Second International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT 2019)
IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP19P17-ART; ISBN:978-1-7281-2119-2
Retrofitting of an Engine Powered Vehicle into an
Electric Vehicle
Karthik D M
Department of Automation and Robotics
KLE Technological University
Hubballi, India
karthikdm1997@gmail.com
Abstract— This paper provides an overview of the designing
principles of a conventional vehicle into the electric vehicle
conversion process. The paper describes the development of
electric vehicle powertrain and the comparison of the different
parts of electric vehicles like a battery, motor, motor controller
and transmission. Also, explains the design rules and calculations
of the powertrain subsystem. Electric vehicles are powered by
traction motor or electric motor (AC or DC) which are powered
by the battery through the electric converter or an inverter.
Conventional vehicle loses their efficiency after long-duration.
Retrofitting of gasoline powered vehicle into an electric vehicle is
cost effective and beneficial process. During the retrofitting,
powertrain and electrical parts are required to modify and
remaining subsystems like, suspension, steering, and braking will
be the same. In the powertrain part, the vehicle consists of a
BLDC motor, motor controller, battery and battery management
system [1] and gearbox with differential.
Keywords— Electric vehicles, lithium-ion battery, battery
management system, power train, differential, transmission.
I. INTRODUCTION
Environment pollution is one of the critical problems
in the world. According to the U.S., Environment Protection
Agency (EPA) cars are the “mobile sources” of pollution.
According to EPA, 75 percent of carbon monoxide pollution
in the U.S. done by gasoline powered vehicle. Electric vehicle
produces zero direct emission; they are specifically helping to
improve the air quality in the urban areas. Basically, the cost
of the electric vehicle is a bit high as compared to the
conventional vehicle, It’s because of their expensive battery
and motor. To overcome this electrification of an existing
gasoline-powered vehicle to an electrically powered vehicle is
the best process. It is a cost-effective and efficient process. In
retrofitting of a vehicle, overall vehicle dynamics will be the
same and powertrain system part need to modify.
Conversion of engine powered vehicle into an electric
vehicle is an efficient and complex process. Because space in
the front and rear side of a vehicle is varied for every vehicle.
Suspension and differential system also varies for every
vehicle. This article consists of battery and motor selection for
an electric vehicle, gear train with a differential selection,
vehicle integration, and wiring harness design.
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Arun C Giriyapur
Head of Department
Department of Automation and Robotics
KLE Technological University
Hubballi, India
aaron@kletech.ac.in
II. DEFINITION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
The common definition of an electric vehicle is “the
vehicle which is powered by one or more electric motor for
traction or propulsion” [2].
Retrofitting of vehicle or electrification of a vehicle
is “conversion of conventional engine powered vehicle into
electric powered vehicle or conversion of an existing
conventional vehicle by retrofitting with electric traction
motor and battery for propulsion”.
III. PARTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
Basic parts in electric vehicles are steering system,
suspension sub-system, braking system, a traction motor (AC
or DC), battery with battery management system, gearbox
with differential, motor controller unit and vehicle switching
and controlling part. Main powertrain parts in electric vehicles
(EV’s) are motor, motor controller, battery, gearbox with
differential and wiring harness part.
1. Motors
An electric motor is the basic part of the EV which
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Different
types of electric motors can be used for an electric vehicle for
propulsion. The commonly used electric motors for EV’s are
Brushless DC motor (BLDC), AC Induction motor, permanent
magnet DC motor (PMDC), permanent magnet AC motor
(PMAC) and permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM),
etc.
A. Brushless DC motor(BLDC)
Brushless DC motors are also known as synchronous
DC motors. They are powered by DC power supply through
an inverter or solid state switching power supply which
produces the alternating electric current to all phases of the
motor by a motor controller. BLDC motor have high power to
weight ratio as compared to other types of motor, this is the
significant advantage of the BLDC motor [3]. The controlling
logic of the BLDC motor is a bit easier as compared to an AC
induction motor. BLDC motor features high efficiency and
more torque. The main disadvantages of BLDC motors are,
they are relative costlier compared to other types of motor and
produces high temperature during run time.
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IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP19P17-ART; ISBN:978-1-7281-2119-2
The BLDC motor controllers work on the PWM system.
The wiring harness of the BLDC motor is simpler.
Fig1. The BLDC motor
B. AC Induction motor
An AC induction motor is also known as an
asynchronous motor [4]. In this type of electric motor current
in the rotor will be required to produce a torque which is
obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field
of the stator. Basically induction motor is widely used in
industrial application than the automotive application.
Induction motors being used with variable frequency drives
(VFD) for better operation and energy saving opportunity.
Although some of the electric vehicles consist of AC induction
motor, like Tesla, Mahindra REVA because of high torque to
speed ratio. AC induction motor will produce high starting
torque as compared to BLDC motor. The weight to power
ratio in the AC induction motor is very low. The efficiency of
the AC Induction motor is lesser than the BLDC motor. The
wiring harness in the AC induction motor is bulkier and
complex than the BLDC motor and PMDC motor. The
vehicles which use AC Induction motors should have high
traction and high speed.
Fig2. AC Induction motor
C. Permanent magnet DC motor(PMDC)
Permanent Magnet DC motor (PMDC) is a type of DC
motor. PMDC motor uses a permanent magnet to create the
magnetic field. PMDC motor is simple in construction. These
motors are usually used as starter motors in Automobiles,
wiper, and washer etc. In the PMDC motor magnetic field
strength is fixed, and it is challenging to control the field
control of the motor. The speed control of the PMDC motor is
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a bit difficult and complex. It's generally used in electric bikes
or electric cycles.
D. Permanent magnet AC motor(PMAC)
The mechanical configuration of the permanent
magnet AC motor (PMAC) is similar to the BLDC motor but
electronics configuration changes. In PMAC motor a
permanent magnet positioned in rotor side and the armature
coil placed on the stator. The maintenance in PMAC motor is
less as compared to BLDC and AC induction. Electromagnetic
noise of the PMAC motor is limited. PMAC motors are
compact in size and less in weight. These motors have a good
weight to power ratio than the BLDC motor [5]. The wiring
harness of the PMAC motor is simple like a BLDC motor.
Fig3. Permanent magnet AC motor
2. Battery
The battery is the primary energy source in the
electric vehicle used to stimulate necessary power to the
propulsion system. The electric vehicle usually consists of a
rechargeable battery (secondary battery). Different types of
battery chemistry are used in electric vehicle depending upon
vehicle energy requirement and load [6]. Usually, in modern-
days electric vehicles consist of lead-acid SMF batteries,
lithium-ion, and lithium-polymer batteries.
A. Sealed maintenance free or valve regulated lead acid
batteries
Sealed maintenance free (SMF) and valve regulated
lead acid (VRLA) batteries do not require the frequent
changing of the water. These batteries are completely sealed
that’s why these batteries are spill proof. These types of
batteries do not emit any fumes or gasses like lead-acid
batteries. Lead acid batteries are very much cost effective than
lithium-ion and lithium-polymer. Weight, less discharge
current, less storage capacity, and low energy density are the
major disadvantages of the lead-acid batteries. These batteries
significantly consume 30% to 50% weight in the electric
vehicle.
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IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP19P17-ART; ISBN:978-1-7281-2119-2

Battery

vehicle load
without battery
passesnger
weight

Fig4. Weight distribution of lead acid battery powered electric

Fig6. Lithium-ion 18650 cylindrical cell
vehicle.
C. Lithium-polymer battery
The depth of discharge (DoD) of lead acid battery is
The operation and the controlling logic of the
about 50% to 60%. These batteries are used in the vehicle
lithium-polymer battery are same as the lithium-ion battery.
which needs low power and also these batteries are used in
The major difference between lithium-ion and lithium-
low-speed vehicle. Usually, SMF or VRLA batteries are used
polymer is C rating or discharge rating. Lithium-ion batteries
in electric rickshaw and electric gulf karts.
discharge rating changes between 1C to 3C whereas lithium-
polymer discharge rating is up to 30C. Usually, lithium-
polymer batteries are used in an aerial vehicle such as quad-
copters and RC planes. These batteries are expected to deliver
a high amount of discharge current, that’s why these batteries
are used in high power consumption application. Lithium-
polymer batteries also require battery management system
during a time of charging and discharging process like a
lithium-ion battery. The discharge control lithium-polymer
battery is a complicated process, that’s the reason lithium-
polymer batteries have only charge control and cell balancing
control system their battery management system.
Fig5. Exide powersafe SMF battery

B. Lithium-ion battery
Lithium is the lightest metal in the world which has
the highest electrochemical potential and highest energy and
power density. Lithium-ion batteries are less in weight than
the SMF and VRLA batteries. The life cycle of the lithium-ion
batteries is around 1300 to 1500 cycles. The energy density of
the lithium-ion cells is 200+ W-h/kg. The depth of discharge
(DoD) of lithium-ion cells is 80% to 90%. Irrespective of the
advantages of lithium-ion batteries, these batteries also have
some disadvantages. Lithium-ion batteries require continues
monitoring system to maintain cells in the safe operation area.
Lithium-ion batteries are highly unstable during the charging
process. These batteries require control system for monitoring Fig7. Lithium-polymer cell
and control the battery pack. Battery controlling unit is called
as battery management system (BMS). BMS monitors the
parameters of the cell like charge control, discharge control, D. Nickel metal hydride battery (NiMH)
cell balancing, state of charge identification and thermal Nickel metal hydride battery chemistry is developed
management. BMS is the intelligent control system behind the battery chemistry in the electric vehicle division. These
battery pack. The charging process of the lithium-ion battery batteries are less efficient in charging and discharging process.
is a complex process because lithium-ion batteries require a The depth of discharge of the NiMH battery is 60% to 70%.
two-stage charging system that is “constant current-constant And they have a significant good energy density (30 –
voltage (CC-CV)” charging system. Usually, in recent days 80Wh/kg). The life cycle of NiMH battery is better than the
electric cars and electric bikes are powered by lithium-ion other battery chemistry. These batteries are not cost effective.
cells, because of its notable advantage.

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 Second International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT 2019)
IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP19P17-ART; ISBN:978-1-7281-2119-2
3. Gear train
The gear train is the fundamental unit in the vehicle
propulsion system. Gear train is required to produce the
necessary amount of torque and speed to the vehicle [7]. In an
electric vehicle, an electric motor has specific torque and
specific speed and it depends upon their power and
construction. At that time gear train will reduce speed and
increase the torque and in some special cases it will increase
the speed and reduce the torque where the vehicle needs high
speed than the torque. Electric vehicle basically consists of
mechanical gearbox gear train, continuously variable
transmission, chain drive system, and belt drive system.
A. Gearbox gear train
The drivetrain is the major difference between
electric cars and conventional engine powered vehicles. Most
of the engine powered vehicles consist of multi-speed gear
train, but the maximum of the electric vehicle drivetrain
consists of single speed gearbox. Because the electric vehicle
has sufficient RPM range and they will produce significant
highest torque at zero to some minimal RPM. The speed of the
electric motor can be efficiently controlled by a controller with
programming. For these couple of reasons, electric vehicles
are powered by a single speed gear train. A single speed
mechanical gearbox is generally used in electric vehicles.
These types of drivetrain are easy to mount on the vehicle.
These gearboxes are bigger and more in weight, this is the
major disadvantages of these types of a drivetrain.
B. Continuously variable transmission(CVT)
Continuously variable transmission (CVT) is also
known as pulley transmission. CVT is an automatic
transmission system. The gear ratios of driven and drive
pulley will change with respect to the speed. CVT in electric
vehicles have some advantages and disadvantages too. CVT
will provide a higher speed with excellent efficiency. Motor
with CVT utilizes less power during gradability, so this will
increase vehicles drive range per charge. Although CVT has
some disadvantages like complexity of hardware, cost and
traction response. The huge drawback of CVT is response
time.
Fig8. Continuously variable transmission (CVT)
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C. Chain Drive
Chain drive is the basic way of transferring
mechanical power to the motor to the differential in electric
vehicle. Chain drive is also like single speed geartrain system.
Drive and driven chain sprocket will be designed according to
vehicle requirement. The chain drive is cost effective and easy
hardware parts. Chain drive consumes more space in vehicle
and a bit noisy operation process.
D. Belt drive
The working process of the belt drive is similar to the
chain drive. Pulleys are used to hold the belts and are coupled
to motor and differential. The efficiency of the belt drive is
more than the chain drive. And this drivetrain doesn’t have
noisy operation. Belt drive geartrain basically used in electric
two-wheelers.
4. Differential
The differential allows outer drive wheels to turn
faster than the inner drive wheels. During the time of turning,
outer wheel should rotate more than the inner wheel.
Differential is the fundamental part to do this action. There are
different types of differentials available in automobiles. Some
of the differentials which are used in electric vehicles are
explained below.
A. Open differential
Majority of the rear wheel drive vehicle consists of an open
differential. This will help to spin the rear wheels
independently to each other. When both wheels are in space,
each wheel will spin in different directions. This type of
differential is known as open differential. An open differential
is suitable for city vehicle and driving comfort also better in
open differential. Open differential delivers an equal amount
of power to both the wheels. The major disadvantages of an
open differential vehicle are, it will provide an exactly equal
amount of torque to the wheels if one wheel on space
secondary wheel will get only half of the power and remaining
power will be wasted here.
B. Lock differential
Locking differential will overcome the problems of
an open differential. When the differential is unlocked it acts
as the open differential. When the differential is locked, it will
be locking both wheels on an axial together as a common
drive shaft. Locking differential will provide the greatest
amount of torque than the open differential. Essentially
locking differential is used in all-terrain vehicle and sports off-
road vehicles.
C. Spool drive
Spool drive consists of spool differential and it will
directly transfer torque from the gearbox to wheels without
any differential mechanism. In the spool drive both the wheels
will get the same power. This will connect the drive axil to the
spool drive system. The spool drive system has significant
advantages during a drag race and off-road races than the track
racing.
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IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP19P17-ART; ISBN:978-1-7281-2119-2
IV. CALCULATIONS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
POWERTRAIN
Here, designing steps, process and mathematical
equations of an electric vehicle powertrain is examined.
Calculation process for powertrain is an interdependent
process. The steps for electric vehicle powertrain calculations
are,
Fig9. Steps of powertrain designing
The fundamental steps of powertrain calculations are
assumptions [8]. Assumptions of the vehicle speed and range
are very important this will help to choose the right battery
and motor with gearbox. Firstly the designer should consider
run time of vehicle, range per charge and speed of the vehicle.
The second step is to calculate the torque required to move the
vehicle. The force required to move the vehicle from its rest
position to moving state is called tractive effort [9]. The
vehicle power required to drive the vehicle in some
circumstances, like a variation of moving condition on road.
To calculate tractive effort (TE), running resistance
of the vehicle is required.
A. Running resistance:
The running resistance of the moving vehicle is
consisting of rolling resistance, aerodynamic resistance and
gradient resistance. Total running resistance of the vehicle is
expressed as,
R = RR + RA + RG (1)
Where RR = Rolling resistance
RA = Aerodynamics resistance
RG = gradient resistance
Rolling resistance (RR) is the frictional resistance
between the road surface and the vehicle tire resistance. The
rolling resistance of the vehicle is depending upon the
roughness of the road surface. But it is not depending upon the
speed of the vehicle. The mathematical form to calculate the
rolling resistance is,
RR = K × W (2)
Where K = constant of rolling resistance (depends
upon road conditions)
W = gross weight of the vehicle (including
down force on running vehicle)
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Road surface Rolling resistance coefficient
of friction
Firm road condition 0.010 – 0.035
Unmanned road 0.045 – 0.25
condition
All-terrain vehicle track 0.3
Table1. Different road surface and its coefficient of friction
When the vehicle is moving on the road, an air
moment (force) comes in the opposite direction of the vehicle
even with the less wind force condition. This wind resistance
to vehicle is called an aerodynamic resistance. Drag and lift on
the vehicle body will act on the vehicle because of
aerodynamic force. Basically the aerodynamic force generated
on the front and rear side of the vehicle. The effect of
aerodynamic force is also depends on vehicle design. The
mathematical equation for aerodynamic resistance is,
RA = (1/2) ×ρ×AF×Cd× (V/3.6)2 (3)
Where ρ = Density of air
Af = projected frontal area.
Cd = Coefficient of aerodynamics
resistance.
V = velocity of the vehicle.
The gradient resistance occurs when vehicle is
moving up or moving down. This is because of the weight of
the vehicle. The mathematical expression for the gravitational
resistance is,
RG = W × sinϴ (4)
Where W is weight of vehicle and ϴ is gradient
angle.
B. Tractive effort:
Tractive effort (TE) is the force required to move the
vehicle from its rest state to moving state. Tractive effort is the
product of the coefficient of friction and rolling resistance.
Running resistance is the sum of rolling resistance,
aerodynamic resistance and gradient resistance
Running resistance = rolling resistance (RR) + aerodynamic
resistance (RA) + gradient resistance (RG)
R = RR + RA + RG (5)
Tractive force (TE) = co-efficient of friction (µ) × Running
resistance (R)
Based on the tractive effort and wheel radius, the
torque required for the motor will be determined. Torque
(starting torque) of the motor is the product of tractive effort
(force) and wheel radius. Based on the calculated starting
torque, a motor and gearbox will be selected. The
mathematical expression for the torque of the vehicle is.
Torque (Nm) = Force (N) × wheel radius (m) (6)
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C. Power calculations of motor: arrangements of gears, this is the major advantages of this gear
Power of the motor will define the size of the motor. train [10]. There are some methods to achieve a gear train
Motor power is dependent on speed (RPM) of the motor and arrangement.
torque of the motor. The mathematical expression to find the Compound gearbox is the better way of arranging gears. It
required amount of RPM of the motor for a vehicle is, will have achieved by a minimum of four gears. Here there are
three shafts will be used those are input shaft, intermediate
Speed of vehicle (Km/hr) = diameter of wheel (in) × shaft and output shaft. Here two gears are fixed in the
RPM of motor × 0.004784 intermediate shaft and those are coupled with the input shaft
RPM = (speed of vehicle) / (wheel diameter × and output shaft. Another type of gear train arrangement
0.004784) technique is epicyclic gear train. It’s also referred to as a two-
stage gear reduction technique. This method is complicated,
From this equation, RPM required at wheels to move expensive and more in size. The mathematical expressions for
the vehicle with particular speed will be identified. Torque of gear train transmission calculations are,
the vehicle and wheel RPM will declares the motor torque and
RPM. Motor RPM and required torque will assume with
When the same direction of rotation is required for
gearbox reduction ratio. The bellow mathematical formula
the drive gear and the follower gear an idler gear will be used
helps to identify the power of motor.
to do this operation. The mathematical expression to find idler
gear train transmission ratio is,
Power = (torque × RPM) / 9.54 (7)
IM = (ND / NF) = (TI / TD) (TF / TI) = (TF / TD)
Where, TI = number of teeth on idler
Where, power in watt (W), torque in Nm and 9.54 is
the conversion factor. From the above-mentioned equations
torque required for the motor, RPM and power of the motor
will be decided. Selection of the motor voltage is dependent
on the battery and speed of the motor. If the selected motor is
AC induction and PMAC the voltage of the motor will be
230V or 440V. If selected motor is BLDC or PMDC, motor
voltage will declare the battery voltage. Basically selection of
the motor voltage is dependent on the speed of the vehicle,
suppose vehicle has more speed range, it’s better to select the
higher voltage rating motor (more than 48V). Otherwise, if the
vehicle speed is moderate, it’s better to use 48V rating motor.

While calculating the range and time of travel of the

vehicle, consideration of one particular RPM is very
important. It’s better to choose the RPM as motors maximum
RPM because motor consumes more power at higher RPM.
The mathematical expression for the range of the vehicle is,

Range = time of travel × vehicle speed (Km/hr) (8) Fig10. Gearbox with an idler gear
Time of travel = Range (Km) / Vehicle speed (Km/hr)

Basic formula to calculate power required for the

battery is, The output torque of the gearbox can be determined
((Battery power) / (motor power consumption)) = time of by the following equation.
travel
Mo = Mi × r × µ (12)
Then, battery output power (W-hr) = time of travel (hr) × Where Mo = output torque (Nm)
motor power consumption (W) (9) Mi = input torque (Nm)
r = transmission ratio
Once the battery power is calculated, to get the µ = gearbox efficiency (%)
battery capacity, divide the battery power from specified
voltage. Mathematical expression for gear output power is,
Battery capacity (Ah) = Power (W-hr) / Voltage (10)
Po = Pi × μ (13)
D. Gearbox calculations: Where, Po = output power
Majority of an electric vehicle are consisting of Pi = input power
single speed gearbox. This type of gearbox will provide a
constant gear reduction and its irrespective of a number of

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 Second International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT 2019)
IEEE Xplore Part Number: CFP19P17-ART; ISBN:978-1-7281-2119-2

V. WIRNG HARNSS DESIGNING

The wiring harness is commonly known as electrical
wiring assembly or connection of the electric vehicle
components such as the battery, motor, motor controller,
secondary wiring systems and protection systems [11].
Selection of standard gauge wires and standard rating
components for protection depends upon the rating of the
motor, battery. Below figure will explain the typical BLDC
motor powered vehicle wiring harness.

Fig12. Powertrain layout of electric vehicle

VII. CONCLUSION
Electric vehicle technology is the emerging trend in
these modern days. Conversion of engine powered vehicle into
electrical is simple and cost-effective process. This paper
discusses the designing steps and selection of electric vehicle
power train components such as a battery, motor, gearbox etc.
Fig11. Wiring harness of BLDC motor powered electric And this also describes the general process of conversion of
vehicle engine powered vehicle into an electric vehicle and electric
vehicle harness designing.

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 Second International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT 2019)
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[10] P. R. N. Childs, “Gears,” in Mechanical Design Engineering Handbook,
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