Computer Networking

LECTURE 1 NOTES

Fundamentals of Data Communication

● What is Data Communication?

▪ Data communication refers to the process of transmitting and receiving data between
two or more devices through a medium. It enables the exchange of information in
various forms, such as text, images, audio, and video.

▪ Example: When you send an email from your computer to a friend's computer, the
email message is being transmitted over a network, demonstrating data
communication.

● Importance of Data Communication

▪ Data communication plays a crucial role in modern society and business. Some key
reasons why data communication is important include:
○ Global Connectivity: Data communication enables global connectivity by
facilitating communication and collaboration across geographical
boundaries. It allows people from different parts of the world to connect,
share information, and work together in real-time, regardless of their
physical location.

○ Efficient Collaboration: Data communication tools, such as instant

messaging, online project management platforms, and shared document
editing, enhance collaboration among individuals and teams. They enable
seamless communication, file sharing, and simultaneous editing, resulting in
improved productivity and efficiency.

○ Remote Access: With data communication, individuals can access their

work-related resources and systems remotely. This allows employees to
 work from home or while traveling, providing flexibility and reducing the
need for physical presence in the office. Remote access facilitates a better
work-life balance and enables businesses to tap into a global talent pool.

○ Sharing and Transfer of Information: Data communication enables the rapid

and efficient sharing of information within organizations and between
businesses. It allows for the exchange of important documents, reports, and
data files through various channels such as email, file-sharing platforms, and
cloud storage. This instant access to information enhances decision-making
processes and fosters innovation.

○ Real-Time Communication: Data communication enables real-time

communication through various channels, such as video conferencing,
instant messaging, and Voice over IP (VoIP) services. These technologies
facilitate face-to-face communication, even when participants are physically
distant, resulting in faster decision-making, reduced travel costs, and
increased productivity.

○ Cloud Computing: Data communication is essential for cloud computing

services. Cloud-based storage, software-as-a-service (SaaS) applications,
and infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) platforms heavily rely on data
communication to provide users with on-demand access to computing
resources, data storage, and software applications from anywhere at any
time.

○ E-commerce and Online Transactions: Data communication is the backbone

of e-commerce and online transactions. It enables secure online payment
processing, data encryption, and the transfer of sensitive information
between customers and businesses. It plays a crucial role in ensuring the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data during online transactions.

○ Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT relies on data communication to connect and
communicate with various devices and sensors. It enables the collection,
analysis, and exchange of data in real-time, facilitating automation, process
optimization, and the development of smart cities and industries.
▪ Overall, data communication is a fundamental enabler of modern society and
businesses. It enhances connectivity, collaboration, and access to information,
empowering individuals and organizations to operate efficiently in a digital age.
● Components of Data Communication

▪ Sender
▪ The sender, also known as the source or transmitter, initiates the data transfer
process.
▪ It converts the data into a suitable format for transmission.
▪ Examples: A computer, smartphone, or any device that sends data to another device.

▪ Receiver
▪ The receiver is the device that receives the transmitted data.
▪ It decodes the received data and delivers it to the intended destination.
▪ Examples: A computer, smartphone, or any device that receives data from another
device.

▪ Medium
▪ The medium, or transmission medium, is the physical path through which data is
transmitted.
▪ It can be wired, such as copper cables or fiber optic cables, or wireless, using radio
waves or infrared signals.
▪ Examples: Ethernet cables, wi-fi signals, or cellular networks.

▪ Protocols
▪ Protocols are a set of rules and procedures that govern the format, timing, and error
control mechanisms used in data communication.
▪ They ensure reliable and efficient transmission of data.
▪ Examples: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), Internet Protocol (IP), and Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
● Transmission Modes

▪ Simplex Mode
▪ In simplex mode, communication is unidirectional, allowing data to flow in only one
direction.
▪ Examples: Television broadcasting, where information is transmitted from the
broadcasting station to the TV viewers.

▪ Half-Duplex Mode
▪ In half-duplex mode, communication is bidirectional, but only one device can transmit
data at a time.
▪ Examples: Walkie-talkies, where one person speaks while the other listens, and then
they switch roles.
 ▪ Full-Duplex Mode
▪ In full-duplex mode, communication is bidirectional, and both devices can transmit
and receive data simultaneously.
▪ Examples: Phone conversations, where both parties can speak and listen at the same
time.

▪ Network
▪ A network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers,
printers, and switches.
▪ It enables communication, resource sharing, and collaboration between devices.
▪ Examples: Local Area Networks (LANs), Wide Area Networks (WANs), and the
Internet.

● Categories of Networks
▪ Networks can vary in size and scale, ranging from small local networks to global
networks such as the Internet. Understanding the concept of a network is crucial in
the field of computer networking.
▪ There are different types of networks, each serving a specific purpose and scale. Let's
explore some of the common network types:
○ Personal Area Network (PAN): A PAN is a network used for personal devices
in close proximity, such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices.
Range: Up to 10 meters.
Example: A person using a Bluetooth headset with their smartphone.
○ Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers a small
geographic area, such as a home, office building, or school campus. It
connects devices within a limited area and facilitates resource sharing, such
as file sharing and printing.
Range: Up to a few hundred meters, typically ranging from 100 meters to
several hundred meters.
Example: A small office network connecting computers, printers, and servers
within a single office building.
○ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN is a network that covers a larger
geographic area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. It connects devices
within a metropolitan area, such as a city or town, and is often used by
organizations or service providers to connect multiple locations.
Range: Several kilometers, ranging from a few kilometers up to around 50
kilometers.
Example: A university campus network connecting various academic
buildings and facilities.
 ○ Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is a network that spans a large
geographical area, often connecting multiple LANs. WANs are typically used
to connect devices across cities, countries, or even continents.
Range: Varies greatly, ranging from a few 100 kilometers to intercontinental
distances, depending on the scope of the network.
Example: A multinational company with branch offices in different countries
connected through a WAN.

▪ Understanding these network types helps in designing and managing networks based
on specific requirements and scalability needs.

● Topology

▪ Topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a computer network. It determines

how devices are interconnected and how data flows between them.
▪ Different network topologies have distinct characteristics that impact factors such as
scalability, fault tolerance, and ease of network management.
▪ Here are some commonly used network topologies:

▪ Bus Topology
▪ Characteristics
 ○ All devices are connected to a common communication medium, typically a
single cable known as the ‘bus’.
○ Data is transmitted in a linear fashion, and all devices receive the transmitted
data.
○ Devices connect to the bus using taps or connectors.
▪ Example: Ethernet networks using the 10BASE2 or 10BASE5 standards.

▪ Star Topology
▪ Characteristics
○ All devices are connected to a central device, typically a switch or hub.
○ Data is transmitted from one device to the central device and then forwarded
to the intended recipient.
○ If one device fails, it does not affect the connectivity of other devices.
▪ Example: Local Area Networks (LANs) using Ethernet with a central switch.

▪ Ring Topology
▪ Characteristics
○ Devices are connected in a closed loop, forming a ring.
○ Data travels in one direction around the ring from device to device until it
reaches the intended recipient.
○ Each device acts as a repeater to boost the signal before passing it to the
next device.
▪ Example: Token Ring networks.

▪ Mesh Topology
▪ Characteristics
○ Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection to every other device
in the network.
○ Provides multiple redundant paths for data transmission, enhancing fault
tolerance.
○ Can be partially meshed (some devices interconnected) or fully meshed (all
devices interconnected).
▪ Example: Wide Area Networks (WANs) or Internet backbones.

▪ Tree (Hierarchical) Topology

▪ Characteristics
○ Devices are arranged in a hierarchical structure similar to a tree.
○ A central device (such as a root switch or hub) connects to multiple
secondary devices, which in turn connect to other devices.
○ Provides scalability and easy management by dividing the network into
smaller segments.
 ▪ Example: Large-scale corporate networks or campus networks.

▪ Hybrid Topology
▪ Characteristics
○ Combines two or more different network topologies.
○ Allows for customization and flexibility by leveraging the strengths of
different topologies.
○ Can result in complex network designs and require careful planning and
management.
▪ Example: A network with a combination of star, bus, and ring topologies.

● Types of network devices

▪ Network devices play crucial roles in facilitating data communication, managing

network traffic, and ensuring efficient network operations. Here are some common
types of network devices:

▪ Hub
▪ A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a network.
▪ It operates at the physical layer of the OSI model and simply broadcasts data to all
connected devices.
▪ Hubs are limited in their functionality and have been largely replaced by switches.
▪ Switch
▪ A switch is a more advanced networking device that operates at the data link layer of
the OSI model.
▪ It creates a direct connection between the sender and receiver devices, allowing for
efficient data transmission.
▪ Switches use MAC addresses to forward data packets only to the intended recipient,
reducing network congestion.
▪ They offer better performance, improved security, and greater flexibility compared to
hubs.
▪ Modems (types and functions)
▪ A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that converts digital signals from a
computer into analog signals suitable for transmission over telephone lines or other
communication mediums.
▪ Modems are used to connect computers to the internet or to establish communication
between remote locations.

▪ Types of modems include dial-up modems, cable modems, DSL modems, and wireless
modems.
○ Dial-up Modems
○ Dial-up modems were widely used in the early days of internet connectivity.
They allowed users to establish a connection to the internet via the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Here is some information about dial-up
modems:
○ Definition:
○ A dial-up modem is a device that converts digital signals from a computer
into analog signals that can be transmitted over a telephone line.
○ It allows users to establish a connection to an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
using a standard telephone line.
○ Functionality:
○ Dial-up modems use a process called modulation and demodulation to
transmit and receive data over telephone lines.
○ When a user initiates a dial-up connection, the modem dials a specific phone
number assigned by the ISP and establishes a connection.
○ Data is transmitted as analog signals over the phone line, and the receiving
 modem converts these analog signals back into digital data that can be
understood by the computer.
○ Characteristics:
○ Dial-up modems have relatively low data transfer rates compared to modern
broadband technologies.
○ The maximum speed of dial-up modems is typically 56 kilobits per second
(Kbps), although actual speeds may be lower due to line quality and other
factors.
○ Dial-up connections are susceptible to noise interference, which can affect
the quality and speed of the connection.
○ Dial-up modems require an active phone line, tying up the line while the
connection is active.
○ Usage Example:
○ In the past, dial-up modems were commonly used to access the internet from
home computers.
○ Users would connect their computer to the modem, which was then
connected to a phone line.
○ By dialing the ISP's phone number, users could establish a connection and
access the internet, albeit at slower speeds compared to modern broadband
connections.

○ Cable Modems:
○ Cable modems provide high-speed internet access over cable television
networks. They leverage the existing cable infrastructure to deliver internet
connectivity. Here's an overview of cable modems:
○ Definition:
○ A cable modem is a networking device that enables high-speed internet
access using cable TV networks.
○ It connects to the cable system's coaxial cable and allows data transmission
between the user's computer and the internet service provider.
○ Functionality:
○ Cable modems convert digital data from a computer into signals that can be
transmitted over coaxial cables.
○ They utilize a technique called Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) to
transmit data over different frequency channels on the cable network.
○ The cable modem receives downstream data from the internet and converts
it into digital format for the computer to process. Similarly, it converts
upstream data from the computer into signals that can be transmitted back
 to the internet.
○ Characteristics:
○ Cable modems offer higher data transfer rates compared to dial-up modems,
making them suitable for bandwidth-intensive activities such as streaming
media and online gaming.
○ The maximum speed of cable modems varies depending on the service
package provided by the ISP, ranging from several megabits per second
(Mbps) to gigabit speeds.
○ Cable modems require a physical cable TV connection and are typically
provided by cable TV companies that offer internet services.
○ Usage Example:
○ Users connect their cable modem to the cable TV outlet in their home and
then connect their computer or router to the modem.
○ The cable modem establishes a connection with the cable network, allowing
users to access high-speed internet services provided by the cable ISP.

○ DSL Modems:
○ Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modems provide internet connectivity over
existing telephone lines. They leverage the unused frequency spectrum on
copper telephone lines to transmit digital data. Here's an overview of DSL
modems:
○ Definition:
○ A DSL modem is a device that enables high-speed internet access using
existing copper telephone lines.
○ It connects to the telephone line and establishes a connection between the
user's computer and the internet service provider.

○ Functionality:
○ DSL modems utilize a technology called Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT)
modulation to transmit data over different frequency bands on the telephone
line.
○ They separate voice and data signals, allowing simultaneous internet access
and telephone usage without interference.
○ The DSL modem receives and transmits data over the DSL line, converting it
between analog and digital formats as required.

○ Characteristics:
○ DSL modems offer higher data transfer rates compared to dial-up modems,
making them suitable for broadband internet access.
○ The maximum speed of DSL connections depends on various factors,
including the distance between the user's location and the telephone
exchange.
○ DSL modems are typically provided by DSL service providers and require an
active DSL subscription.
○ Usage Example:
○ Users connect their DSL modem to a telephone line using a DSL
filter/splitter and then connect their computer or router to the modem.
○ The DSL modem establishes a connection with the DSL service provider,
providing high-speed internet access over the telephone line.

○ Wireless Modems:
○ Wireless modems, also known as cellular modems or mobile hotspots,
provide internet connectivity using wireless cellular networks. They allow
users to access the internet on various devices without the need for wired
connections. Here's an overview of wireless modems:

○ Definition:
○ A wireless modem is a device that connects to cellular networks to provide
internet access to devices wirelessly.
○ It uses cellular data networks to establish an internet connection and shares
it with other devices via wi-fi or wired connections.

○ Functionality:
○ Wireless modems have built-in cellular radios that communicate with cellular
networks, such as 3G, 4G, or 5G.
○ They establish a data connection with the cellular network and provide
internet access to devices within their range.
○ Some wireless modems also support wi-fi connectivity, allowing multiple
devices to connect and share the internet connection simultaneously.

○ Characteristics:
○ Wireless modems offer the flexibility of accessing the internet from
anywhere with cellular network coverage.
○ The data transfer speeds of wireless modems depend on the capabilities of
 the cellular network technology in use (e.g., 4G or 5G).
○ They are commonly used for mobile connectivity, allowing users to access
the internet on laptops, tablets, and other devices while on the go.

○ Usage Example:
○ Users connect to a wireless modem by connecting their device to the
modem's wi-fi network or via a wired connection.
○ The wireless modem uses the cellular network to establish an internet
connection, providing users with mobile internet access.
▪ It's worth noting that the availability and specific characteristics of these modem
types may vary depending on the region, service providers, and technological
advancements.

▪ Routers
▪ A router is a networking device that operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI
model.
▪ Routers are responsible for forwarding data packets between different networks or
subnetworks.
▪ They analyze the destination IP addresses in incoming packets and determine the
optimal path for forwarding the packets to their intended destinations.
▪ Routers use routing tables and protocols, such as the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
or the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), to make intelligent routing decisions.
▪ They play a crucial role in connecting networks, enabling interconnectivity, and
directing data traffic efficiently.