Magnetic Circuit Theory and Transformers IV

Magnetic Circuit Theory and
Transformers IV
EC2220 – El3ctrical Machines and Power Systems
Anuradha Kumarasinghe
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering 1

Transformers – Part II
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Engineering 63
Transformers
• As discussed before, transformers are of 2 main types:

• Step-Up:
• The secondary winding has more turns than that of the primary winding.
• The voltage at the secondary shall be higher than the primary voltage.
• Step up transformers are used to increase transmission voltage to reduce transmission
losses.
• They can be found in generating stations.
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Transformers
• As discussed before, transformers are of 2 main types:

• Step-Down:
• The number of turns in the secondary side of the transformer is lesser than that of the
number of windings in the primary side.
• The voltage at the secondary is lower than that of the primary voltage.
• These transformers are used to reduce the voltage at the distribution side of the power
system
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Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real
Transformers
• All flux do not link with each other. At either coil, some flux is lost due to leakage.
• These are called Primary Leakage, 𝜙𝐿1 , and Secondary Leakage, 𝜙𝐿2 .
• The flux that does link is called Mutual Flux, 𝜙𝑀 .
• Therefore, at either winding, we can say the total average flux is equal to the mutual
flux plus the leakage.
𝜙1 = 𝜙𝑀 + 𝜙𝐿1
𝜙2 = 𝜙𝑀 + 𝜙𝐿2
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Transformers
• Along with the leakage losses, a practical transformer also has no-load losses.
• This draws a no-load current, 𝐼0 , from the primary side even with no load or current
on the secondary side.
• This current is made of 2 parts,
• Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 , used to magnetize the core.
• Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 , due to hysteresis and eddy currents.
• The Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 , is in phase and proportional to the flux. magnetization current
eka flux ekata
• Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 , is in phase with the voltage. samanupathika saha
ema dishavatama
pavathi
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Transformers
• The Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 , is in phase and proportional to the flux.
• The Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 , is in phase with the voltage.
• Therefore, we can find the no-load current as:
• Here, 𝜃 is the phase angle difference.
• Also, Power factor, 𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃.
electrical circuit ekaka vagema mevageth P.F.

ekak laba gatha hakiya E(voltage ) vs flux
graph ekata anuva core loss crruent eka saha
magnetization crrunt eka adimen apata no-load
current eka kaba gatha hakiya E saha no-load
current eka athara konaya P.F eka lesa lab
gath hakiya
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The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
• The flux leakage at either end gives raise to leakage reactance, 𝑋1 and 𝑋2 .
• This reactance, as well as the resistances in the coils, 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 , given raise to an
impedance at either winding.
• This impedance causes a voltage drop in the electrical circuit in each side.
• Let's take a look at the Primary side. resistances
leakage reactance in the coils
• 𝑉1 is the supply voltage.
• 𝐸1 is the voltage across the primary winding.
• There is a loss due to the impedance detailed.
𝐸1 = 𝑉1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑗𝐼1 𝑋1
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• The primary side current, 𝐼1 , has 2 parts.

• The current supplied to the secondary side, 𝐼2′ .
• The current used up due to losses, 𝐼0 . This is also called the no-load current.
• The permeability of the core is not infinite.
• This means that some current in used to magnetize the core, incurring more losses,
𝑋0 . This used current is called Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 .
• Also, as discussed earlier, hysteresis and eddy currents also incur losses, 𝑅0 . The
current to make up for this is the Core-Loss Current, 𝐼𝑤 .
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• These losses can be calculated as:

𝐸1 𝐸1
𝑋0 = and 𝑅0 =
𝐼𝜇 𝐼𝑤
These losses are represented parallel to the windings.
Hysteresis and
eddy currents also
Magnetize the core, incur losses,
incurring more losses,
Magnetization Current,
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71
• Current 𝐼2′ passes through the primary winding with voltage 𝐸1 .

• This induces 𝐸2 voltage on the secondary side with current 𝐼2 .
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• Applying a similar technique to the secondary side, we can obtain an equivalent

circuit for the transformer.
• Since all losses are accounted for in the circuit, we can treat the actual transformer
part as ideal.
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• But let’s get rid of the transformation altogether.

• Moving to the secondary side, we need to know the transformation ratio, 𝐾.
𝐸1 N1 𝐼2
𝐾= = =
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼1
• Similar to the primary side,
the impedance on the winding,
𝑅2 and 𝑋2 , need to be account for.
• The circuit on the secondary
side is:
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The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer with
Referring Primary Side
𝐸1 N1 𝐼2
𝐾= = =
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼1
• Let's write primary side terms as 𝐸2′ and 𝐼2′ .
𝐸2′ N1 𝐼2
𝐾= = = ′
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼2
• Looking from the primary side, the voltage drop due to the secondary side can be
written as 𝐾𝐼2 𝑍2 .
• But we know, 𝐼2 = 𝐾𝐼2′ .
𝐾𝐼2 𝑍2 = 𝐾𝐾𝐼2′ 𝑍2 = 𝐾 2 𝐼2′ 𝑍2
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𝐾𝐼2 𝑍2 = 𝐾𝐾𝐼2′ 𝑍2 = 𝐾 2 𝐼2′ 𝑍2
• Let’s assume,
𝑍2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑍2
• Similarly,
𝑅2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑅2 , 𝑋2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑋2
• The secondary voltage and current is therefore written as:
𝐼2
𝑉2′ = 𝐾𝑉2 and 𝐼2′ =
𝐾
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• A similar transformation is now done for any load, 𝑍𝐿 on the secondary side.
𝑍𝐿′ = 𝐾 2 𝑍𝐿
• We can now draw the full equivalent circuit as referred from the primary side.
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Referring Secondary Side
• Using the same technique, it is also possible to draw the full equivalent circuit as
referred from the secondary side.
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Determining the Values of Components in the
Transformer Model
• To figure out the internal parameters of a transformer, it is possible to carry out 2
types of tests.
• Open-Circuit Test
• Short Circuit Test
• These tests would allow us to determine parameters including:
• Transformer Efficiency
• Voltage Regulation
• Circuit Constants
• Both tests are done without a load
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Open-Circuit Test
• Open circuit testing can be used to:

• Determine the no-load current, 𝐼0 , of a transformer.
• The associated losses.
• Usually, the low voltage coil of the transformer is tested.
• The equipment used:
• Wattmeter
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• An AC supply of the nominal
voltage and frequency
of the transformer.
• An important fact is that the secondary side is left open.
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Open-Circuit Test - Process
• The supply AC is started at a low value and increased until the rated voltage of the
transformer is reached.
• Take care not the touch the high voltage side of the transformer as this will carry a
large voltage. It must remain open circuit.
• Obtain the following reading:
• Wattmeter reading, 𝑊0
• Ammeter reading, 𝐼0
• Voltmeter reading, 𝑉1
• The obtained values are as a result
of the core losses and the copper
losses on the primary side.
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• However, at no-load, the copper losses are a negligible amount.

• Thus, 𝑊𝑜 can be taken as the core loss, 𝑃𝑖 .
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 cos 𝜃
• With no load power factor, 𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃 .
• The Core-loss current, 𝐼𝑤 , is:
𝑃𝑖
𝐼𝑤 =
𝑉1
𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜃
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• The Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 ,

𝐼𝜇 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜃
𝐼𝜇 = 𝐼02 − 𝐼𝑤
2
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• We now know the currents, 𝐼𝑤 and 𝐼𝜇 , and the voltage across, 𝑉1 .

• It is therefore possible to find the magnetization reactance, 𝑋0 , and the Core-Loss
resistance, 𝑅0 .
𝑉1
𝑋0 =
𝐼𝜇
𝑉1
𝑅0 =
𝐼𝑤
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Short-Circuit Test
• In the earlier test, the copper losses were neglected as they are very low at no load.
• The short circuit test allows us to find the copper losses at full load.
• This will also tell us the efficiency of the transformer.
• The equivalent resistance, leakage
reactance and impedance can also
be found.
• Obtain the following reading:
• Wattmeter reading, 𝑊𝑠𝑐
• Ammeter reading, 𝐼𝑠𝑐
• Voltmeter reading, 𝑉𝑠𝑐
• The meters are connected as shown.
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Short-Circuit Test - Process
• For the short circuit test, the high voltage is the supply side.
• The low voltage side is shorted with a thick strip of material.
• The high voltage side is connected to a variable supply, set to 5% to 10% of the rated
voltage of the transformer.
• The voltage is then increased until the ammeter reads the rated coil current of the
high voltage coil.
• Since the output is shorted, the voltage in the core, and therefore the flux generated
is low.
• Therefore, the core losses are low and negligible.
• The power input seen is due to the copper losses.
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• The copper losses, 𝑃𝑐 , in the transformer is therefore,

𝑃𝑐 = 𝑊𝑠𝑐
• Also, the equivalent resistance, referred from the high voltage side, 𝑅2 , is:
𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑐
• The equivalent impedance, referred from the high voltage side, 𝑍2 , is:
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
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• The equivalent leakage reactance, referred from the high voltage side, 𝑋2 , is:
2 2
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞
• The short circuit power factor, 𝑝𝑓, can also be found.

𝑊𝑠𝑐
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃 =
𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐
• Since we are taking all the measurements from the high voltage side, all the values,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 , 𝑋𝑒𝑞 and 𝑍𝑒𝑞 , are as referred to from this side.
• The equivalent circuit obtained from this test is as shown below.
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Transformer Efficiency
• Non-Ideal transformers have 2 types of losses as discussed.

• This means that the power output is less than the power sent in.
• This lost power is turned into heat and is dissipated through various means.
• Therefore, it is important to know the efficiency, 𝜂, of a transformer.
Output KW
𝜂=
Input KW
Output KW
𝜂=
Output KW + Losses
Output KW
𝜂=
Output KW + (Copper Losses + Core Losses)
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Output KW
𝜂=
• Copper losses depend on the square of the current and therefore change with
load. Core losses are constant regardless of load.
• Let’s take an example transformer of ratio 250: 500𝑉.
• A short circuit test is done with the high voltage side shorted. Results: 20𝑉, 12𝐴, 100𝑊
• An open circuit test is done on low voltage side. Results: 250𝑉, 1𝐴, 80𝑊
• Let’s find the efficiency of the transformers when the output is 10𝐴, 500𝑉, 𝑝𝑓 =
0.8 lagging.
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• From short circuit test we know,

𝑉𝑠𝑐 = 20
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 12
𝑊𝑠𝑐 = 100
• This 𝑊𝑠𝑐 is a measure of power loss due to copper loss.
• During operation, 𝐼2 = 10.
• Therefore, copper loss at operation,
2 2
𝐼2 10
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑊𝑠𝑐 = × 100 = 69.44𝑊
𝐼𝑠𝑐 12
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• From open circuit test we know, that the core losses, 𝑃𝑖 = 80𝑊.
• The power output during operation, 𝑃, can be found.
𝑃 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃 = 500 × 10 × 0.8 = 4000𝑊
• Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer can be found.

Output KW
𝜂=
4000
𝜂= = 0.964
4000 + (69.44 + 80)
• Therefore, the transformer has an efficiency of 96.4%.

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Voltage Regulation of Transformer
• The voltage ratio between the primary and secondary coil are known.
• Thus, when there is an open circuit on the secondary side, there is no current
flow on this side, 𝐼𝐿 = 0.
• Therefore, the voltage on the secondary side is equal to what is obtained by the
voltage ratio.
• However, when a load is applied on the secondary side, there is now a current
flow.
• Thus, due to the internal resistance and leakage reactance of the winding, there is
going to be a voltage drop at the terminals of the secondary side.
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Voltage Regulation of Transformer
• Voltage regulation is the amount of change seen in this voltage when there is no
load to when there is a full load.
• Voltage regulation is the percentage of change seen in this voltage when there is
no load to when there is a full load.
• The voltage regulation can be expressed with 2 references, the no-load voltage,
𝑉𝑛𝑙 , or the full load voltage, 𝑉𝑓𝑙 .
𝑉𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
Regulation = %
𝑉𝑛𝑙
𝑉𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
Regulation = %
𝑉𝑓𝑙
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Three-Phase Transformers
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• The worlds power grid relies completely on 3 phase transformers.

• The 3 phases can be sent through 3 individual single-phase transformers in a bank
or, more commonly, through a single 3 phase transformer.
• The single unit design is more common because:
• It is a smaller design with less weight and cost.
• It is easier transport.
• It is more efficient.
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• One downside is that all 3 phases will go down if a single phase develops a
problem in the transformer.
• Because there are now 3 phase lines, their connection to the transformer can be
in either Wye or Delta form, or a combination.
• This is called Three-Phase Transformer Configuration.
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• As expected, a 3-phase transformer will have 3 primary coils and 3 secondary

coils.
• However, the core would be shared. The core is either Shell type or Core type.
• The connection between the 3 windings would be according to the transformer

configuration.
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• As discussed, each side of a 3-phare transformer can be either a

Wye or Delta connection.
• A few more obscure configurations exists but will not be
discussed here.
• Thus, in total, 4 different configurations exist.
• Wye-Wye (Y-Y)
• Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)
• Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)
• Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)
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• In literature, the primary sides phases are labeled as 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶,

while the secondary side is labeled as 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐.
• The configuration can also be labeled as D, or Y for the primary
side and d or y on the secondary side.
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Wye Connection
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Delta Connection
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Wye-Wye Three-Phase Transformer (Y-Y)
• Wye-Wye connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers.

• Because of Wye connection, number of required turns per phase is reduced (as
phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line voltage only).
• Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and
the secondary side is equal to the transformation
ratio of the transformers.
• Line voltages on both sides are in phase with
each other.
• This connection can be used only if the
connected load is balanced.
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Delta-Delta Three-Phase Transformer (𝚫 - 𝚫)
• This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers.

• Number of required phase per turns is relatively greater than that for a Wye-
Wye connection.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the
transformation ratio of the transformers.
• This connection can be used even for unbalanced
loading.
• Another advantage of this type of connection is
that even if one transformer is disabled, system
can continue to operate in open delta connection
but with reduced available capacity.
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Wye-Delta Three-Phase Transformer (Y- 𝚫)
• The primary winding is Wye connected with a grounded neutral and the
secondary winding is Delta connected.
• This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end
of the transmission line.
• The ratio of secondary to primary line
voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
• There is 30° shift between the primary and
secondary line voltages.
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Delta-Wye Three-Phase Transformer (𝚫 -𝐘)
• The primary winding is connected in Delta and the secondary winding is

connected in Wye with neutral grounded.
• Thus, it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.
• This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of
transmission line.
• The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage
is √3 times the transformation ratio.
• There is 30° shift between the primary and
secondary line voltages.
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Three-Phase Transformer Configuration
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Three-Phase Transformer Configuration
• As detailed, depending on the configuration, the voltage ratio would be affected

by some factor in addition to the turns-ratio.
• These are as summarized below, 𝑛 being the turns-ratio:
Primary - Secondary Line Voltage change Line Current change
Configuration Primary => Secondary Primary => Secondary
𝐼𝐿
Wye-Wye 𝑉𝐿 ⇒ 𝑛𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 ⇒
𝑛
𝐼𝐿
Delta-Delta 𝑉𝐿 ⇒ 𝑛𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 ⇒
𝑛
𝑛𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿
Wye-Delta 𝑉𝐿 ⇒ 𝐼𝐿 ⇒ 3
3 𝑛
𝐼𝐿
Delta-Wye 𝑉𝐿 ⇒ 3𝑛𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 ⇒
3𝑛
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Apparent Power Rating of a Transformer
• The current flow in the transformer windings depend on the voltage rating as
well as the power rating.
• This current flow incurs losses due to heating and overheating could damage
coils and insulations. Overall life of the transformer could be reduced.
• The power rating of a transformer is given in Apparent Power (VA). This is
provided in the “Name plate”
• This value can change, for the same set up, based on attached cooling apparatus.
• Commonly, windings are immersed in oil that is cooled by forced air or using a
heat exchange.
• These cooling methods would generally increase the rating by ~33%.
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Apparent Power Rating of a Transformer
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Per Unit System
• The power is transferred through the transformer core as magnetic flux.

• Therefore, there are various losses and resistances to deal with.
• An Equivalent circuit for a transformer is as shown.
• To make calculations easier, it is possible to get an approximate circuit by
referring the impedances to one side.
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Per Unit System
• However, in power flow calculation and fault analysis, it is possible to represent a

transformer by a single leakage reactance.
• Transformer phase shift, resistance and magnetizing reactance are neglected.
• However, because the voltages on either side are different, it is necessary to
normalize the system.
• This is done with the use of the Per Unit system.
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Per Unit System
• The presence of transformers in the system complicates models and

calculations.
• The system had varying voltage and current levels.
• A way to simplify things is the Per Units system (pu).
• System parameters are expressed as a fraction of a predefined base value.
• This applies to Voltage, Current, Power and Impedance.
• Essentially,
Actual Value
Per Unit Value =
Predefined Base Value
• pu is used throughout in power systems.
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Per Unit System
• For example, let’s say parameter 𝑋 = 240 units and the base for this parameter
is 220 units. What is the per unit equivalent of 𝑋?
Actual Value
Per Unit Value =
Predefined Base Value
240
Per Unit Value = = 1.1𝑝𝑢
220
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Per Unit System
• Generally, the Voltage base (𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ) and Apparent Power base (𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ) are known
for a system.
• Also, to note,
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑄𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
• Therefore,
𝑆𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 + 𝑗𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑆𝑝𝑢 = = = +𝑗
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
• The current base (𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ) and impedance base (𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ) can be found,
2
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 1
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
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Per Unit System
• Therefore, base values or 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 are selected, Other base values, 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒,
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 can be determined.
• When there is a transformer present, the power through is constant.
• Therefore, 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 is constant throughout the system.
• However, 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 changes between the primary and secondary sides of the
transformer.
0.2+j0.5Ω 10+j50Ω
• Take the example system below. +
220/2.2k
+
_ _
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Per Unit System
• 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 is to be taken as 10𝑘𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 can be selected.

Quantity Primary Secondary
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 10𝑘𝑉𝐴 10𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 220𝑉 2.2𝑘𝑉
• 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 can then be calculated.

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 10𝑘 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 10𝑘
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 45.45A = = 4.55A
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 220 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2.2𝑘
2 2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2202 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2.2𝑘 2
𝑍 = of Electrical
= 4.84Ω = = 484Ω
Department of𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆Department
Electrical & Electronic Engineering
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 10𝑘 and Electronic Engineering
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 10𝑘 118
Per Unit System
• Thus, the pu values for each can be found. 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 45.45A 4.55A
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 4.84Ω 484Ω
• The primary and secondary side operating voltages,
𝑉𝑝,𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑠,𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑉𝑝,𝑝𝑢 = 𝑉𝑠,𝑝𝑢 =
220𝑉 2.2𝑘𝑉
• The primary and secondary side currents,
𝐼𝑝,𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐼𝑠,𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐼𝑝,𝑝𝑢 = 𝐼𝑠,𝑝𝑢 =
45.45A 4.55Ω
Department
Engineering 119
Per Unit System
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 45.45A 4.55A
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 4.84Ω 484Ω
• The impedances,
0.2+𝑗0.5 10+𝑗50
𝑍𝑝 = = 0.04 + 𝑗0.10 𝑍𝑠 = = 0.02 + 𝑗0.10
4.84 484
Department
Engineering 120
Per Unit System
• The impedance base for equipment is derived from its rated power and the
rated voltage.
• A system can consist of multiple machines with varying power and voltage
ratings.
• This makes in necessary to change between bases.
• We know that,
𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑋𝑝𝑢 = 𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑋𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
• Thus,
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑋𝑝𝑢𝑜𝑙𝑑 × 𝑋 𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑋 𝑛𝑒𝑤 × 𝑋 𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑢 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
Department
Engineering 121
Per Unit System
𝑜𝑙𝑑 × 𝑋 𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑋 𝑛𝑒𝑤 × 𝑋 𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑋𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑋𝑝𝑢 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑢 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑢 = 𝑆𝑝𝑢 × 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑉𝑝𝑢 = 𝑉𝑝𝑢 × 𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
• Also, since,
2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑜𝑙𝑑 2 𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑍 𝑜𝑙𝑑 ×
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑍𝑝𝑢 𝑝𝑢 𝑛𝑒𝑤 × 𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
Department
Engineering 122

Magnetic Circuit Theory and Transformers IV

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Magnetic Circuit Theory and Transformers IV

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Magnetic Circuit Theory and

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering 1

• As discussed before, transformers are of 2 main types:

• As discussed before, transformers are of 2 main types:

electrical circuit ekaka vagema mevageth P.F.

• The primary side current, 𝐼1 , has 2 parts.

• These losses can be calculated as:

These losses are represented parallel to the windings.

• Current 𝐼2′ passes through the primary winding with voltage 𝐸1 .

• Applying a similar technique to the secondary side, we can obtain an equivalent

• But let’s get rid of the transformation altogether.

• The secondary voltage and current is therefore written as:

• Open circuit testing can be used to:

• However, at no-load, the copper losses are a negligible amount.

• The Magnetization Current, 𝐼𝜇 ,

• We now know the currents, 𝐼𝑤 and 𝐼𝜇 , and the voltage across, 𝑉1 .

• The copper losses, 𝑃𝑐 , in the transformer is therefore,

• The short circuit power factor, 𝑝𝑓, can also be found.

• Non-Ideal transformers have 2 types of losses as discussed.

• From short circuit test we know,

• Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer can be found.

• Therefore, the transformer has an efficiency of 96.4%.

• The worlds power grid relies completely on 3 phase transformers.

• As expected, a 3-phase transformer will have 3 primary coils and 3 secondary

• The connection between the 3 windings would be according to the transformer

• As discussed, each side of a 3-phare transformer can be either a

• In literature, the primary sides phases are labeled as 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶,

• Wye-Wye connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers.

• This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers.

• The primary winding is connected in Delta and the secondary winding is

• As detailed, depending on the configuration, the voltage ratio would be affected

• The power is transferred through the transformer core as magnetic flux.

• However, in power flow calculation and fault analysis, it is possible to represent a

• The presence of transformers in the system complicates models and

• 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 is to be taken as 10𝑘𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 can be selected.

• 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 can then be calculated.

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