ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO

CHAPTER 4: SKIN AND BODY

MEMBRANES

BODY MEMBRANES

● Functions of body membranes

➢ Cover body surfaces
➢ Line body cavities
➢ Form protective sheets
around organs
● Classified according to tissue types
● Two major categories
➢ Epithelial membranes
- Cutaneous
membranes(Skin)
- Mucous
membranes(mouth)
- Serous
membranes(stomach)
➢ Connective tissue
membranes
- Synovial membranes
● Mucous membrane (mucosae)
➢ Moist membranes
➢ Some mucosae secrete
protective, lubricating mucus
➢ Line all body cavities that
open to the exterior body
surface
➢ Adapted for absorption or
secretion
➢ Consists of two layers
- Epithelium type depends
on site
- Loose connective tissue
(lamina propria)

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES

● Epithelial membranes are simple

organs
● Also called covering and lining
membranes
● These membranes contain both:
➢ Epithelial tissue layer
➢ Connective tissue layer
● Cutaneous membrane = skin
➢ Dry membrane ● Serous membranes (serosae)
➢ Outermost protective ➢ Line compartments in the
boundary ventral body cavity that are
➢ Consist of two layers closed to the exterior of the
- Epidermis is composed of body
keratinized stratified ➢ Occur in paris, separated by
squamous epithelium serous fluid, with a visceral
- Dermis is mostly dense and parietal layer
(fibrous) connective tissue ➢ Consists of two layers

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO

- Line bursae
- Simple squamous - Line tendon sheaths
epithelium ➢ Secrete a lubricating fluid to
- Areolar connective tissue cushion organs moving
against each other during
muscle activity

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

● Integumentary system consists of

the:
➢ Skin (cutaneous membrane)
➢ Skin appendages
- Sweat glands
- Oil glands
- Hair
● Specific serous membranes - Nails
➢ Peritoneum
- Cover organs in the FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY
abdominal cavity SYSTEM
➢ Pleurae
- Surround the lungs ● Insulates and cushion deeper body
➢ Pericardia organs
- Surround the heart ● Protects the entire body from:
➢ Mechanical damage (bumps
CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES and cuts)
➢ Chemical damage (acids and
● Synovial membranes bases)
➢ Loose areolar connective ➢ Thermal damage (heat and
tissue only (no epithelial cold)
tissue) ➢ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
➢ Line fibrous capsules (sunlight)
surrounding joints ➢ Microbes (bacteria)

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO

➢ Water loss ➢ Not technically part of the

● Regulates heat loss as controlled by integumentary system
the nervous system ➢ Composed mostly of adipose
● Acts as a mini-excretory system; tissue
sweat aids in the loss of ➢ Servers as a shock absorber
➢ Urea and insulates deeper tissues
➢ Salts
➢ Water
● Synthesizes vitamin D
● Secretions create a protective acid
mantle

● Epidermis-outer layer
➢ Composed of stratified
squamous epithelium
➢ Most cells are keratinocytes
which produce a fibrous
protein called keratin
- Keratinization makes the
epidermis tough
- Desmosomes connect
keratinocytes together
➢ Avascular (no blood vessel)
➢ Composed of five layers
(strata)
● Summary of strata (layers) of the
epidermis from the deepest to most
superficial
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN ➢ Stratum basale
➢ Stratum spinosum
● Two kinds of tissue compose the ➢ Stratum granulosum
skin ➢ Stratum lucidum (thick,
➢ Epidermis hairless skin only)
➢ Dermis ➢ Stratum corneum
● Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) ● Stratum basale (stratum
➢ Anchors the skin to germinativum)
underlying organs ➢ Deepest layer of dermis

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO
➢ Wavy borderline with the
dermis anchors the two
together
➢ Cells undergoing mitosis
➢ Daughter cells are pushed
upward to become the more
superficial layers
● Stratum spinosum
➢ Cells become increasingly
flatter and more keratinized
● Stratum granulosum
● Stratum lucidum
➢ Formed from dead cells of
the deeper strata
➢ Occurs only in the thick,
hairless skin of the palms of
hands and soles of feet
● Stratum corneum
➢ Outermost layer of epidermis
➢ Shingle-like dead cells are
filled with keratin (protective
protein prevents water loss
from skin)
● Melanin
➢ Melanin is pigment produced
by melanocytes
➢ Melanocytes are mostly in
the stratum basale of the
epidermis
➢ Color yellow to brown to
black
● Epidermal dendritic cells
➢ Alert and active immune cells
to threat (bacterial or viral
invasion)
● Market cells
➢ Associated with sensory
nerve endings
➢ Serve as touch receptors
called Merkel discs
● Demis
➢ Connective tissue
➢ Underlies the epidermis
➢ Two regions
- Papillary
- Reticular
● Two regions of the dermis
➢ Papillary layer (upper dermal
region) contain projections
called dermal papillae
- Areolar connective tissue
- Indent the epidermis above
- Many projections contain
capillary loops, and others
house pain and touch
receptors
- On palm and sole surfaces,
papillae increase friction and
gripping ability
- Fingerprints are identifying
films of sweat
➢ Reticular layer (deepest skin
layer)
- Dense irregular connective
tissue
- Blood vessels
- Sweat and oil glands
- Deep pressure receptors
(lamellar corpuscles)
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO
● Other dermal features
➢ Cutaneous sensory receptors
➢ Phagocytes
➢ Collagen and elastic fibers
➢ Blood vessels
➢ Nerve supply
SKIN COLOR
● Three pigments contribute to skin
color
1. Melanin
- Yellow, reddish brown, or
black pigments
2. Carotene
- Orange-yellow pigments
(also found in some
vegetables)
3. Hemoglobin
- Red coloring from blood
cells in dermal capillaries
- Oxygen content determines
the extent of red coloring
● Redness (erythema)-due to
embarrassment, inflammation,
hypertension, fever, or allergy
● Pallor (blanching)-due to emotional
stress (such as fear), anemia, low
blood pressure, Impaired blood flow
to an area
● Jaundice (yellow cast)-indicates a
liver disorder
● Bruises (black and blue
marks)-hematomas
Appendages of the Skin
● Cutaneous glands are all exocrine
glands
➢ Sebaceous glands
➢ Sweat glands
● Hair and hair follicles
● Nails
● Sebaceous (oil) glands
➢ Located all over the skin
except for palms and soles
➢ Produce sebum (oil)
- Makes skin soft and moist
- Prevents hair from
becoming brittle
- Kills bacteria
➢ Most have ducts that empty
into hair follicles; others open
directly onto skin surface
➢ Glands are activated at
puberty with increased
androgens
● Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
➢ Produce sweat
➢ Widely distributed in skin
● Two types of sudoriferous glands
1. Eccrine glands
2. Apocrine glands
● Eccrine glands
➢ More numerous, located all
over the body
➢ Open via duct to sweat pores
on the skin’s surface
➢ Produce acidic sweat
- Water, salts, vitamin C,
traces of metabolic waste
➢ Function in body temperature
regulation
● Apocrine glands
➢ Ducts empty into hair follicles
in the armpit and genitals
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO
➢ Begin to function at puberty
➢ Release sweat that also
contains fatty acids and
proteins (milky or yellowish
color)
➢ Play a minimal role in body
temperature regulation
● Hair
➢ Located body-wide except for
palms, soles, nipples, lips
➢ Produced by hair follicle
➢ Shaft projects from the
surface of the scalp or skin
➢ Consists of hard keratinized
epithelial cells
➢ Melanocytes provide pigment
for hair color
➢ Hair grows in the matrix of
the hair bulb in stratum
basale
● Hair anatomy
➢ Central medulla
➢ Cortex surrounds medulla
➢ Cuticle on outside of cortex
- Mostly heavily keratinized
region of the hair
➢ Melanin provides color
● Associated hair structures
➢ Hair follicle
- Composed of inner
epithelial root sheath and an
outer fibrous sheath
- Dermal region provides a
blood supply to the hair bulb
(deepest part of follicle)
- Arrector pili muscle
connects to the hair follicle to
pull hairs upright when we
are cold or frightened
● Nails
➢ Heavily keratinized, scalelike
modifications of the
epidermis
➢ Stratum basale extends
beneath the nail bed, which
is responsible for growth
➢ Lack of pigment makes nails
colorless
● Parts of nails
➢ Free edge
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO
➢ Body is the visible attached
portion
➢ Nail folds are skin folds that
overlap the edges of nail; the
cuticle is the proximal edge
➢ Root of nail is embedded in
skin
➢ Growth of the nail occurs
from the nail matrix of nail
bed
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
● Infections and allergies
➢ Athlete’s foot
- Caused by fungal infection
(Tinea pedis)
- itchy, red peeling skin
between the toes
➢ Boils (furuncles) and
carbuncles
- Caused by inflammation of
hair follicles
- Carbuncles are clusters of
boils caused by bacteria
➢ Cold sores (fever blisters)
- Caused by human
herpesvirus 1
- Blisters itch and sting
➢ Contain dermatitis
- caused by exposure to
chemicals that provoke
allergic responses
- Itching, redness, and
swelling of the skin
➢ Impetigo
- Caused by bacterial
infection
- Pink, fluid-filled raised
lesions around mouth/nose
➢ Psoriasis
- Triggered by trauma,
infection, hormonal changes,
or stress
- Red, epidermal lesions
covered with dry, silvery
scales that itch, burn, crack,
or sometimes bleed
● Burns
➢ Tissue damage and cell
death caused by heat,
electricity, UV radiation, or
chemicals
➢ Associated dangers
- Protein denaturation and
cell death
- Dehydration and electrolyte
imbalance
- Circulatory shock
➢ Result in loss of body fluids
and infection from the
invasion of bacteria
● Extent of burn is estimated using the
rule of nines
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO
➢ Body is divided into 11 areas
for quick estimation
➢ Each area represents about
9 percent of total surface
area
- The area surrounding the
genitals (the perineum)
represents 1 percent of body
surface area
● First-degree burn (superficial burn)
➢ Only epidermis is damaged
➢ Skin is red and swollen
● Second-degree burn (superficial
partial-thickness burn)
➢ Epidermis and superficial
part of dermis are damaged
➢ Skin is red, painful, and
blistered
➢ Regrowth of the epithelium
can occur
● Third-degree burn (full-thickness
burn)
➢ Destroys epidermis and
dermis; burned area is
painless
➢ Requires skin grafts, as
regeneration is not possible
➢ Burned area is blanched
(gray-white) or black
● Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness
burn)
➢ Extends into deeper tissue
(bone, muscle, tendons)
➢ Appears dry and leathery
➢ Requires surgery and
grafting
➢ May require amputation
● Criteria for deeming burns critical (if
any one is met):
➢ Over 30 percent of body has
second-degree burns
➢ Over 10 percent of the body
has third- or fourth-degree
burns
➢ Third- or fourth-degree burns
of the face, hands, feet, or
genitals
➢ Burns affect the airways
➢ Circumferencential (around
the body or limb) burns have
occurred
● Skin cancer
➢ Most common form of cancer
in humans
➢ Most important risk factor is
overexposure to ultraviolet
(UV) radiation in sunlight and
tanning beds
● Cancer can be c;assified two ways
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO
1. Benign means the neoplasm
(tumor) has not spread
2. Malignant means the
neoplasm has invaded other
body areas
● Most common types of skin cancer
➢ Basal cell carcinoma
➢ Malignant melanoma
● Basal cell carcinoma
➢ Least malignant and most
common type of skin cancer
➢ Arises from the cells in
stratum basale that are
altered so that they can no
longer make keratin
➢ Lesions appear as shiny;
dome shaped nodules that
develop a central ulcer
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN
AND BODY MEMBRANES
● Squamous cell carcinoma
➢ Believed to be induced by
UV exposure
➢ Arises from cells of stratum
spinosum
➢ Lesions appear as scaly,
reddened papules that
gradually form shallow ulcers
➢ Early removal allows a good
chance of cure
➢ Metastasize to lymph nodes
if not removed
● Malignant melanoma
➢ Most deadly of skin cancers,
but accounts for only 5
percent of skin cancers
➢ Cancer of melanocytes
➢ Metastasizes rapidly to
lymph and blood vessels
➢ Detection uses ABCDE rule
for recognizing melanoma
➢ A = Asymmetry
- Two sides of pigmented
mole do not match
➢ B = Border irregularity
- Borders of mole ar not
smooth
➢ C = Color
- Different colors in
pigmented area
➢ D = Diameter
- Spots is larger than 6mm in
diameter
➢ E = Evolution
- One or more of ABCD
characteristics is evolving
● Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the
body by the fifth or sixth month of
fetal development but disappears by
birthday
● Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is
apparent at birth
● Milia, small white spots, are common
at birth and disappear by the third
week
● Acne may appear during
adolescence
● Pimples, scales, and dermatitis are
common with aging skin
● In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and
well hydrated
● With aging, skin loses elasticity and
thins
● Skin cancer is major threat to skin
exposed to excessive sunlight
● Balding (alopecia) and/or graying
occurs with aging; both are
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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CN331\MC 1
BSN-1 (BLOCK I)
INSTRUCTOR: CHARLSON REY SOTO

genetically determined; other factors

that may contribute include drugs
and emotional stress
● White people are more prone to skin
cancer than black people. This is
because they have less melanin in
their skin, which gives skin its color.
Melanin provides some protection
against UV light, which is a leading
cause of skin cancer.

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