ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

As energy consumption in residential areas is rising, residential homes

have deployed a photovoltaic (PV) system to save energy cost. The PV system
needs to be continuously monitored to maintain its appropriate performance. In
addition, it is desirable to monitor each PV module because one abnormal PV
module affects the whole PV system. In this paper, the power line
communication (PLC) compliant with Home Plug is adopted to monitor each
PV module. The system architecture is composed of three components: PLC
modem, renewable energy gateway (REG), and smart device application. The
PLC modems are deployed on each PV module and monitor it. The REG
aggregates and stores the monitored data from the PLC modems and the
inverter. The smart device application retrieves the stored data from the REG to
inform users of the status of the PV system. Users can browse and figure out the
PV system performance in detail. The proposed system is installed in the field
that is composed of sixteen 210W PV modules and a 3kW inverter. This scheme
will maintain the performance of a PV system and contribute to enhancing
home energy management system.
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER-1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

For decades, energy consumption in residential areas has risen constantly

as more consumer electronics are deployed. Various energy reduction
technologies have been developed to make the consumer electronics energy-
efficient [1]-[4]. Recently, residential homes have deployed a photovoltaic (PV)
system to generate electricity and reduce the energy cost. The PV system is the
most popular renewable energy source in residential areas. Monitoring of the
deployed PV system is important and essential for maintaining its high-

performance level.

Over use of energy has caused many environmental and economic crises
around the world. Home appliances as well as industrial applications consume
high energy. Energy consumption by home appliances is considered as one of
the most critical areas for the attention to the researchers. Energy saving is a big
challenge in front of us.

Energy can be saved effectively by proper management of electricity

distribution for home appliances based on the activities of the users and
prioritizing our tasks. Recognizing human activities and providing energy
supply for those appliances that are related to that activity can provide effective
power utilization and conservation.

The purpose of using this project based on HEMS technology is which is

used to reduce and manage home energy use. A typical HEMS just shows the
energy consumption of the whole home and home appliances. Users cannot
figure out how efficient a home appliance is, compared to the others. So it is
necessary to compare the energy usage of home appliances to that of the same
kinds of home appliances.

This paper describes a photovoltaic (PV) system management scheme. A

typical PV system installed in home monitors only the status values at the
inverter. It has difficulty in localizing failures in the PV system for
maintenance. To overcome this, we propose a PLC-based management scheme
that consists of a PLC modem, a renewable energy gateway (REG), and a smart
device application. The PLC modems measure the status of PV modules. The
REG aggregates the measured status values from the PLC modems. The smart
device application displays the status of the whole PV system. A user can easily
localize failures in the PV system for better performance and maintenance. The
proposed scheme enhances a PV system management and can create synergy
with smart home energy management system.

1.2 RELATED WORKS

The PLC technology has been adopted to realize two-way communication

for smart metering for a long time and widely used as home network
infrastructure in residential areas. This section reviews several previous works
that use PLC technology to monitor each PV module. Numerous studies have
used the PLC technology in PV systems.

A low-cost PLC-based monitoring and controlling modules have been

proposed to identify the exact problem location [9]. PLC modules are mounted
in PV modules, measure the electrical parameters, and transfer the measured
data to central control system. The PLC module uses a frequency shift keying
(FSK) modulation scheme in the frequency range of 3 kHz to 148.5 kHz.
Another study using FSK-based PLC has been proposed for the intelligent PV
module [10].
 The PLC module is connected to the output of the DC-to-DC converter of
the PV module. The FSK communication features are 132 kHz of carrier
frequency and 2,400 b/s of baud rate. This study provides the analysis about
losses introduced by connected PV modules. A low-cost low frequency PLC
monitoring system has been developed using direct spread code division
multiple access (DS-CDMA) [11].

Its frequency range is below 10 kHz and its communication rate is 5 b/s
of baud rate. It can also monitor separate PV modules in a PV system and detect
a faulty PV module quickly at low maintenance costs. The previous PLC-based
works achieved monitoring of individual PV modules and improved a PV
system management in residential areas.

However, those works need improvement in two aspects. First, they used
their own modulation scheme and structure, not a standard. If a PLC technology
compliant with an international standard like IEEE 1901is used, the monitoring
system will enhance compliance and interoperability with a Home Plug-based
home network. Moreover, it is well known that an orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) modulation scheme, which is adopted in IEEE
1901 and Home Plug, has high noise immunity and band efficiency [13]-[15].
Second, the previous works do not support access to the status data.

If users can access and figure out the status of the PV system through
smart devices, the PV system management can be greatly enhanced and the PV
module-based monitoring system can be widely deployed.
 CHAPTER-2

BLOCK DIAGRAM
CHAPTER-2

BLOCK DIAGRAM

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
 CHAPTER-3
ARCHITECTURE OF PV SYSTEM MANAGEMENT FOR
SMART HOME
CHAPTER-3
ARCHITECTURE OF PV SYSTEM MANAGEMENT FOR
SMART HOME
A typical residential PV system is composed of tens of PV modules and
an inverter. The PV modules are deployed on the rooftop and are serially
connected one by one to get high voltage enough for the inverter. The inverter
converts the generated DC power into an AC power. In case of a 3kW PV
system using 250W PV modules, twelve PV modules and a 3kW inverter are
installed.

The inverter monitors several status data of the total PV system: voltage,
current, and power at DC side; voltage, current, power, and accumulated energy
at AC side. These status data are needed to manage and maintain the
performance of the PV system. A residential home has two power sources when
a PV system is installed.

One is a normal power source from the utility through an electricity meter
and the other is a solar power from the installed PV system through a grid-
connected inverter. Two power sources are combined in the main electrical
panel. The combined power is supplied to home appliances and lights through
the main electrical panel. When the generated PV power exceeds the local
demand, the surplus electricity can be sold to the utility through the smart
meter. PLC modems and a renewable energy gateway (REG) are added to a
typical grid-connected PV system. One PLC modem is deployed on the back
side of each PV module. PLC modems have both sensing and communication
capability.

They measure the voltage, current, and temperature of the attached PV

module and communicate with the REG through the DC power line. The dotted
line conceptually shows power line communication between PLC modems and
the REG. PLC modems transfer the measured sensing data to the REG
periodically. The REG aggregates and stores the transferred sensing data.

The measured data helps identify an abnormal state of each PV module. The
REG also aggregates the monitored data from the grid-connected inverter:
voltage, current, power, and energy in both DC and AC side. The data from the
inverter shows the total performance of the PV system. Furthermore, the REG
has both wired and wireless communication capabilities. Users can access the
REG through a smart device locally and remotely. They can browse and figure
out the real-time status of the PV modules as well as the whole PV system. In
addition, the REG can communicate with the PV system management server
through Internet. Numerous PV-system-installed homes can be managed by the
PV system management server.

The proposed architecture enables users to localize failures in the PV system

and fix the failures immediately. In a typical PV system, localized failures in
PV modules can not be identified because only the data from an inverter is
monitored. Now, users can identify which module is in an abnormal state with
the help of PLC modems and the REG. The proposed architecture is expected to
easily manage the PV system and properly maintain its performance in good
working condition
 CHAPTER-4

SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

CHAPTER-4

4.1 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

4.1.1. DIRECT METHOD

4.1.1.1 Photo Voltaic Method
4.1.1.2 Thermal Method

4.2 DIRECT METHOD OF UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY:

The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by directly converting

it into electricity by means of solar photo-voltaic cells. Sunshine is incident on
Solar cells, in this system of energy Conversion that is direct conversion of solar
radiation into electricity. In the stage of conversion into thermodynamic from is
absent. The photo-voltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive
force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Energy conversion
devices, which are used to convert sunlight to electricity by use of the photo-
voltaic effect, are called solar cells.

In recent years photo-voltaic power generation has been receiving

considerable attention as one of the more promising energy alternatives. The
reason for this rising interest lie in PV’s direct conversion of sunlight to
electricity, the non polluting nature of the PV widespread are of PV generation
has been hampered by economic factors. Here to force, the low cost of
conventional energy sunlight has obviated the development of a broad-based PV
technology. At the present time, PV generation can be justified only for special
situations mostly for remote sites where utility lines on other conventional
means of furnishing energy may be prohibitively expensive and is one of the
most attractive non-conventional energy sources of proven reliability from the
micro to the Mega-watt level.

Like other energy system this system also has some disadvantages

(1) Distributed nature of solar energy,

(2) Absence of energy storage,
(3) Relatively high capital cost.

4.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC PRINCIPLES:

The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of

materials that have shown that the best performance in sunlight is the
semiconductors as stated above. When photons from the sun are absorbed in a
semiconductor, that create free electrons with higher energies than the created
there must be an electric field to induce these higher energy electrons to flow
out of the semi-conductor to do useful work. A junction of materials, which
have different electrical properties, provides the electric field in most solar cells.
 To obtain a useful power output from photon interaction in a
semiconductor, three processes are required.

1) The photon has to be absorbed in the active part of the material and
result in electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.
2) The electron hole charge carriers created by the absorption must be
physically separated and moved to the edge of the cell.
 3) The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to
useful load before they loose extra potential.

For completing the above processes a solar cell consists of:-

(a) Semi-conductor in which electron hole pairs are created by

absorption of incident solar radiation.
(b) Region containing a drift field for charge separation
(c) Charge collecting fronts and back electrodes.

The photo-voltaic effect can be described easily for p-n junction in a

semi-conductor. In an intrinsic semi-conductor such as silicon, each one of the
four valence electrons of the material atom is tied in a chemical bond, and there
are no free electrons at absolute zero. If a piece of such a material is doped on
one side by a five valance electron material, such as arsenic or phosphorus,
there will be an excess of electrons in that side, becoming an n-type semi-
conductor.

The excess electrons will be practically free to move in the semi-

conductor lattice. When a three valence electron material, such as boron dopes
the other side of the same piece, there will be deficiency of electrons leading to
a p-type semi-conductor. This deficiency is expressed in terms of excess of
holes free to move in the lattice. Such a piece of semi-conductor with one side
of the p-type and the other, of the n-type is called p-n junction. In this junction
after the protons are absorbed, the free electrons of the n-side will tends to flow
to the p-side, and the holes of the p-side will tend to flow to the n-region to
compensate for their respective deficiencies. This diffusion will create an
electric field from the n-region to the p-region. This field will increase until it
reaches equilibrium for V, the sum of the diffusion potentials for holes and
electrons.
4.4 . COMMISSIONING
The panel is mounted over the top the pole with a help of a clamp at an
angular distance 11º south of equator, so it is able to collect the solar energy at
the maximum level then the frame with light is mounted at a height of 125º
from the pole. Then a metal box with the LDR control and a charge controller
and with the 24V battery is mounted over the pole, at a height of 2m from the
ground level.

The connections are made as per, first the panel is connected to charge
controller and then to the battery and to an inverter, then the connection is given
to the light with LDR control.

4.4.1 POLE DATA:

Galvanized steel pole
Pole diameter = 10cm
Height = 5.5m
Thickness of the pole = 3mm
4.4.2 CONCRETE:
Cement
Sand
Aggregate (40mm size)
Cement, sand and aggregate ratio = 2:4:8
Water cement ratio= 0.5
Then a trench of 1 = b = h = 1.5m is made and the cement mixture made
is filled upto 1.5m in the trench and the pole is mounted inside the trench upto
1.5m from the ground level. The pole is mounted inside the trench and the
trench is filled with the cement mixture and made to set. And brickwork is done
above the ground level of 1.5m with 1:3 ratio and plastered with 1:4 ratio of
cement and sand.
4.5 SOLAR PANEL COMMISSIONING:

During the day time the battery gets charged and when the intensity of
light decreases, the LDR makes the light to gets ON and the light glows by
using the stored charge in the battery.

If electrical contacts are made with the two semiconductor materials and
the contacts the connected through an external electrical conductor, the free
electrons will flow from the n-type material through the conductor to the p-type
material (figure 2). Here the free electrons will enter the holes and holes and
become bound electrons thus both free electrons and hole will be removed. The
flow of electrons through the external conductor constitutes an electric current,
which will continue as long as move free electrons and holes are being formed
by the solar radiation. This is the basis of photo-voltaic conversion that is the
conversion of solar energy into electrical energy. The combination of n-type
and p-type semiconductors thus constitutes a photo-voltaic cell or solar cell. All
such cells some rate direct current that can be converted into alternating current
it desired.

The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in almost any junction of

material that have different electrical characteristics, but the best performance to
date has been from cells using semiconductor materials especially all of the
solar cells used for both space and terrestrial applications have been made of the
semiconductor silicon. Future cells may use such materials as the
Semiconductors like Gallium arsenate, copper sulphate cadsulphide etc.
 CHAPTER-5

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
CHAPTER-5

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM

5.1 WHY WE ARE USING EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

 Cost of production is very low.

 It is an advanced and latest technology.
 Production time is very less.
 It improves the efficiency of the host machine tremendously.

5.2 WHAT IS EMBEDDED SYSTEM?
Embedded System is a small computer system that is generally hidden
inside equipment [machine, electrical appliances, or electronic gadget] to
increase the intelligence of the equipment for better or more efficient
functionality. This kind of system always involves both the software and the
hardware co-development.

Embedded Systems are often easier understood in terms of Smart devices,

intelligent or automated equipments. Embedded Systems do not need a
complete operating system, but only the basic functionalities of an operating
system. Hence Embedded System can be defined as follows:

 It is embedding or inserting human intelligence by means of a software into

a Microcontroller chip and designing a hardware for the purpose.
 It is a combination of software and hardware with automatic working
without user interface.
 It performs specific functions in host systems like satellites, remote
controllers, televisions, Robots, ATMs, pagers, laser printers, missile launch
systems, etc.
5.3 EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware, software

and additional mechanical parts, designed to perform a specific function .An
embedded system is designed to do a specific task within a given time frame,
repeatedly, without human interaction. Embedded system do not need a
complete operating system, but only the basic functionalities of an operating
system in a real-time environment, that is, a real time operating system.
(RTOS). Frequently, embedded system does not have a user interface.

Application Area of embedded system include aerospace/defense

systems, telecommunication equipments and switches, mobile computing,
broadcast, automotives, industrial process control and monitoring, medical
electronics, consumer electronics, etc. Main hardware components of an
embedded system are microprocessor or micro controller, and supporting ICs.
The combination of micro-controller and ICs are application specific.
Commonly used microprocessors include the following. Motorola 680XX
series, IBM PowerPC series processors, MIPS processors, Intel 386 and
compatible CPUs, ARM processors, Sun SPARC series, etc. Embedded systems
need memory for storing programs and data, and usually programs are stored in
ROM or EPROM. Often these systems have a serial port network interface, I/O
interface for interacting with sensors and actuators in the case of process
controlling systems.
 CHAPTER-6

MICROPROCESSOR Vs MICROCONTROLLER
CHAPTER-6

6.1 MICROPROCESSOR Vs MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontroller is a general-purpose device which has an in-built CPU,

Memory and peripherals, which make it, function as a mini computer.

Both Microcontroller and microprocessor can be employed for designing

products or applications in Embedded System. But Microcontroller has its own
advantages over microprocessor. They are as follows:

 For transfer of data from external memory to the CPU, microprocessor needs
many operational codes. But in Microcontroller, one or two codes are
enough.
 Microcontrollers have many bit-handling instructions, but microprocessors
have only one or two.
 Microcontrollers have built-in peripherals whereas microprocessors lack in-
built peripherals.
 Microcontroller work faster than microprocessor because of rapid movement
of bits within the chip.
 Microcontrollers have simple circuit structure compared to microprocessor.
 Microcontrollers have only 35 instructions whereas microprocessors have
75.
 Microcontrollers are costly when compared with microprocessor.
 Microcontroller can function as a mini computer without any additional
parts.
 Microcontroller instructions are simple, single word instructions.
6.2 MICRO CONTROLLER
The ATMEGA-328 is a modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC
single chip microcontroller which was developed by Atmel. It uses on-chip
flash memory for program storage, as opposed to one-time
programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by other
microcontrollers at the time.
Pin descriptions

 VCC
Digital supply voltage

 GND
Ground

 Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B
pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if
the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse
settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator
amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as
output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal
Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7.6 is
used as TOSC2.1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if
the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.

 Port C (PC5:0)
Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The PC5..0 output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C
pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if
the clock is not running.
 PC6/RESET
If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O
pin. Note that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from
those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is
unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this
pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a
Reset, even if the clock is not running.

 Port D (PD7:0)
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port D

pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

 AVCC
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0,
and ADC7:6. It should be externally connected to VCC, even if
the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to
VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6.4 use digital supply
voltage, VCC.

 AREF
AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

 ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF package only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7.6 serve as analog
inputs to the A/D converter. These pins are powered from the
analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
 CHAPTER-7

COMPONENT REQUIRED
CHAPTER-7
7. COMPONENT REQUIRED
7.1 SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged,

interconnected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The
solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to
generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications.

Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power,
many installations contain several panels. A photovoltaic system typically
includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and
interconnection wiring.

7.1.1 Theory and construction

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate
electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying)
member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. The majority
of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on
cadmium telluride or silicon. The conducting wires that take the current off the
panels may contain silver, copper or other conductive (but generally not
magnetic) transition metals.

The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the
system. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture.
Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-
film cells.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output

voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability.

Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of

partial or total shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline
silicon cells may have adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not
necessary. Reverse currents waste power and can also lead to overheating of
shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and
installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels.

Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is

focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use
of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-
effective way.

Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity

from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar
range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much
of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far
higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore another
design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct
the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to
be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. The use of infrared photovoltaic cells
has also been proposed to increase efficiencies, and perhaps produce power at
night.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar panel

efficiency) is around 21% in commercial products, typically lower than the
efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The Energy Density of a solar panel is the
efficiency described in terms of peak power output per unit of surface area,
commonly expressed in units of Watts per square foot (W/ft2). The most
efficient mass-produced solar panels have energy density values of greater than
13 W/ft2 (140 W/m2).

7.2 BATTERIES

The batteries are used in order to store the electricity that is produced
from wind and solar energy. The capacity of battery may vary depending on the
size of wind turbine or solar power plant. Battery should be having low
maintenance and charge leakage should also be low.
 Considering all these parameters free discharge type is the best option
available. Multiple batteries can be connected in series and parallel to increase
or decrease the capacity of the battery, depending upon the output from the
hybrid systems.

7.3 INVERTER

As we know that most of the electrical appliances require AC voltage, so

first the DC output of the batteries will be converted into AC voltage with the
help of an inverter and then it will be transferred to the loads. The inverter must
be having over voltage protection, reverse polarity and short circuit protection.

7.4 POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTIONS

The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply circuits

built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. Starting with an ac
voltage, a steady dc voltage is obtained by rectifying the ac voltage, then
filtering to a dc level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc
voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit,
which takes a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower dc voltage, which
remains the same even if the input dc voltage varies, or the output load
connected to the dc voltage changes.

A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and the
voltage at various points in the unit is shown in fig 19.1. The ac voltage,
typically 120 V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage
down to the level for the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a
full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to
produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac
voltage variation. A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc
voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc
value even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to the
output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one
of a number of popular voltage regulator IC units.

Transformer Rectifier Filter IC regulator Load

7.4.1 IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units

contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device,
and overload protection all in a single IC. Although the internal construction of
the IC is somewhat different from that described for discrete voltage regulator
circuits, the external operation is much the same. IC units provide regulation of
either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set
voltage.A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the ac
 supply line to step the ac voltage to a desired amplitude, then rectifying that
ac voltage, filtering with a capacitor and RC filter, if desired, and finally
regulating the dc voltage using an IC regulator. The regulators can be selected
for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of
amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milliwatts to tens of watts.
7.4.2 THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Fig shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC to

a load. The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi,
applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage, Vo, from a second
terminal, with the third terminal connected to ground. For a selected regulator,
IC device specifications list a voltage range over which the input voltage can
vary to maintain a regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The
specifications also list the amount of output voltage change resulting from a
change in load current (load regulation) or in input voltage (line

regulation).

FIG 7.1:Fixed Positive Voltage Regulators:

IN OUT

UNREGULATE 7805
D DC
VOLTAGE

GND

The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 V.

Figure 19.26 shows how one such IC, a 7812, is connected to provide voltage
regulation with output from this unit of +12V dc. An unregulated input voltage
Vi is filtered by capacitor C1 and connected to the IC’s IN terminal. The IC’s
OUT terminal provides a regulated + 12V which is filtered by capacitor C2
(mostly for any high-frequency noise). The third IC terminal is connected to
ground (GND). While the input voltage may vary over some permissible
voltage range, and the output load may vary over some acceptable range, the
output voltage remains constant within specified voltage variation limits. These
limitations are spelled out in the manufacturer’s specification sheets. A table of
positive voltage regulated ICs is provided in table

Positive Voltage Regulators in 7800 series

IC Output Voltage Minimum Vi (V)
Part (V)

7805 +5 7.3

7806 +6 8.3

+8 10.5
7808

+10 12.5
7810

+12 14.6
7812

+15 17.7
7815

+18 21.0
7818
7.5 LCD DISPLAY

The most commonly used Character based LCDs are based on Hitachi's
HD44780 controller or other which are compatible with HD44580. In this
project document, we will discuss about character based LCDs, their interfacing
with various microcontrollers, various interfaces (8-bit/4-bit), programming,
special stuff and tricks you can do with these simple looking LCDs which can
give a new look to your application.

TABLE 1
TABLE 2 :CHARACTER LCD PINS WITH 2 CONTROLLER

Usually these days single controller LCD modules are used more in the market.
So in the project document we will discuss more about the single controller
LCD, the operation and everything else is same for the double controller too.
7.5.2 DDRAM - Display Data RAM
Display data RAM (DDRAM) stores display data represented in 8-bit character
codes. Its extended capacity is 80 X 8 bits, or 80 characters. The area in display
data RAM (DDRAM) that is not used for display can be used as general data
RAM. So whatever you send on the DDRAM is actually displayed on the LCD.
For LCDs like 1x16, only 16 characters are visible, so whatever you write after
16 chars is written in DDRAM but is not visible to the user.
Figures below will show the DDRAM addresses of 1 Line, 2 Line and 4 Line
LCDs.

CGROM - Character Generator ROM

Now you might be thinking that when you send an ascii value to DDRAM, how
the character is displayed on LCD? so the answer is CGROM. The character
generator ROM generates 5 x 8 dot or 5 x 10 dot character patterns from 8-bit
character codes (see Figure 5 and Figure 6 for more details). It can generate 208
5 x 8 dot character patterns and 32 5 x 10 dot character patterns. User defined
character patterns are also available by mask-programmed ROM.
 CHAPTER-8

PROGRAMMING

CHAPTER-8
8.1 PROGRAMMING
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the (Arduino Software
(IDE)).The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preprogrammed with a
bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an
external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500
protocol.
8.2 POWER
The Arduino Uno board can be powered via the USB connection or with
an external power supply. The power source is selected automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter

(wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm
center-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be
inserted in the GND and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector.

Arduino Power Supply

8.3 MEMORY

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB occupied by the bootloader). It also

has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM
8.4 ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT "IDE"

The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-

platform application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for the
Processing programming language and the Wiring projects. It is designed to
introduce programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with software
development. It includes a code editor with features such as syntax highlighting,
brace matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable of compiling and
uploading programs to the board with a single click. There is typically no need
to edit make files or run programs on a command-line interface
Developer(s) Arduino Software
Stable release 1.0.3 / December 10, 2012; 3months ago
Written in Java, C and C++
Operating system Cross-platform
Type Integrated development environment
Website arduino.cc

Arduino programs are written in C or C++ The Arduino IDE comes with
a software library called "Wiring" from the original Wiring project, which
makes many common input/output.

Operations much easier. Users only need define two functions.

To make a run able cyclic executive program:

 Setup (): a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize
settings.

 Loop (): a function called repeatedly until the board powers off
8.5 FLOW CHART

Monitoring and Control Systems

Data Analytics

Integration with Smart Grids

Energy Storage Management

Load Shifting and Demand Management

Remote Monitoring and Control

Predictive Maintenance

User Engagement and Education

CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION

Monitoring of individual PV modules in a PV system and providing the

monitored information through smart devices are necessary to effectively
manage the PV system and efficiently maintain its performance in residential
areas. To achieve these needs, this paper adopts the PLC technology compliant
with Home Plug and IEEE 1901 supporting a robust OFDM modulation. The
PLC modems and the REG are developed and then deployed at the PV modules
and the inverter, respectively. The REG aggregates the status data of each PV
module from the PLC modems as well as that of the inverter. The smart device
application enables users to access the REG and browse the status data of each
PV module as well as total PV system in detail, anywhere and anytime. With
this scheme, users can precisely observe each PV module’s performance and
any abnormal status in the PV system. The proposed architecture is expected to
contribute to enhancing the PV system management and maintaining the
performance of the PV system. As a result, it will enhance home energy
management in residential areas. Furthermore, the PLC modems and the REG,
compliant with the Home Plug, can be easily connected to home network based
on the Home Plug.
CHAPTER-10
REFERENCES
CHAPTER-10
REFERENCES

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