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• During most of our waking hours, and
even when we are a sleep and dreaming,
we are thinking, it is hard not to think. as
you read these words you are thinking,
and if stop thinking, and even if you stop
thinking about what you are reading and
your thoughts wander off to something
else- perhaps to what you are going to do
tomorrow- you will still be thinking.

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• Definition:
Thinking is an incredibly complex
process and most difficult concept in psychology to
define or explain.
Valentine : “In strict psychological discussion it is well
to keep the thinking for an activity which consist
essentially of a connected flow of ideas which are
directed towards some end or purpose”
Ross: “Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive
aspect or mental activity with regard to
psychological objects.

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• Garrett: “ Thinking is behaviour which is often
implicit and hidden and in which symbols
(images, ideas, concepts) are ordinarily
employed.
• Mohsin: “Thinking is an implicit problem-solving
behavior”
• Gilmer: “Thinking is problem-solving process in
which we use ideas and symbols in place of
overt activity”

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• Definitions we divided in 2 categories;
• First category we have the definitions which maintain
that thinking is process of internal representation of
external events (belonging to past, present or future).
• Second category we may include the definitions which
describe thinking in terms of problems-solving
behavior.
• “Thinking refers to pattern of behaviour in which we
make use of internal representations (symbols, signs
etc.) of the things and events for the solution of some
specific purposeful problem.”
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1) Thinking is essentially a cognitive activity.
2) It is always directed to achieve some end or
purpose. In genuine thinking we cannot let our
thought wonder on without any definite end in mind
as happens in the case of day-dreaming and
imagination.
3)Thinking is a described as a problem-solving
behaviour. From the beginning of the end , there is
some problem around which the whole process of
thinking revolves. But every problem-solving
behaviour is not thinking. It is only related to the
inner cognitive behaviour.
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4) In thinking there is mental exploration instead
of motor exploration. One has to suspend
immediately one’s overt or motor activities while
engaging in thinking through some or other
types of mental exploration.
5)Thinking is a symbolic activity. In thinking there
is a mental solution of the problem which is
carried out through some signs, symbols, and
mental images.
6)Thinking can shift very rapidly, covering an
expanse of time and space almost
instantaneously. Homeobook.com 9
• 1) Images:
Images, as mind pictures, consist of
personal experiences of objects, persons or scenes
once actual seen, heard or felt. These mind pictures
symbolize the actual objects, experiences and
activities. In thinking we usually manipulate the
images instead of actual objects, experiences or
activities.
2) Concepts:
A concept is “general idea” that stands for a
general class and represents the common property of
all the objects, or events of this general class. The
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concept as tool economise our efforts in thinking.
• For example when we listen to the word ‘elephant’ we
are at once reminded not only about the nature and
qualities of the elephants as a class but also our
particular experiences and understanding about them
emerge from our consciousness that stimulate our
present thinking.
• 3) Symbols and signs:
Symbols and signs represent stand
as and stand as substitute for actual objects,
experiences and activities. In this sense they cannot
be confined to words and mathematical numerical and
terms. Traffic lights, railway signals, school bells,
badges, songs, flags, and slogans all stand for the
symbolic expression. These Symbols and signs
stimulate and economies thinking.
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• 4) Language:
Language is the most efficient and
developed vehicle used for carrying out the
process of thinking. When one listens or reads
or writes words, phrases or sentences or
observes gesture in any written documents and
literature also help in stimulating and promoting
our thinking process.
5) Muscle activities:
Thinking in one way or the
other shows evidence of the involvement of a
slight incipient movement of groups of our
muscles. Homeobook.com 12
• 6) Brain functions:
Thinking is primary function of
our brain, our mind or brain is said to be the
chief instrument or reservoir for carrying out the
process of thinking. Whatever is experienced
through our sense organs carries no meaning
and thus cannot serve a stimulating agent, an
instrument or object for our thinking unless the
same is received by our brain cells and properly
interpreted for driving some meaning. The
mental pictures or images can be stored,
formed, reconstructed or put to some use only
through the functioning of brain.
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 Types of Thinking

• 1) Perceptual or concrete thinking

• 2) Conceptual or Abstract Thinking
• 3) Reflective Thinking
• 4) Creative Thinking
• 5) Non-directed or Assciate Thinking

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 1) Perceptual or concrete thinking
• It Is the simplest form of thinking.
The basis of this type of thinking is perception
i.e: interpretation of sensation according to
one’s experience. It is also named as concrete
objects and events.

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2) Conceptual or Abstract Thinking
• Like perceptional thinking it does not
require the perception of actual objects or
events. It is an abstract thinking where one
makes use of concepts: the generalized
idea and language. It is regarded is a
superior type of thinking to perceptual
thinking as it economizes efforts in
understanding and problem-solving.

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3) Reflective Thinking
• It is higher form of thinking. It can be
distinguished from simple thinking in the
following ways;
1. It aims at solving complex rather than
simple problem.
2. It requires re-organization of all the
relevant experiences and finding new of
reacting to a situation or of removing an
obstacle instead of simple association of
experiences or ideas.
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3. mental activity in reflective thinking does not
undergo any mechanical trial and error type of
efforts. There is an insightful cognitive approach
in reflective thinking.
4. It takes logic into account in which all the
relevant facts are arranged in a logical order, in
order to get to the solution of the problem in
hand.

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 4) Creative Thinking
• This type of thinking is chiefly
aimed at creating something new.
It is in search of new relationship
and association to describe and
interpret the nature of things, events and
situations. It is not bound by any pre-
established rules. The individual himself,
usually, formulates the problem and he is free
to collect evidence and to invent tools for its
solution. The thinking of the scientists or
inventors is an example of creative thinking. 19
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 5) Non-directed or Assciate
Thinking
• In strict psychological sense, what we have discussed
above in terms of the type or categories of thinking
constitutes real or genuine thinking. It is essentially a
directed thinking which pertains of reasoning and
problem-solving procedures aimed at meeting specific
goals.
• However there are times when we find ourselves
engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-
directed and without goals. It is reflected through day-
dreaming, dreaming and free association, fantasy,
delusions and other flowing uncontrolled activities.
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 Reasoning
• MEANING AND DEFINITION;
Reasoning plays a significant
role in adjusting to one’s environment. It not
only controls one’s cognitive activities, but also
the total behavior and personality is affected by
the proper or improper development of one’s
reasoning ability. It is essentially a cognitive
ability and resembles thinking in so many
aspects such as.
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1. like genuine thinking, it involves a definite
purpose or goal.
2. It is also an implicit act and involves problem-
solving behavior.
3. Like thinking here one makes use of one’s
previous knowledge and experiences.
4. Like thinking there is a mental exploration
instead of motor exploration in reasoning as
we try to explore mentally the reason or cause
of an event or happening.
5. Like thinking, reasoning is a highly symbolic
function. The ability to interpret various
symbols, development of concepts and
linguistic ability helps much in reasoning. 22
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 By eminent scholars definition
• Garrett: “Reasoning is step-wise thinking with a
purpose or goal in mind”
• Gates: “ Reasoning is the term applied to
highly purposeful controlled selective thinking”
• Woodworth: “in reasoning items (fact or
principles) furnished by recall, present
observation or both; are combined and
examined to see what conclusion can be drawn
from the combination.
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• Skinner: “Reasoning is the word used to
describe the mental recognition of cause and
effect relationships. It may be the prediction of
an event from an observed cause or the
inference of a cause from an observed events”.
• Munn: “ Reasoning is combining past
experiences in order to solve a problem which
cannot be solved by mere reproduction of
earlier solutions”.

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 TYPES OF REASONING
• Reasoning is classified by 2 broad types:
• 1) Inductive reasoning
• 2) Deductive reasoning

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 1) Inductive reasoning
• In this type of reasoning we usually follow the
process of induction. Induction is a way of
proving a statement or generalized a rule of
principle by proving or showing that if a
statement or a rule is true in one particular
case, it will be true in cases which appear in
some serial order and thus it may be applied
generally to all such type of cases.

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 2) Deductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning is just opposite to
inductive reasoning. Here one starts completely
agreeing with some already discovered or pre-
established generalized fact or principle and
tries to apply it to particular cases.

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 PROBLEM-SOLVING
• From birthonwards, everybody in this world is
faced with some problem or the other. There
are needs and motives that are to be satisfied.
• The productive work as a whole discussed
above is known as problem-solving. It has been
found very useful for the progress of an
individual as well as society.

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 DEFINITIONS:
Woodworth and marquis: “Problem-solving
behaviour occurs in novel or difficult situations
in which a solution is not obtainable by the
habitual methods of applying concepts and
principles derived from past experiences in very
familiar situations”.
Skinner: “problem-solving is a process of
overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere
with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure
of making adjustment in spite of interferences”.
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Scientific method of problem-solving
• 1) Problem awareness: the first step in the
problem solving behaviour of an individual
concerns his awareness of the difficulty or
problem that needs a solution. He must be
confronted with some obstacle or
interference in the path of the realization
of his needs or motives and consequently
he must be conscious of the felt difficulty
or problem.

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• 2) Problem-understanding: the difficulty or the
problem felt by the individual should be properly
identified by a careful analysis. He should be
clear about what exactly is his problem. The
problem then should be pin pointed in terms of
the specific goals objectives. Thus all the
difficulties and obstacles in the path of the
solution must be properly named and identified
and what is to be got through the problem-
solving efforts should then be properly
analyzed.

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• 3) Collection of the relevant information:
In this step individual is require to
collect all the relevant information about the
problem through all possible sources. He may
consult experienced persons, read the available
literature, revive his old experiences, think of
possible solutions, and put in all relevant efforts
for widening the scope of his knowledge
concerning the problem in hand.

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• 4) Formulation of hypotheses or hunch for possible
solution:
In the light of the collected relevant
information and nature of his problem, one may then
engage in some serious cognitive activities to think of
the various possibilities for the solution of one’s
problem.
• 5) Selection of a proper solution:
In this important step, all the possible
solutions thought of in the previous step, are closely
analyzed and evaluated. Gates and others have
suggested the following activities in the evaluation of
the assumed hypotheses or solution:
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• 1. one should determine the conclusion that
completely satisfies the demands of the
problem.
• 2. one should find out whether the solution is
consistent with other facts and principles which
have been well established.
• 3. one should make a deliberate search for
negative instances which might cast doubt on
the conclusion.

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• 6. Verification of the concluded solution or
hypothesis:
The solution arrived at or
conclusion drawn must be further verified by
utilising it in the solution of the various like wise
problems. in case the derived solution helps in
solving these likewise problems, then and then
only, one is free agree with findings regarding
the solution of his problem. The verified
solutions, may then become a useful product of
his problem-solving behaviour that can be
utilized in solving other future problems.
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