ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

- Dense, smooth, and

homogeneous
CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 2. Spongy bone
- Small needlelike pieces of
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM bone
- Many open spaces
● Parts of the skeletal system
➢ Bones (Skeleton)
➢ Joints
➢ Cartilages (shock absorber)
➢ Ligaments
● Two subdivisions of the skeleton
1. Axial skeleton
- Core skeleton, skull,
ossicles, hyoid, vertebrae,
thoracic cage (ribcage)
2. Appendicular skeleton ● Bones are classified on the basis of
- Arms, legs, hips shape into four groups
➢ Long
FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES ➢ Flat
➢ Short
● Support the body ➢ Irregular
● Protection of the soft organs
➢ Skull and vertebrae protect
brain and spinal cord
➢ Rib cage protects thoracic
cavity organs
● Allow movement via attached
muscles
● Store minerals and fats
➢ Calcium and phosphorus
➢ Fat in the internal marrow
cavity
● Blood cell formation
(hematopoiesis)
● Long bones
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ➢ Typically longer than they are
wide
● The adult skeleton has 206 bones ➢ Shaft with enlarged ends
● Two basic types of osseous (bone) ➢ Contain mostly compact
tissue bone; spongy bone at ends
1. Compact bone

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

➢ All of the bones of the limbs ➢ Contain mostly spongy bone

(except wrist, ankle, and with an outer layer of
kneecap bones) are long compact bone
bones ➢ Sesamoid bones are type of
➢ Examples: short bone that form within
- Femur tendons (patella)
- Humerus ➢ Examples:
- Carpals (Wrist bone)
- Tarsals (Ankle bone)
● Irregular bones
➢ Irregular shape
➢ Do not fit into other bone
classification categories
➢ Examples:
- Vertebrae
- Hip bones

● Flat bones
➢ Thin, Flattened, and usually
curved
➢ Two thin layers of compact
bone sandwich a layer of
spongy bone between them
➢ Example:
- Most bones of the skull
- Ribs
- Sternum

STRUCTURE OF BONE

● Long bone anatomy

➢ Diaphysis (shaft)
- Makes up most of bone’s
length
- Composed of compact
bone
➢ Periosteum
● Short bones - Outside covering of the
➢ Generally cube-shaped diaphysis

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO
- Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
- Perforating (Sharpey’s)
fibers secure periosteum to
underlying bone
➢ Epiphysis (ends)
- Composed mostly of
spongy bone enclosed by
thin layer of compact bone
➢ Articular cartilage
- Covers the external surface
of the epiphyses
- Made of hyaline cartilage
- Decreases friction at joint
surfaces
➢ Epiphyseal line
- Remnant of the epiphyseal
plate
- Seen in adult bones
➢ Epiphyseal plate
- Flat plate of hyaline
cartilage seen in young,
growing bone
- Causes lengthwise growth
of a long bone
➢ Endosteum
- Lines the inner surface of
the shaft
- Made of connective tissue
➢ Medullary cavity
- Cavity inside the shaft
- Contains yellow marrow
(mostly flat) in adults
- Contains red marrow for
blood cell formation until age
6 or 7
● Bone markings
➢ Sites of attachments for
muscles, tendones, and
ligaments
➢ Passages for nerves and
blood vessels
● Categories of bone markings
➢ Projections or processes -
grow out from the bone
surface
- All projections begin with
“T”
➢ Depressions or cavities -
indentations
- All depressions begin with
“F” (except facet)
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

- Opening in the center of

osteon (Haversian system)
- Runs lengthwise through
bone
- Carries blood vessels and
nerves
➢ Osteon (Haversian system)
- A unit of bone containing
central canal and matrix rings
- Structural and functional
unit of compact bone

● Microscopic anatomy of spongy

bone
➢ Composed of small,
needlelike pieces of bone
called trabeculae and open
spaces
➢ Open spaces are filled by
marrow, blood vessels, and
nerves
● Microscopic anatomy of compact
bone
➢ Osteocytes
- Mature bone cells situated
in bone matrix
➢ Lacunae
- Cavities in bone matrix that ➢ Canaliculi
house osteocytes - Tiny canals
➢ Lamellae - Radiate from the central
- Concentric circles of canal to lacunae
lacunae situated around the - Form a transport system
central (Haversian) canal connecting all bone cells to a
➢ Central (Haversian) canal nutrient supply

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

➢ Perforating (Volkmann’s)
canal
- Canal perpendicular to the
central canal
- Carries blood vessels and
nerves
● Bone is relatively lightweight and
resists tension and other forces
● Organic parts (collagen fibers)
make bone flexible have great
tensile strength (stretch without
breaking)
● Calcium salts deposited in the bone
make bone hard (resists ● By birth, most cartilage is converted
compression) to bone except for two regions in a
long bone
BONE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND 1. Articular cartilages
REMODELING 2. Epiphyseal plates
● New cartilage is formed continuously
● Bone formation and growth on external face of these two
➢ Ossification is the process cartilages
of bone formation ● Old cartilage is broken down and
➢ Occurs on hyaline cartilage replaced by bony matrix
models or fibrous
membranes
➢ Long bone growth involves
two major phases
● Two major phases of ossification in
long bones
1. In an embryo, osteoblasts
(bone-forming cells) cover
the hyaline cartilage model
with bone matrix
2. In a fetus, the enclosed
cartilage is covered by bone; ● Appositional growth
the cartilage is digested ➢ Bones grow in width
away, opening up medullary ➢ Osteoblasts in the
cavity periosteum add bone matrix
to the outside of the
diaphysis
➢ Osteoclasts in the
endosteum remove bone

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

from the inner surface of the ● Bone fractures are treated by

diaphysis reduction and immobilization
● Bone growth is controlled by ➢ Closed reduction: bones are
hormones, such as growth manually coaxed into
hormone and sex hormones position by physician’s hands
● Bones are remodeled throughout life ➢ Open reduction: bones are
in response to two factors secured with pins or wires
1. Calcium ion level in the blood during surgery
determines when bone ● Healing time is 6-8 weeks
matrix is to be broken down
or formed
2. Pull of gravity and muscles
on the skeleton determines
where bone matrix is to be
broken down of formed
● Calcium ion regulation
➢ Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Released when calcium ion
level in blood are low
- Activates osteoclasts
(bone-destroying cells)
- Osteoclasts break down
bone and release calcium
ions into the blood
➢ Hypercalcemia (high blood
calcium levels) prompts
calcium storage to bones by
osteoblasts
● Hypocalcemia (low blood calcium ● Repair of bone fractures involves
level) - Tetany four major events
➢ Hematoma (blood-filled
BONE FRACTURES swelling, or bruise) is formed
➢ Fibrocartilage callus forms
● Fracture: break in a bone - Cartilage matrix, bony
● Types of bone fractures matrix, collagen fibers splint
➢ Closed (simple) fracture is a the broken bone
break that does not penetrate ➢ Bony callus replaced the
the skin fibrocartilage callus
➢ Open (compound) fracture is - Osteoblasts and
a broken bone that osteoclasts migrate in
penetrates through the skin

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

➢ Bone remodeling occurs in SKULL

response to mechanical
stresses ● Two sets of bones from the skull
1. Cranium bones enclosed the
brain
2. Facial bones
➔ Hold eyes in anterior
position
➔ Allow facial muscles
to express feelings
● Bones are joined by structures
(immovable joints)
● Only the mandible is attached by a
freely movable joint
● Hematoma (Hema-blood, ● 8 cranial bones protect the brain
Toma-mass; blood mass) ➢ 1 Frontal bone
➢ 2 Occipital bone
AXIAL SKELETON ➢ 3 Ethmoid bone
➢ 4 Sphenoid bone
● Forms the longitudinal axis of the ➢ 5,6 Parietal bones (pair)
body ➢ 7.8 Temporal bones (pair)
● Divided into three parts ● 14 facial bones
1. Skull ➢ 1,2 Maxillae (pair)
2. Vertebral column ➢ 3,4 Palatine bones (pair)
3. Bony thorax ➢ 5,6 Lacrimal bones (pair)
➢ 7,8 Zygomatic bones
(pair)
➢ 9,10 Nasal bones (pair)
➢ 11 Vomer bone
➢ 12,13 Inferior nasal
conchae (pair)
➢ 14 Mandible

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

● Hyoid bone
➢ Closely related to mandible
and temporal bones
➢ The only bone that does not
articulate with another bone
➢ Serves as a movable base
for the tongue
➢ Aids in swallowing and
speech

● Paranasal sinuses
➢ Hollow portions of bones
surrounding the nasal cavity
➢ Functions of paranasal
sinuses
- Lighten the skull
- Amplify sounds made as we
speak VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE)

● Vertebral column provides axial

support

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO
➢ Extends from skull to the
pelvis
● 26 vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
➢ 7 cervical vertebrae are in
the neck
➢ 12 thoracic vertebrae are in
the chest region
➢ 5 lumbar vertebrae are
associated with the lower
back
➢ Sacrum (formed by fusion of
5 vertebrae)
➢ Coccyx (formed by fusion of
3-5 vertebrae)
● Primary curvatures
➢ Spinal curvatures of the
thoracic and sacral regions
➢ Present from birth
➢ Form a C-shaped curvature
in newborns
● Secondary curvatures
➢ Spinal curvatures of the
cervical and lumbar regions
➢ Develop after birth
➢ Form an S-shaped curvature
in adults
● Common features of vertebrae
➢ Body (centrum)
➢ Vertebral arch
- Pedicle
- Lamina
➢ Vertebral forearm
➢ Transverse processes
➢ Spinous process
➢ Superior and Inferior articular
processes
THORACIC CAGE
● Bony thorax, or thoracic cage,
protects organs of the thoracic cavity
● Consist of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
➔ True ribs (pairs 1-7)
➔ False ribs (pairs 8-12)
➔ Floating ribs (pairs
11-12)
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

3. Thoracic vertebrae

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

● Composed of 126 bones

➢ Limbs (appendages)
➢ Pectoral girdle
➢ Pelvic girdle

BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE

● Also called pectoral girdle

● Composed of two bones that attach
the upper limb to the axial skeletal
● Light, poorly reinforced girdle
● Allows the upper limb a exceptional
flexibility
BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS
● Humerus
➢ Forms the arm
➢ Single bone
➢ Proximal end articulation
- Head articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula
➢ Distal end articulation

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

- Trochlea and capitulum - 8 bones arranged in two

articulate with the bones of rows of 4 bones in each hand
the forearm ➢ Metacarpals - palm bones
- 5 per hand
➢ Phalanges - fingers and
thumb
- 14 phalanges in each hand
- In each finger, there are 3
bones
- In the thumb, there are only
2 bones

BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

● The forearm has two bones ● Formed by two coxal bones

1. Ulna - medial bone in ● Composed of three pairs of fused
anatomical position bones
➔ Proximal end ● Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones,
articulation sacrum
- Coronoid process ● Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum,
and olecranon coccyx
articulate with the
humerus
2. Radius - lateral bone in
anatomical position
➔ Proximal end
articulation
- Head articulates
with the capitulum of
the humerus

● Hand
➢ Carpals - wrist bones

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

● The female’s pelvis

➢ Inlet is larger and more
circular
➢ Shallower, on the whole, and
the bones are lighter and
thinner
➢ Ilia flare more laterally
➢ Sacrum is shorter and less
curved
➢ Ischial spines are shorter and
farther apart; thus, the outlet
is larger ● The lower leg has two bones
➢ Pubic arch is more rounded 1. Tibia - shinbone; larger and
because the angle of the medially oriented
pubic arch is greater ➔ Proximal end
articulation
- Medial and lateral
condyles articulate
with the femur to form
the knee joint
➔ Dixtal end articulation
- Medial malleolus
forms the inner part of
the ankle
2. Fibula - thin and sticklike;
lateral to the tibia
➔ Has no role in forming
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS the knee joint
➔ Distal end articulation
● Femur - thigh bone - Lateral malleolus
➢ The heaviest, strongest bone forms the outer part
in the body of the ankle
➢ Proximal end articulation
- Head articulates with the
acetabulum of the coxal (hip)
bone
➢ Distal end articulation
- Lateral and medial condyles
articulate with the tibia in the
lower leg

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

● Foot JOINTS
➢ Tarsals - 7 bones
❖ Two largest tarsals ● Joints are articulations
are the: ➢ Occur where two or more
- Calcaneus (heel bones meet
bone) ● Functions of joints
- Talus ➢ Hold bones together securely
➢ Metatarsals - 5 bones form ➢ Allow for mobility
the sole of the foot ● Two ways joints are classified
➢ Phalanges - 14 bones form ➢ Functionally
the toes ➢ Structurally
● Functional joint classifications
➢ Synarthroses
- Immovable joints
➢ Amphiarthroses
- Slightly movable joints
➢ Diarthroses
- Freely movable joints
● Fibrous joints
➢ Bones are united by fibrous
tissue
➢ Types
❖ Sutures
- Immobile
● Arches of the feet ❖ Syndesmoses
➢ Bones of the foot are - Allow more
arranged to form three strong movement than
arches sutures but still
➢ Two longitudinal immobile
➢ One transverse - Found on the distal
ends of tibia and
fibula
❖ Gomphoses
- Immobile
- Found where the
teeth meet the facial
bones

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO
● Cartilaginous joints
➢ Bones are connected by
fibrocartilage
➢ Types
❖ Synchondrosis
- Immobile
- Found in epiphyseal
plates of growing long
bones
❖ Symphysis
- Slightly movable
- Found in the pubic
symphysis,
intervertebral joints
● Synovial joints
➢ Articulating bones are
separated by joint cavity
➢ Synovial fluid is found in the
joint cavity
➢ Four distinguishing features
of synovial joints
1. Articular cartilage
2. Articular capsule
3. Joint cavity
4. Reinforcing ligaments
➢ Bursae - flattened fibrous
sacs
- Lined with synovial
membranes
- Filled with synovial fluid
- Not actually part of the joint
➢ Tendon sheath
- Elongated bursa that wraps
around a tendon
● Types of synovial joints based on
shape
➢ Plane joint
➢ Hinge joint
➢ Pivot joint
➢ Condylar joint
➢ Saddle joint
➢ Ball-and-socket joint
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF THE
SKELETON
● Birth to adulthood
➢ First “long bones” of a fetus
are hyaline cartilage
➢ Earliest “flat bones” of the
fetal skull are fibrous
membrane
➢ As fetus grows, all bone
models are converted to
bone
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO
● Fetal skull
➢ Fontanels are fibrous
membranes connecting the
cranial bones
- Known as “soft spots”
- Allow skull compression
during birth
- Allow the brain to grow
during later pregnancy and
infancy
- Usually ossify by 2 years of
age
● Growth of cranium after birth is
related to brain growth
➢ Increase in size of the facial
skeleton follows tooth
development and
enlargement of the
respiratory passageways
● Size of cranium in relationship to
body
➢ 2 years old - skull is
three-fourths the size of adult
skull
➢ 8 or 9 years old - skull is near
adult size and proportion
➢ Between ages 6 and 11, the
face grows out from the skull
● Skeletal changes
➢ At birth, the head and trunk
are proportionately much
larger than the lower limbs
➢ During puberty:
- Female pelvis broadens
- Entire male skeleton
becomes more robust
➢ By the end of adolescence:
- Epiphyseal plates become
fully ossified
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY C. SOTO

● Older adults
➢ Osteoporosis
- Bone-thinning disease
affecting:
= 50 percent of women
over age 65
= 20 percent of men over
age 70
- Disease makes bones
fragile, and bones can easily
fracture
- Vertebral collapse results in
kyphosis (also known as
“dowager’s hump”)
- Estrogen aids in health and
normal density of female
skeleton

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