fat droplets
700 m

Osteon 150 m
Loose connective tissue
Most widespread connective tissue in vertebrate body

Collagenous fiber

- Binds epithelia to
underlying tissues and
holds organs in place.
120 m

- Found in the skin and

throughout the body.
Elastic fiber

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Fibrous connective tissue

30 m

Nuclei

- Dense with collagenous fibers

- It is found in tendons (muscle to bones) and ligaments
( connect bones at joint)

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Bone

Central Canal
700 m (contain blood vessels and nerves)

Osteon

- Bone forming cells called osteoblast, bone consists of

repeating units called osteon.

- Forms skeletal structure in most vertebrates

Adipose tissue

Fat droplets

150 m
-Specialized loose connective tissue that stores fat
in adipose cells.
- stores fat for insulation and fuel.
 Cartilage

Chondrocytes

100 m
Chondroitin sulfate

- Cells called chondrocytes secrete the collagen and

chondroitin sulfate.
- Strong and flexible support material.
- Act as cushions between vertebrae.
- Skeleton of vertebrate embryos.
Blood

Plasma
White
blood cells

55 m
Red blood cells

- Liquid extracellular matrix (Plasma)

- Blood cells:
erythrocyte (carry oxygen)
leukocytes (white blood cells)
platelets (blood clotting)
 Muscle Tissue

• Muscle cells consist of filament containing the

proteins actin and myosin.
• Actin and myosin enable muscles to contract in
response to nerve signals.
• Three types: Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac

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Figure 40.5ca

Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei

Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere

100 m

Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle

Nucleus Muscle fibers 25 m Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 m

Figure 40.5cb

Skeletal muscle

Nuclei

Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere

100 m

- Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for

voluntary movement.
- Has multiple nuclei in each muscle fiber.
- Contractile units called Sarcomeres.
- Attached to bones by tendons.
 Figure 40.5cc

Smooth muscle

Nucleus Muscle fibers 25 m

- Smooth muscle lacks striation, spindle shaped.

- In the walls of digestive tract, urinary bladder, artries and other
internal organs.
- Responsible for involuntary body activities, such as churning of
the stomach.
Figure 40.5cd

Cardiac muscle

Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 m

- Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart.

- Striated like skeletal muscle.
- Has fiber that interconnect via intercalated disks, that relay
signals from cell to cell to synchronize heart contraction.
Nervous Tissue

• Functions in the receipt, processing, and

transmission of information.

• Nervous tissue contains:

– Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit
nerve impulses.
– Glial cells, or glia, that support neurons.
– Brain: information processing center

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Figure 40.5db

- Neuron receive nerve impulses from other neurons via cell

body and multiple extensions called dendrites.

- Neuron transmit impulses to neuron, muscles, or other

cells via extension called axons.
Figure 40.5dc

- Glia helps nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons

and modulate neuron function.
Coordination and Control
• Control and coordination within a body depend
on the endocrine system and the nervous
system.

• The endocrine system transmits chemical

signals called hormones to recipient cells
throughout the body via blood.

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• A hormone may affect one or more sites
throughout the body. This depends on which cells
have receptors for that hormone.

• Hormones are relatively slow acting.

• it takes seconds for the hormone to be released

into the blood stream.

• but can have long-lasting effects, because

hormones can remain in bloodstream for minutes
or even hours.
• In nervous system, signals are called nerve
impulses.

• Nerve impulses travel to specific target cells along

axons.

• Nerve signal transmission is extremely fast.

• Transmission takes a fraction of second and lasts
only a fraction of second.

• Nerve impulses can be received by other neurons,

muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells
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Figure 40.6
❖ Endocrine system is especially adapted for
coordinating gradual changes that affect the entire
body such as: growth, development, digestion,
reproduction.

❖ Nervous system is well suited for directing immediate

and rapid responses to the environment such as
reflexes and rapid movement.

Both systems contribute to maintain

stable internal environment
Concept 40.2: Feedback control maintains
the internal environment in many animals
• Animal are facing environmental fluctuations,
So, they must manage their internal
environments.

• Animals are either regulating or conforming

for a particular environmental variable.

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Regulating and Conforming
• A regulator uses internal control
mechanisms to moderate internal change in
the face of external, environmental
fluctuation.

A river otter is a regulator for

temperature, keeping its
body at a temperature that is
largely independent of the
water in which it swims.

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• A conformer allows its internal condition to
change in accordance with external changes in
the variable.

- For example, The fish largemouth bass conforms to the

temperature of the lake it swims in. As the water warms
or cools, so does the body of the bass.

- Many marine invertebrates such as spider crabs let their

internal solute concentration conform to the relatively stable
solute concentration (salinity) of the ocean.
Figure 40.7
• Animals are regulating some internal conditions
while they are conforming to the environmental
changes.

For example, the fish bass regulate their internal

solute concentration but allow their internal
temperature to conform to external water
temperature.
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is a general process by which
organisms maintain a “steady state” or internal
balance.

• They maintain relatively constant internal

environment even when the external
environment changer significantly.

• In humans, body temperature (37oC), blood pH

(7.4), and glucose concentration (70-110
mg/dL).
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Nonliving example of temperature regulation:
control of room temperature
Mechanisms of Homeostasis

• Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate

changes in the internal environment.

• For a given variable, fluctuations above or

below a set point serve as a stimulus; these
are detected by a sensor and trigger a
response.

• The response returns the variable to the set

point.
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 Set Point
(or normal range)

Any fluctuation serves as

Stimulus

Detected by
Sensor

Trigger a
Response
Physiological activity that help return the variable to a set point
Feedback Control in Homeostasis
Homeostasis in animals relies largely on
negative feedback, a control mechanism that
reduces or inhibits the stimulus.

- Homeostasis moderate but does not eliminate

changes in the internal environment.

- Homeostasis is enhanced by adaptations that

reduce fluctuations, such as:
1. insulation (Temp.)
2. physiological buffer (PH)

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• Positive feedback is a control mechanism
that amplifies rather than reduces the stimulus.

• Positive feedback loops in animals do not play

a major role in homeostasis, but instead help
drive processes to completion.

• For example, during childbirth, the pressure of the

baby’s head against receptors near the opening of the
mother’s uterus stimulates uterine contractions.
Positive feedback brings childbirth to completion.
Alterations in Homeostasis
• Set points and normal ranges can change with
age or show cyclic variation.

❑ Some regulated changes are associated with a

particular stage of life, such as puberty.
❑ In some changes are cyclical, such as the variation in
hormone levels during woman’s menstrual cycles.
• In many organisms, certain cyclic alterations
in metabolism reflect a circadian rhythm, a
set of physiological changes that occur
roughly every 24 hours.

❑ For example, your body temperature typically

undergoes a cyclic rise and fall of more than 0.6°C
in every 24-hour period.

❑ A circadian rhythm is intrinsic to the body, although

the biological clock is normally coordinated with the
cycle of light and darkness in the environment.
Figure 40.9a

Melatonin is a hormone that involved in sleep/wake cycles

Figure 40.9b

▪ External stimuli can reset the biological clock, but the effect is not immediate.
▪ Jet lag occurs when flying across several time zones.
 • Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external
environment, a process called acclimatization.

• Acclimatization a gradual process by which an

animal adjusts to changes in its external
environment.

• When a mammal moves from sea level to a much higher

elevation, changes that occur over several days facilitate
activity at lowered concentrations of oxygen.

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During climbing

lower oxygen concentration

breathe more rapidly and deeply.

more CO through exhalation

2

High pH levels

kidney excretes more alkaline urine

returning blood pH to its normal range

Acclimatization vs Adaptation

Acclimatization, which is a temporary change

during an animal’s lifetime, is different from
adaptation, a process of change brought about by
natural selection acting over many generations.
Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for
thermoregulation involve form, function,
and behavior
• Thermoregulation is the process by which animals
maintain their body temperature within a normal
range.
• Body temperature outside normal range can:
- reduce efficiency of enzymatic reaction.
- alter the fluidity of cellular membranes.
- affect temperature-sensitive biochemical processes.

For example, the oxygen carrier hemoglobin becomes less effective at

binding oxygen as temperature increases
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Endothermy and Ectothermy
• Endothermic animals generate heat by
metabolism; Human and other mammals, and
birds.

• Ectothermic animals gain most of the heat from

external sources; ectotherms include most
invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian
reptiles.

Endothermy and ectothermy are not mutually exclusive

thermoregulatory strategies. A bird is an endotherm but may
warm itself in the sun on a cold morning, just as a lizard does.

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 Endothermic animals can
maintain stable body
temperatures in the face of
temperature fluctuations in
the external environment

➢ In a cold environment, an endotherm can generate enough

heat to keep its body substantially warmer than its
surroundings.

➢ In a hot environment, an endotherm has mechanisms to cool

its body.
Many ectotherms adjust
their body temperature
by behavioral means
such as seeking out
shade or basking in the
sun.

➢ Because their heat source is the external environment,

ectotherms require much less food than endotherms of
equivalent size.

➢ Ectotherms usually tolerate larger fluctuations in their internal

temperatures.

➢ Ectothermy is an extremely effective and successful strategy in

most environments, as shown by the abundance and diversity of
ectotherms.
Variation in Body Temperature

Animals can have either a variable or constant

body temperature.

- An animal with a body temperature that varies

with its environment is called a poikilotherm.
- A homeotherm is an animal that maintains a
relatively constant body temperature.

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There is no fixed relationship between the source
of body heat and the stability of body temperature

▪ For example, many ectothermic marine fishes and

invertebrates inhabit water with very stable
temperature. Their body temperature varies less than
that of endotherms.

▪ Conversely, the body of some endotherms varies. Bats

and hummingbirds sometimes enter an inactive state.
So they maintain lower body temperature.
 Ectotherms are “cold-blooded”
and
Endotherms are “warm-blooded.”

• Ectotherms do not necessarily have low body

temperatures.

• While sitting in the sun, many ectothermic lizards

have higher body temperatures than mammals.
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
• Organisms exchange heat by four physical
processes:
- radiation
- evaporation
- convection
- conduction

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Figure 40.11
 • Heat regulation in mammals often involves the
integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails.
•
• Five adaptations help animals to
thermoregulate:
– Insulation
– Circulatory adaptations
– Cooling by evaporative heat loss
– Behavioral responses
– Adjusting metabolic heat production

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Insulation
• Insulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation
in mammals and birds.

• Skin, feathers, fur, and layers of fat reduce heat

flow between an animal and its environment.

• Insulation is especially important in marine

mammals such as whales and walruses. Thick
layers of fat called blubber

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Circulatory Adaptations
• Regulation of blood flow near the body surface
significantly affects thermoregulation.

• Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter

the amount of blood flowing between the body
core and the skin.

• In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases,

facilitating heat loss.
• In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin
decreases, lowering heat loss.
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 • The arrangement of blood vessels in many
marine mammals and birds allows for
countercurrent exchange.

• Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat

between fluids flowing in opposite directions and
reduce heat loss

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Figure 40.12
 • Some bony fishes and sharks also use
countercurrent heat exchanges.

• Many endothermic insects have countercurrent

heat exchangers that help maintain a high
temperature in the thorax.

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Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
• Many types of animals lose heat through
evaporation of water from their skin like terrestrial
animals.

• Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and

many mammals.

• Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to

cool an animal down.

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Behavioral Responses
• Both endotherms and ectotherms use
behavioral responses to control body
temperature.

• Some terrestrial invertebrates have

postures that minimize or maximize
absorption of solar heat.

• Honeybees thermoregulate their hives via

huddling, storing large quantities of fuel in
the form of honey, transporting water and
fanning.

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Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
• Thermogenesis is the adjustment of metabolic heat
production to maintain body temperature.

• Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity such as

moving or shivering.

• Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when hormones

cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity.

• Some mammals have tissue called brown fat contains

many more mitochondria. (animals that hibernate have
this kind of tissue).

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Acclimatization in Thermoregulation

• Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to

acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes.
•
• When temperatures are subzero, some
ectotherms produce “antifreeze” proteins to
prevent ice formation in their cells

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Physiological Thermostats and Fever
• Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of
the brain called the hypothalamus.

• The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat

generating mechanisms.

• Fever is the result of a change to the set point

for a biological thermostat.

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 Figure 40.16

Figure 40.17: The thermostatic function of the hypothalamus in human thermoregulation

Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are
related to animal size, activity, and
environment
• Bioenergetics is the overall flow and
transformation of energy in an animal.

• It determines nutritional requirements and is

related to the animal’s size, activity, and
environment

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Energy Allocation and Use
• Animals harvest chemical energy from food.
•
• Energy-containing molecules from food are usually
used to make ATP, which powers cellular work.

• After the needs of staying alive are met, remaining food

molecules can be used in biosynthesis.

• Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair,

synthesis of storage material such as fat, and
production of gametes

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Figure 40.17

Figure 40.18: Bioenergetics of an animal

Quantifying Energy Use
• Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an
animal uses in a unit of time.

• Metabolic rate can be determined by

– An animal’s heat loss
– The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon
dioxide produced

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Influences on Metabolic Rate

• Metabolic rates are affected by many factors

besides whether an animal is an endotherm or
ectotherm
• Two of these factors are size and activity

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Size and Metabolic Rate
• Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the power
of three quarters (m3/4).

• Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram

than larger animals.

• The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a

higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate,
and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a
larger animal

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Activity and Metabolic Rate
• Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for
endotherms and ectotherms.

• In general, the maximum metabolic rate an

animal can sustain is inversely related to the
duration of the activity.

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Torpor and Energy Conservation
• Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and
metabolism decreases.

• Torpor enables animals to save energy while avoiding

difficult and dangerous conditions.
• Daily torpor is exhibited by many small mammals and
birds and seems adapted to feeding patterns

• Hibernation is long-term torpor that is an adaptation to

winter cold and food scarcity

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