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Slides Part 1
Slides Part 1
A
B
C
T(ºC)
1600
1500 L (liquid)
1400
dus
ui a
1300 liq
L +lidus
so
1200 a
1100
(FCC solid
solution)
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 Prof. Dr. Hülya Cebeci 1
Time: Group-1: Monday, 09.30-11.30
Group-2: Tuesday, 08.30-11.30
https://ninova.itu.edu.tr/Ders/10720/Sinif/72728
• Grades
• Syllabus
• Lecture notes
4
Hoşgeldiniz, Hüly
GRADING
NİNOVA KAMPÜS DERSLER YARDIM HAKKI
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Homework
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der
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dur
bel
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Eriş
Yıl sonu sınavı get
1 60
Final Exam ziya
materials
science
tetrahedron
9
The evolution of engineering materials with time
Kerpiç
The evolution of engineering materials with time. Note the highly nonlinear scale.
(From M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, 10
Oxford, 1999.)
Straw brick
12
Structure, Processing, & Properties
Properties depend on structure
ex: hardness vs structure of steel
(d)
600
Hardness (BHN)
30 µm
500 (c)
400 (b)
(a)
4 µm
300
30 µm
200 30 µm
Data obtained from Figs. 10.30(a)
100 and 10.32 with 4 wt% C composition,
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 and from Fig. 11.14 and associated
discussion, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Cooling Rate (ºC/s) Micrographs adapted from (a) Fig.
10.19; (b) Fig. 9.30;(c) Fig. 10.33;
• Processing can change structure and (d) Fig. 10.21, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel
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14
15
16
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Materials can be divided into different typologies
in relation to their composition
The traditional classifications are:
• Metals
• Ceramics (and glasses, which are usually made up of the
same elements but with a different atomic arrangement)
• Polymers (or plastics, to use the more common name)
• Composites (which combine several materials to achieve
unique or economical combinations of properties)
Metals
• Strong
• Ductile ó (Sünek)
• High thermal & electrical
conductivity
• Opaque
• Reflective
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
For example, some of the common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or
alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride
(Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—those
composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.
They have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a
backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC),
polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.
Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes
termed advanced materials.
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers)
Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer industries over the past three decades.
Acetabular
Cup and Liner
Femoral
Stem
27
Nanomaterials
The nanomaterials field includes subfields which
develop or study materials having unique properties
arising from their nanoscale dimensions.
nanometer =10-9 m
Nanomaterials
• Nanoparticles
• Nanostructured Materials
• Nanoclays and Nanocomposites
• Nanocomposite Coatings
• Nanotubes
• Nanocatalysts
• Nanofilters
Atomic Structure & Interatomic
Bonding
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What promotes bonding?
29
Atomic Structure
• atom – electrons – 9.11 x 10-31 kg Protons have a
protons
neutrons } 1.67 x 10-27 kg
positive charge and
a mass 1,836 times
that of the electron
• u [=] atomic mass unit = amu = Da= 1/12 mass of 12C amu=Da is a unit that is used
for indicating mass on an
Atomic wt = wt of 6.022 x 1023 molecules or atoms atomic or molecular scale.
1 amu/atom = 1g/mol
1 Da is approximately equal to the mass of
C 12.011 1 proton or 1 neutron.
H 1.008 etc.
30
Electronic Structure
• Electrons have wavelike and particulate properties.
– This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a
probability.
– Each orbital at discrete energy level is determined by
quantum numbers.
Quantum # Designation
n = principal (energy level-shell) K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, etc.)
l = subsidiary (orbitals) s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,…, n-1)
ml = magnetic 1, 3, 5, 7 (-l to +l)
ms = spin ½, -½
31
Electron Energy States
Electrons...
• have discrete energy states
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.
4d
4p N-shell n = 4
3d
4s Adapted from Fig. 1.2,
Shackelford 8e.
Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s
2p L-shell n = 2
2s
1s K-shell n = 1
Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
•
SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 Adapted from Table 2.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)
34
Electron Configurations
• Valence electrons – those in unfilled shells
• Filled shells more stable
• Valence electrons are most available for bonding
and tend to control the chemical properties
valence electrons
35
Atomic Structure
• Valence electrons determine all of the
following properties
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical
36
Electronic Configurations
ex: Fe - atomic # = 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2
4d
4p N-shell n = 4 valence
electrons
3d
4s
Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s
Adapted from Fig. 2.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
2p L-shell n = 2
2s
1s K-shell n = 1
37
The Periodic Table
•
The Periodic Table
Columns: Similar Valence Structure
inert gases
give up 1e-
give up 2e-
accept 2e-
accept 1e-
give up 3e-
H He
Li Be O F Ne
Adapted from
Na Mg S Cl Ar Fig. 2.6,
Callister &
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rethwisch 8e.
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra
donates accepts
electrons electrons
Dissimilar electronegativities
42
Ionic Bonding
• Occurs between + and - ions.
• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.
• Example: NaCl
Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron
Na (cation) + - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction
43
44
NaCl
• Notice that when sodium loses its one valence electron it gets smaller
in size, while chlorine grows larger when it gains an additional valance
electron. After the reaction takes place, the charged Na+ and Cl- ions
are held together by electrostatic forces, thus forming an ionic bond.
46
BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES
49
Ionic Bonding
Covalent Bonding
• similar electronegativity \ share electrons
• bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals
dominate bonding
• Example: CH4
C: has 4 valence e-,
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e-, shared electrons
H
from carbon atom
needs 1 more CH 4
H C H
53
Covalent Bonding
Metallic bond
Metallic Bonding
Claymation Animation
A. Outermost electrons wander freely through metal. Metal consists of cations held
together by negatively-charged electron "glue."
B. Free electrons can move rapidly in response to electric fields, hence metals are a
good conductor of electricity.
C. Free electrons can transmit kinetic energy rapidly, hence metals are good
conductors of heat.
D. The layers of atoms in metal are hard to pull apart because of the electrons holding
them together, hence metals are tough. But individual atoms are not held to any other
specific atoms, hence atoms slip easily past one another. Thus metals are ductile.
SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS BONDING
59
• Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
Schematic representations of
(a) an electrically symmetric atom and b) an induced atomic dipole.
+ - + - H H H H
secondary secondary
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.13,
bonding
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Development of induced dipoles in adjacent argon atoms leading to a weak,
secondary bond. The degree of charge distortion shown here is greatly exaggerated.
61
• Permanent dipoles-molecule induced
secondary
-general case: + - bonding
+ -
Adapted from Fig. 2.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
secondary
-ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding
H Cl
62
Permanent Dipole Bonds (Hydrogen Bond)
Van der Waals forces will also exist between adjacent polar molecules. The
associated bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving
induced dipoles.
The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a special case of polar
molecule bonding. It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently
bonded to fluorine (as in HF), oxygen (as in H2O), and nitrogen (as in NH3). For
each H-F, H-O, or H-N bond, the single hydrogen electron is shared with the other
atom.
Thus, the hydrogen end of the bond is essentially a positively charged bare proton
that is unscreened by any electrons. This highly positively charged end of the
molecule is capable of a strong attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent
molecule,
Ionic 625-1550
Covelent 520-1250
Metallic 100-800
Van der Waals <40
67