CHA 2401: FUNDAMENTALS OF NANOSCIENCE AND

NANOTECHNOLOGY
LECTURE 7: 1-11-23
TYPES OF NANOMATERIALS
1. NANOPARTICLES.
➢ Nanoparticles are sub-nanosized colloidal structures, typically ranging from 10 nm
to 1000 nm, often composed of synthetic or semi-synthetic polymers. They have
been explored as drug carriers for both small drug molecules and macromolecules
like nucleic acids, peptides, proteins, and hormones.

➢ They can be categorized into various types, each with distinct characteristics and
applications.

❖ Inorganic Nanoparticles: Inorganic nanoparticles have unique physical

properties and find applications in biotechnology. They exhibit size-
dependent optical, magnetic, electronic, and catalytic properties, making
them suitable for diverse applications like iron oxides, gold, silver, and silica.

❖ Polymeric Nanoparticles: These nanoparticles have seen significant

development in recent years. They can be prepared through methods
involving the dispersion of preformed polymers and monomer
polymerization. Polymeric nanoparticles typically fall within the size range of
10 to 1000 nanometers.

❖ Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: These nanoparticles played a vital role in

controlling drug delivery during the 1990s. They are considered alternative
carrier systems to emulsions, liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles. Solid
lipid nanoparticles offer benefits in terms of drug delivery.

❖ Liposomes: Liposomes are vesicles with one or more phospholipid bilayers,

widely used in various scientific disciplines, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and
food industries. They are used for encapsulating compounds and delivering
unstable substances.

❖ Nanocrystals: Nanocrystals consist of material particles with at least one

dimension smaller than 100 nanometers. They can be composed of pure drugs
or other materials, often coated with surfactants.

❖ Nanotubes: Nanotubes are tube-like structures made of sheets of carbon

called graphene. They come in single-walled and multi-walled variants, and

1|Page
 their properties depend on the rolling angle and radius, making them suitable
for various applications.

❖ Dendrimers: Dendrimers are hyper-branched, monodisperse, three-

dimensional synthetic polymers with a well-defined size, shape, and
molecular weight. They find use in drug delivery and other applications.

➢ The characterization of nanoparticles involves assessing their size, morphology, and

surface charge, typically using advanced microscopic techniques such as scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic
force microscopy (AFM). Particle size and surface charge are critical factors that
impact the physical stability and in vivo distribution of nanoparticles.

➢ Nanoparticles find applications in various fields, including nanomedicine,

chemicals, materials, food sciences, environment and energy, military and defense,
electronics, scientific research, and agriculture.

Advantages of Nanoparticles:
❖ Their submicron size enables extravasation and occlusion of blood vessels,
enhancing drug delivery.
❖ They can protect drugs from degradation, target specific sites, and reduce toxicity.
❖ Nanoparticles can be administered through various routes (oral, nasal, parenteral,
etc.).
❖ They increase drug bioavailability and have longer clearance times.
❖ Site-specific targeting can be achieved using ligands or magnetic guidance.
Disadvantages of Nanoparticles:
❖ Higher manufacturing costs might lead to increased formulation costs.
❖ They often have low encapsulation efficiency.
❖ Water-soluble drugs can leak rapidly in the presence of blood components.
❖ Small size and large surface area can lead to particle aggregation, making handling
difficult.
❖ They may trigger immune responses and allergic reactions.
❖ Some preparation methods involve the use of toxic solvents.
Methods for Nanoparticle Preparation
➢ Various methods are used to prepare nanoparticles, including:
❖ Emulsion/Evaporation: Utilizes emulsification and evaporation to form
nanoparticles.

2|Page
 ❖ Double Emulsion: Suitable for incorporating hydrophilic drugs with high
encapsulation efficiency.
❖ Salting Out: Appropriate for drugs and polymers soluble in polar solvents.
❖ Emulsification-Diffusion: Creates nanoparticles through the diffusion of
solvents.
❖ Solvent Displacement/Nanoprecipitation: Involves pouring a solvent
solution into an aqueous solution, leading to rapid solvent diffusion and
nanoparticle formation.
❖ Emulsion-Diffusion-Evaporation: Combines evaporation and diffusion
processes to create nanoparticles.
❖ Coacervation/Ionic Gelation: Uses electrostatic interactions to form
nanoparticles, often with hydrophilic polymers like chitosan.
2. QUANTUM DOTS (QDs)
➢ QDs are semiconductor nanocrystals with all three dimensions smaller than the Bohr
exciton radius, typically ranging from 1-10 nm.
➢ They can be constructed from elements in groups II and VI or groups III and V of the
periodic table.

➢ QDs exhibit size-tunable light emission, high signal brightness, resistance to

photobleaching, and broad absorption spectra for multiple fluorescence colors. Their
photoluminescence arises from the radiative recombination of excited electron-hole
pairs with a spatial separation (Bohr radius) typically in the 1-10 nm range.
➢ This quantum confinement leads to a finite band gap and discrete energy levels. QDs
offer photophysical and electronic properties like photostability, high quantum yield,
and size-tunable photoluminescence from visible to near-infrared.
➢ They have found extensive use in biological applications, such as immunoassays and
cell imaging.
➢ The synthesis of QDs has evolved, with breakthroughs including high-temperature
organometallic procedures and core-shell structures for enhanced properties.

3|Page
Optical Properties of Quantum Dots (QDs)

✓ Particle size, shape, and composition of QDs, as well as the synthesis methods and
materials used, significantly affect their optical properties and the frequency of
emitted or absorbed fluorescent light.
✓ For example, Copper indium sulfide (CIS) QDs, with size variations, have adaptable
bandgaps for applications in solar cells and LEDs.
✓ Perovskite QDs (PQDs) offer high photoluminescence quantum yields, narrow
emission bandwidths, and color purity, making them suitable for optoelectronic
devices like LEDs and solar cells.
Perovskite quantum dots are nanocrystalline materials with a perovskite
crystal structure, typically composed of inorganic metal halide compounds.
They are characterized by their small size (nanometer scale), which imparts
quantum confinement effects, leading to unique and highly efficient light
emission properties. The perovskite structure consists of a three-dimensional
framework of metal cations and halide anions, and PQDs are known for their
high photoluminescence efficiency and tunable emission spectra. They are

4|Page
 synthesized using colloidal chemistry methods, allowing precise control over
their size, composition, and optical properties. Examples: Lead Halide
Perovskite Quantum Dots:

Perovskite Structure

✓ Other nanostructured materials like carbon nanotubes and graphene are explored
as QDs, offering unique electronic characteristics and tunable photoluminescence
properties.
✓ III-V QDs, particularly InP, are used in next-generation displays as alternatives to
heavy metal-containing emitters.
Quantum Vs. Bulk Properties
✓ Quantum dots (QDs) exhibit distinctive electrical and optical properties due to
quantum confinement, where excitons' motion is confined to a quantized space.
✓ The bandgap of QDs is size-dependent, unlike bulk materials, leading to tunable
absorption and emission spectra based on QD size.
✓ Controlling the size of QDs during growth is essential for various applications.
Synthesis of QDs
❖ Colloidal synthesis is a common method for producing QDs, allowing tunable size
and composition.
❖ The 'Hot Injection Method' in colloidal synthesis is highly effective, providing precise
control over QD size and purity.
❖ Machine learning methods are used to analyze QD data, optimize synthesis
conditions, and make predictions.
❖ Recent advancements in colloidal synthesis include new precursors, capping
agents, and techniques for creating monodisperse QDs.

5|Page
 ❖ Aqueous-based synthesis is an environmentally friendly method to produce stable
colloidal QDs with core-shell structures.
❖ Hydrothermal Synthesis
✓ Hydrothermal synthesis is a cost-effective method for preparing QDs with precise
control over size and shape.
✓ It involves a precursor solution with metal ions and ligands in a sealed container,
heated under high pressure in a water bath, causing nucleation of QDs.
✓ Reaction parameters like temperature, pressure, and time can be adjusted to control
QD size and shape.
✓ Hydrothermal synthesis offers the advantage of relatively low synthesis temperatures
compared to other methods.
❖ Biomimetic Synthesis
✓ Biomimetic synthesis mimics biological systems to grow and self-assemble QDs.
✓ Enzymes, proteins, or microorganisms can be used to reduce the need for harsh
chemicals and high temperatures, making the process eco-friendly and more
biocompatible.
✓ Biomolecules stabilize QDs, and control their size, shape, and surface properties,
preventing defects and aggregation.
✓ Biomimetic synthesis offers advantages for high-quality QD production in
optoelectronics, energy, biology, and medicine.
Applications of QDs
❖ QDs can improve the color gamut in LCD displays by converting blue light into a
wider range of colors.
❖ They are used in quantum cryptography for secure key distribution, offering high-
quality single-photon sources.
❖ QDs-based spintronics leverages electron spin for advanced electronic devices and
computing.
❖ Challenges in QD development include toxicity and the need for homogeneous,
high-quality QDs, which can be mitigated through hybrid synthesis and protective
coatings.
❖ QDs in Memories: QDs are used in memory devices, including resistive random
access memory (RRAM) and memristors, for non-volatile data storage, data
processing, and energy efficiency.
❖ Biomedical Applications: QDs are employed in biological applications like cell
staining, animal imaging, and tumor biology research. Their high sensitivity and
nanoscale resolution are ideal for fluorescence-based detection methods.
❖ Applications in Color Conversion: QDs are used to enhance the color gamut in LCD
displays by converting blue light into a wider range of colors, improving color
accuracy.

6|Page
 ❖ Quantum Cryptography: QDs have potential in quantum key distribution (QKD) due
to their ability to generate entangled photons, offering secure key distribution.
Achieving low levels of multi-photon emission is crucial for QKD systems.
❖ QDs-based Spintronics: QDs are explored in spintronics, which utilizes the electron's
spin for advanced electronic devices with non-volatile data storage and energy
efficiency.

3. NANOWIRES
➢ One-dimensional nanostructures, such as wires, tubes, belts, and rods, have been
extensively studied for the past two decades due to their interesting and unique
electronic, optical, thermal, mechanical, and magnetic properties

Synthesis of Nanowires
a.) Metal-Nanoparticle-Mediated Methods
Synthesis in Gas Phase (VLS and VSS Methods): Vapor-Liquid-Solid (VLS) Method: In
the VLS method, a vapor-phase source material is introduced into a reaction chamber along
with a catalyst, typically a liquid droplet or a metal nanoparticle. When the vapor material
contacts the catalyst, it dissolves, supersaturates, and then precipitates onto a substrate,
forming nanowires or nanotubes.

7|Page
Vapor-Solid-Solid (VSS) Method: In the VSS method, a vapor-phase source material reacts
with a solid substrate, typically a nanosized seed crystal or another solid material. The source
material vaporizes and deposits directly onto the solid substrate, facilitating the growth of
nanowires or nanostructures.
Foreign-Metal-Catalyst Loss Channels: Involves the introduction of foreign metal
catalysts during growth and the incorporation of foreign metal elements into the nanowire
lattice.
Control of Crystal Structure: The method manipulates crystallographic properties, such
as growth direction and phase during nanowire growth.
Control of Position and Orientation: Addresses the need for precise control of nanowire
position and orientation for device fabrication, achieved through lithographic techniques
and templates.
b.) Synthesis in the Solution Phase
Solution-Liquid-Solid (SLS) Method: It involves the growth of semiconductor nanowires
using a catalyst in a solution. The catalyst initiates the growth of nanowires from the solution
by forming a solid core, leading to the deposition of semiconductor material onto this core.
This method allows for precise control over nanowire composition and structure and finds
applications in various fields, including electronics and photonics.
Supercritical Fluid-Liquid-Solid (SFLS) Method: is a nanomaterial synthesis technique
that operates in a supercritical fluid, typically carbon dioxide. In this process, a catalyst is
used to grow semiconductor nanowires from a supercritical fluid precursor. The nanowires
form by the catalytic growth of the semiconductor material within the supercritical fluid.
SFLS allows for precise control over nanowire growth and composition, making it valuable
in applications such as nanoelectronics and photonics.
Supercritical Fluid-Solid-Solid (SFSS) Method: Alternatively, in SFSS, two solid
precursors react in the presence of the supercritical fluid to form nanoparticles or
nanomaterials. This method allows for the controlled synthesis of nanomaterials with
specific properties, making it valuable for various applications, including catalysis, drug
delivery, and materials science.
c.) Direct Deposition Methods:
Selective-Area Epitaxy (SAE) Method: This is a technique that enables the selective
deposition of thin films or nanowires on specific regions of a substrate. It involves the use of
a patterned mask to control the growth, resulting in precise and controlled material
placement.

8|Page
Seed-induced nanowire Growth: is a method for synthesizing nanowires on a substrate.
It starts with the deposition of tiny seed particles, often metal catalysts, on the substrate's
surface. These seeds serve as nucleation sites for nanowire growth, enabling control over
nanowire placement and properties.
Screw-Dislocation-Driven Nanowire Growth: This method involves the growth of
nanowires using screw dislocations as templates. Screw dislocations in a crystal lattice
provide a unique growth path for nanowires, resulting in a specific crystalline structure.
.

Flow-based SLS growth of colloidal nanowires.

a) Schematic model showing one-dimensional crystal growth promoted by a screw

dislocation spiral. b) Schematic model showing growth of pine-tree-like nanostructures

9|Page
 achieved by a combination of fast screw-dislocation-driven growth of a nanowire trunk
and slow VLS growth of nanowire branches

d.) Template-Directed Methods:

Soft-Template-Based Methods: This approach involves using coordinating surfactants

and self-assembly to create ultrathin metal nanowires, with examples including ultrathin
Au and Pd wires synthesized using aurophilic coordinating surfactants.

Single-Crystalline Nanowires from Biotemplates: Bio templates, like genetically

modified filamentous viruses, are used to guide the nucleation and growth of single-
crystalline metal-sulfide nanowires, offering a novel approach to nanowire synthesis.

Hard-Template-Based Methods: These methods utilize solid-state reactions for

nanowire production. Cation exchange reactions at room temperature are explored,
leading to the transformation of ionic nanowires, such as the conversion of Ag2Se
nanowires to single-crystalline CdSe nanowires.

Arbitrarily Long Nanowires by Electrospinning: The electrospinning technique is

described, enabling the production of continuous polymer and inorganic/polymer hybrid
nanowires. Polymer wires are formed using electric forces, and subsequent removal of the
organic polymer yields inorganic nanowires.

Hierarchical Nanowires from Templates with Complex Structures: Porous templates

like anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) and mesoporous silica are used to create nanowires
with branching structures. For example, AAO templates with branched channels and silica
mesostructures.

e.) Oriented-Attachment Method:

Shape-Dependent Oriented Attachment: The oriented attachment of nanocrystals is

examined, emphasizing the role of nanocrystal shape in the process. The attachment of
quasi-spherical nanocrystals, octahedral nanocrystals, and branched star-shaped
nanocrystals is discussed, leading to the formation of various nanowire structures.

Ultrathin Semiconductor Nanowires: This section explores the use of the oriented
attachment method to synthesize ultrathin semiconductor nanowires with controlled
diameters, such as single-crystalline CdSe nanowires.

Nanowire Length Control by Oriented Attachment of Nanorods: A method to control

the length of nanowires is introduced, focusing on the elongation of nanorods through a
washing step using octylamine.

Applications:

10 | P a g e
 ✓ Nanowire Electronics: Si Nanowire Electronics,
✓ Electronic Sensor Devices
✓ Nanowire Photonics
✓ Nanowire Waveguides
✓ Nanowire Lasers/LEDs
✓ Nanowire Plasmonics
✓ Nanowire Thermoelectrics
✓ Nanowire Photovoltaics
✓ Nanowires for Artificial Photosynthesis

✓ Nanowires for Lithium-Ion Batteries

▪ This is a crucial area of research due to the significance of batteries in various
applications. Batteries are evaluated based on energy density and power density,
which should be optimized for specific applications like electric vehicles and
portable electronics.
▪ Nanowires offer advantages, especially in lithium-ion batteries, as they allow for
increased lithium storage density, strain relaxation to prevent mechanical
degradation, and improved charge transport.
▪ They can also eliminate the need for binder materials. However, nanowires face
challenges like reduced packing density. Anodes and cathodes using nanowires
have been explored, with anodes incorporating materials like TiO2, SnO2, and
silicon, while cathodes explore materials like LiFePO4, LiMn2O4, and V2O5.
▪ These nanowire-based materials offer improved capacity retention, high-rate
capabilities, and potential for commercialization, but further research is needed to
enhance energy density while maintaining their benefits.
4. NANOTUBES
➢ Nanotubes are formed by folding or rolling two-dimensional graphite into a
cylindrical shape structure. Nanotubes are hollow from the inside.
➢ The diameter of the nanotube is around 1-3 nanometers. The length of the carbon
nanotube is much higher than its diameter.
➢ Nanotube length generally goes to a few micrometers. In short, we can say that
carbon nan (CNT) is a folded form of the two-dimensional graphene sheet. CNT
(carbon nanotubes) exhibit extraordinary mechanical properties

11 | P a g e
 Single and multiwalled carbon nanotubes

➢ Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) exhibit a wide range of unique properties that make them
highly valuable in various scientific, industrial, and technological applications.
Some of the key properties of carbon nanotubes include:

Exceptional Mechanical Strength: CNTs are incredibly strong, with a tensile strength
that exceeds that of most materials. They are among the strongest known materials, making
them suitable for reinforcing composites and materials.

High Thermal Conductivity: CNTs have excellent thermal conductivity, which is superior
to most materials. This property is valuable for applications such as thermal management
and heat dissipation.

Electrical Conductivity: CNTs can be either metallic or semiconducting, depending on

their structure (chirality). Metallic CNTs are excellent conductors of electricity and are
used in various electronic applications.

Structural Flexibility: CNTs can be bent, twisted, and deformed without losing their
mechanical integrity. This flexibility is advantageous for creating flexible and resilient
materials.

Large Aspect Ratio: CNTs have an extraordinarily high aspect ratio (length-to-diameter
ratio), allowing them to be used for nanoscale reinforcement and as structural elements in
various materials.

Lightweight: CNTs are lightweight, which is an important property for applications where
weight reduction is critical, such as aerospace and automotive industries.

Chemical Stability: CNTs are chemically stable and resist corrosion, making them suitable
for a wide range of environments.

12 | P a g e
Biocompatibility: Some CNTs exhibit biocompatibility, which is essential for their use in
biomedical applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Optical Properties: CNTs have unique optical properties, and their absorption and
emission characteristics can be tailored based on their structure. This property is utilized
in sensors and imaging applications.

Gas and Molecular Sieving: Some CNTs can act as molecular sieves, allowing the selective
passage of certain molecules or gases. This property is significant in filtration and
separation applications.

High Surface Area: CNTs have a high surface area, making them useful in applications
such as adsorption, catalysis, and energy storage.

Electron Emission: CNTs can serve as efficient electron emitters, which is exploited in
field emission displays, scanning electron microscopy, and other electronic devices.

Hydrophobic Nature: CNTs tend to be hydrophobic, and this property can be modified
or utilized in various applications, including water-repellent coatings.

Synthesis of Carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be synthesized through various methods, each with its own
advantages and limitations. The choice of synthesis method depends on the desired CNT
type, quantity, and application. Here are some of the main methods for synthesizing CNTs:

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): is a materials synthesis technique used to deposit

CNTs on substrates by chemical reactions in the vapor phase. It is a process in which
gaseous precursors react on a substrate surface to form a solid material. CVD is the most
extensively used method for the synthesis of carbon nanotubes
Its variations are:
Thermal CVD: CNTs are grown on a substrate at elevated temperatures using hydrocarbon
precursors.
Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PECVD): Plasma is used to enhance the growth of CNTs,
enabling lower growth temperatures and better control over the process.
Floating Catalyst Chemical Vapor Deposition (FCCVD): A catalyst precursor is
vaporized and transported by a carrier gas to react with a carbon source, leading to the
growth of CNTs. This method is often used for large-scale production.
HiPco (High-Pressure Carbon Monoxide) Process: CNTs are produced by converting
carbon monoxide gas over metal catalyst particles at high pressures and high temperatures.
Chemical Vapor Deposition on Nanostructured Templates: Substrates with
nanostructures or pores can be used to template the growth of CNTs. The catalyst is
introduced into the pores, and CVD is applied to synthesize the nanotubes.

13 | P a g e
Plasma Arc Discharge (PACVD): Similar to arc discharge, a plasma arc discharge is used
to generate CNTs. This method is useful for producing multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs).
Fluidized Bed CVD: CNTs are grown in a fluidized bed reactor using a carbon-containing
feedstock and a catalyst.
Catalytic Chemical Vapor Deposition (Cat-CVD): CNTs are grown by introducing a
metal catalyst into a CVD system, which decomposes hydrocarbon precursors to produce
CNTs.
Vapor-Grown Carbon Fibers (VGCF): VGCF is a type of CNT where thin fibers are
produced using a CVD process.
Alcohol Catalytic CVD: Ethanol or other alcohol-based precursors are used in a CVD
process to synthesize CNTs.

Other methods include:

Arc Discharge: A high-current electric arc is generated between two graphite electrodes
in an inert atmosphere, leading to the formation of CNTs.
Laser Ablation: A high-power laser is used to ablate a carbon target in the presence of a
catalyst, producing CNTs. Laser ablation can be used for single-walled carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) synthesis.
Chemical Reduction of Oxides: CNTs can be synthesized by reducing metal oxide
precursors (e.g., iron oxide) with a carbon source at elevated temperatures.
Template-Assisted Growth: CNTs can be synthesized by using templates or sacrificial
materials to guide their growth in desired patterns.

Applications of CNTS:

✓ Nanocomposites: CNTs are often used as reinforcement materials in composites

to enhance mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties.
They find applications in industries like aerospace, automotive, and sports
equipment.

✓ Electronics: CNTs can be used as components in electronic devices, such as field-

effect transistors, interconnects, and memory devices. Their high electrical
conductivity makes them valuable in miniaturized electronic components.

✓ Energy Storage: CNTs are used in supercapacitors and batteries to improve energy
storage and charge/discharge rates. They also have potential applications in next-
generation energy storage systems.

✓ Sensors: CNTs can be employed in various sensors, including gas sensors,

biosensors, and strain sensors, due to their high surface area and sensitivity to
environmental changes.

14 | P a g e
 ✓ Catalysis: CNTs have shown promise as catalyst supports in various catalytic
reactions, including fuel cells, where their high surface area and electrical
conductivity enhance catalytic efficiency.

✓ Biomedical Applications: CNTs can be used for drug delivery, tissue engineering,
and medical imaging. Their unique properties enable precise targeting and
controlled release of drugs in the body.

✓ Water Filtration: CNTs can be used in water purification systems to remove

contaminants and improve water quality.

✓ Coatings: CNTs are used in coatings for their ability to provide electrical
conductivity, corrosion resistance, and enhanced mechanical properties.

5. NANOFILMS (2D AND 3D)

➢ Nanofilms are ultra-thin layers of material, ranging from a fraction of a nanometer

to a few micrometers thick.
➢ They serve as a critical interface where various physicochemical processes take
place. The assembly of nanofilms, particularly using layers of opposite charge, is a
prominent approach, leading to two-dimensional arrangements with quantum
coupling between layers.
➢ Layer-by-layer deposition is the primary method for creating these films. Various
deposition techniques include immersion, spin coating, spraying, electromagnetic
deposition, and fluidic assembly.
➢ Immersion is a versatile but time-consuming method, while spin coating reduces
deposition time by eliminating excess fluid through centrifugal force. Spray coating
offers rapid and uniform layer formation. Electromagnetic deposition and fluidic
assembly are more specialized alternatives.
➢ Thin film optical filters are commonly made by layering materials with different
refractive indices to control surface transmissivity. This technology has applications
in eyewear, camera lenses, and solar cells.
Graphene is a well-known example of a two-dimensional film with remarkable properties,
including a zero-band gap semiconductor structure. Transition metal dichalcogenides
(TMDC) are also important, especially as they transition from indirect to direct band gaps
in two-dimensional nanofilms, making them suitable for microelectronic components.
Inorganic nanofilms are explored for use in insulators and semiconductors, addressing the
need for high-permittivity dielectrics in microelectronics as silicon dioxide gate insulators
reach fundamental physical limits. Titania nanofilms, in particular, show promise due to
their high permittivity and colloidal stability. The band structures and properties of these
nanofilms open up opportunities for various technological applications.

3D

15 | P a g e
 ➢ These are the nanomaterials that are not confined to the nanoscale in any
dimension. These materials have three arbitrary dimensions above 100 nm.
➢ The bulk (3D) nanomaterials are composed of multiple arrangements of nanosized
crystals in different orientations.
➢ It includes dispersions of nanoparticles, bundles of nanowires and nanotubes as well
as multi nanolayers (polycrystals) in which the 0D, 1D, and 2D structural elements
are in close contact with each other and form interfaces.
➢ 3D nanomaterials possess a porous architecture with interconnected
macro/mesopores, preventing aggregation and restacking, offering various
advantages:

Inner Surface Exposure: Macro/mesoporous channels allow exposure of inner surfaces,

enabling applications like catalysis, drug delivery, and sensing.

High Loading Capacity: The porous structure provides a high loading capacity for
functional components like catalyst particles or drugs.

Confinement Effects: Pores create confinement effects that can modulate chemical and
physical properties.

Mass Transport: The inner void space allows mass transport through the 3D structure.

Mechanical Stability: 3D nanomaterials offer improved mechanical stability compared to

1D/2D nanomaterials.

Other structural advantages of 3D nanomaterials compared to other dimensionalities

include:

Surface Chemistry: A large surface area allows for tailored surface chemistry through
functionalization.

Controlled Dimensionality: 3D nanomaterials can be designed with controlled

macro/mesoporosity and pore interconnectivity, tuning their structure for desired
properties.

Morphological Versatility: They can be synthesized in various shapes, optimizing shapes

for different applications.

Hybrid Structures: The 3D porous network enables the incorporation of multiple

components to create hybrid nanomaterials.

Defect Engineering: Abundant surface area provides opportunities to engineer defects to

modulate reactivity.

16 | P a g e
Synergistic Effects: Combining 3D nanomaterials with other dimensionalities (0D, 1D,
2D) can provide synergistic effects.

Scalability: Techniques like templating allow scalable production of 3D nanostructures

with consistent features like pore size.

Biocompatibility: Some 3D nanomaterials with high porosity and surface area offer good
biocompatibility for bio applications.

The benefits of 3D nanomaterials make them versatile and applicable in various fields, such
as filters, paints, lubricants, healthcare, electronics, medicine, cosmetics, construction, and
more. 3D metal oxides, especially transition metal oxides, have attracted attention for their
physicochemical properties and applications in drug delivery, tissue engineering, catalysis,
and more.

Examples of 2D Nanomaterials (Can also be used to create frameworks)

• Germanene
• Graphene
• MXene
• Phosphorene
• Silicene
• Stanene

Examples of 3D nanomaterials

17 | P a g e
18 | P a g e