LESSON 7 : Respiration: Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) in the last stage of aerobic cellular respiration is produced through oxidative
phosphorylation. The electrochemical gradient formed along the electron transport chain is used to synthesize
ATP through chemiosmosis. Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis are the two connected components of
the ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

For eukaryotic organisms, the electron transport chain is located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
known as cristae. It is made up of mobile electron carriers surrounded with a series of multi-protein
complexes. In prokaryotic organisms, the electron transport chain is embedded in the plasma membrane.

Cytochrome proteins are similar to hemoglobin which contains a heme group. But instead of oxygen, the
heme group in cytochrome carries electrons. The last component of the aerobic respiration, which uses
atmospheric oxygen as final electron acceptor to produce ATP, is called the electron transport chain. Electrons
from NADH and FADH2 are transported or passed on from one component of the chain to the next, reaching
to the reduction of atmospheric oxygen to produce water molecules.

The process of electron transport along the electron transport chain happens in the following steps:

Step 1: Complex I
Complex I accepts two electrons and hydrogen ion (H+) from NADH, oxidizing it to NAD+. The electrons pass
through the FMN and Fe-S centers of the Complex I and is loaded to ubiquinone (Q) while the hydrogen ion or
proton is pumped across the membrane. Complex I can pump four hydrogen ions (protons) across the
membrane from the matrix into the intermembrane space to establish the hydrogen ion gradient.

Step 2: Q and Complex II

Complex II directly receives electrons from FADH2, oxidizing FADH2 to FAD. These electrons did not pass
through Complex I and does not pump protons across the membrane. That is why, fewer ATP molecules are
formed from FADH2. Q is reduced to QH2 as it receives the electrons from NADH (Complex I) and the
electrons from FADH2 (Complex II). The electrons are delivered to Complex III.

Step 3: Complex III

Complex III receives the electrons from QH2 and pumps the final batch of protons through the membrane as
it passes the electrons to cytochrome c (cyt C). Cyt C carries electron to Complex IV.

Step 4: Complex IV
In Complex IV, the electrons are passed to oxygen molecule, splitting it into two oxygen atoms. The oxygen is
reduced by accepting two hydrogen ions form the matrix, forming water.

CHEMIOSMOSIS

The reduction-oxidation (redox) processes in the complexes of electron transport chain cause the pumping of
protons (H+) across the membrane, establishing an electrochemical gradient or hydrogen ion gradient. This
process is known as chemiosmosis.

Since the inner mitochondrial membrane contains hydrophobic regions of the phospholipid bilayer, the
hydrogen ions in the intermembrane space can only diffuse through the inner mitochondrial membrane with
the aid of ATP synthase.
ATP synthase functions conceptually as a generator which is powered by the exergonic flow of hydrogen ions
to drive the phosphorylation of ATP. As it is turned, it catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from the addition of
phosphate group to ADP.

ATP YIELD
As the products of glycolysis and Krebs cycle enters the electron transport chain, the stored energy in the
nucleotides (NADH and FADH2) is converted to ATP.
However, the number of ATP produced as glucose is metabolized can vary due to the following reasons:

1. Not all species have the same number of hydrogen ions that the electron transport chain complexes can
pump through the membrane.
2. The NADH produced in the cytoplasm during glycolysis cannot easily enter the mitochondria and needs to
be transported by energy carriers.
3. More ATP can be converted from NAD+ than FAD+ in the electron transport chain. Thus, there can be a
difference in the number of ATP production.
4. The intermediates from glucose metabolism can be diverted into the production of other biological
macromolecules such as lipids and nonessential amino acids.

LESSON 8: Aerobic Respiration and Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)

ROLE OF OXYGEN IN RESPIRATION

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is an element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and
atomic weight 16.

Oxygen is essential to support life. It is a contributing element for combustion. In glycolysis, oxygen is needed
in the initial oxidation and degradation of glucose to pyruvate while it is needed during the oxidation and
degradation of pyruvate to carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle. Oxygen is also the final electron acceptor of the
electron transport chain in aerobic respiration. Oxygen, when combined with electrons and hydrogen ions,
will produce water molecules.

Most cellular respiration requires oxygen to produce ATP. If oxygen is not present, the electron transport
chain will stop in aerobic respiration. In that case, glycolysis proceeds with fermentation to produce ATP.
However, it will produce lesser ATP than the aerobic respiration.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
If O2 is limited, the product of glycolysis will undergo anaerobic respiration. In this case, NADH and pyruvate
accumulates, leading to fermentation. Instead of oxygen, most organisms will use organic molecule as the final electron
acceptor to regenerate NAD+ from NADH. Regeneration of NAD+ is needed for glycolytic pathway to continue. Instead
of using an electron transport chain to generate ATP, fermentation uses substrate-level phosphorylation, which involves
the direct synthesis of ATP from ADP. The two general types of fermentation are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation.

1. Alcohol Fermentation
- Catalyzed by the enzymes pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase to produce ethanol.
- In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ethanol and releases carbon dioxide
- An example of alcohol fermentation can be during brewing, winemaking, and baking.
- Usually performed by certain microorganisms such as yeast (Sacharromyces), a fungus.

2. Lactic acid Fermentation

- Catalyzed by the enzyme lactic acid dehydrogenase to produce lactate or lactic acid
- In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product. This process does not
release CO2.
- Some bacteria, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, use lactic acid fermentation to make cheese and yogurt.
- With the help of microorganisms, pyruvate will be converted into acids such as lactic acid.
- Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when oxygen is scarce. Lactic acid fermentation in
muscle cells only happens during strenuous physical activities or exercises wherein there is too little oxygen for aerobic
respiration to continue.

Most fermentation process, especially food fermentation, occur with the aid of microorganisms such as fungi and
bacteria.
All living organisms possess the enzymes needed for glycolysis and it occurs with or without oxygen. However, in
anaerobic respiration, only 2 ATP molecules are produced.

But, this process recycles the electron carrier molecule needed for glycolysis. Hydrogen and electrons are stripped from
the energized electron carrier for it to become available again for the next glycolysis process.