Module 3: Theories Related to the Learner’s Development

Objectives
The objectives of this lecture are to discuss and to know the theories related to
the learner’s development and to know the differences of every individual or the
diversity of every students.
Freud’s 3 Components of Personality
ID - the aspect of personality allied with the instinct, the ID operated according to the
Pleasure Principle.
EGO - rational aspect of personality, responsible for directing and controlling the
instinct according to the Reality Principle
SUPEREGO - the moral aspect personality, the internalization of parental societal
values and standard.
D: Dinadasal mo nang lubusang manalo sa isang contest, kahit na alam mong hindi mo ito
pinaghirapan at baka masaktan ang iba. Ang ID ay nagpopokus sa iyo na makuha ang agarang
kaligayahan sa pamamagitan ng pagkapanalo.
EGO: Ang iyong ego ay papasok upang balansehin ang pagnanais ng ID. Ito ay nag-uudyok sa
iyo na makamit ang kaligayahan sa pamamagitan ng pagtrabaho nang husto at makabuo ng
pantay na labanan. Ito ay isinasama ang katwiran at pananaw ng iba upang bigyang halaga ang
pagiging matapat at makatarungan sa iyong pagsisikap.

SUPEREGO: Ang superego ay nagpapaalala sa iyo na kailangan mong manalo ng patas at

sundin ang tamang proseso. Ito ay nag-uudyok sa iyo na huwag maging mapagsamantala, na
dapat mong igalang ang prosesong pantas at respetuhin ang karapatan ng iba. Ito ay
nagpapakatawan ng iyong internalisadong pangmoral na mga saloobin at prinsipyo.

ID: Naglalaro ka ng video game at nakalimutan mo ang iyong mga gawain at responsibilidad,
dahil sa iyong pagnanais na manalo at matapos ang laro. Ang ID ay nais ng instant na
kaligayahan at hindi pinakikialaman ang mga huling-araw na dapat gawin.
EGO: Ang ego ay magpapakita ng pang-unawa sa katotohanan at kakayahang balansehin ang
iyong pagnanais at responsibilidad. Ito ay magsasabi sa iyo na maglaan ng oras para sa video
game, ngunit wastuhin pa rin ang iyong mga responsibilidad at gawain.

SUPEREGO: Ang superego ay magpapaalala sa iyo ng iyong mga moral na saloobin at pananaw
sa tamang paggamit ng oras at pagiging responsable. Ito ay magsasabi sa iyo na ang iyong
responsibilidad ay dapat na una, at kailangan mong igalang ang mga pang-araw-araw na gawain
at taos-pusong gamitin ang iyong oras nang naaayon sa katwiran at moralidad.
Ang ID ay parang mga primitibong instto at pagnanais. Ito ay nagnanais ng agarang kaligayahan
at hindi pinapansin kung ano ang iniisip ng iba. Ito ay katulad ng "devil on your shoulder" na
nag-udyok sa iyo na gawin ang mga bagay na maaaring maghatid ng kasiyahan agad-agad.

Ang EGO ay bahagi ng ating personalidad na sinusubukan balansehin ang mga pagnanais ng ID
sa mga bagay na tunay at pinapayagan ng lipunan. Ito ang tinatawag na tinig ng rasyon at lohika.
Halimbawa, kung ang ID mo ay nagnanais na kumain ng buong cake, ang iyong ego ay
maaaring mag-isip na hindi ito realistiko o malusog, kaya't magmumungkahi na kumuha lamang
ng mas maayos at namamayaging piraso o ibahagi ito sa iba.

Ang SUPEREGO ay katulad ng ating konsensiya. Ito ang nagpapakatawan sa ating mga
internalisadong moral na mga pamantayan at halaga na natutuhan natin mula sa ating mga
magulang at lipunan. Ito ang katulad ng "angel on your shoulder" na nagpapaalala sa atin kung
ano ang tama at mali sa moral na aspeto. Sa halimbawang nabanggit, ang ating superego ay
maaaring ipaalaala sa atin na hindi ito tama sa moral na aspeto at mas makabubuti na magbahagi
tayo ng cake sa iba.

Ang mga tatlong bahaging ito ng personalidad ay nagtutulungan para sa ating pagdedesisyon at
pag-uugali, na pinagpapasiyahan ang mga pagnanais ng ID, sinusundan ng mga payo ng EGO
batay sa realidad at lipunang tanggap, at sumusunod sa mga moral na pamantayan ng
SUPEREGO.
Halimbawa, may malakas kang pagnanais na kainin ang buong cake nang buong-buo (ID).
Maaring pagtulungan ng iyong ego na maunawaan na hindi ito angkop o malusog, at sa halip ay
maaaring magmungkahi na kumuha lamang ng isang maayos na piraso o ibahagi ito sa iba
(EGO). Ang iyong superego ay maaaring ipaalam sa iyo na hindi ito tama sa moral na aspeto at
mas makabubuti na magbahagi ka na lang (SUPEREGO).
Isipin na ikaw ay masasabik sa pandaraya sa isang pagsusulit (ID). Ang iyong ego ay maaring
ipaalala sa iyo na ang pandaraya ay hindi patas at maaaring magkaroon ng negatibong mga
kahihinatnan, tulad ng mahuli at maparusahan (EGO). Ang iyong superego ay mag-eemphasize
ng kahalagahan ng integridad at katapatan, na nag-uudyok sa iyo na gawin ang tama at mag-aral
na lamang (SUPEREGO).
Isipin na ikaw ay galit at may impluwensiya na sigawan at insultuhin ang taong nagpaiyak sa iyo
(ID). Ang iyong ego ay maaaring mag-intervene at magmungkahi ng mahinahon at malusog na
paraan upang ipahiwatig ang iyong saloobin, tulad ng pag-uusap sa mga bagay-bagay o pagkuha
ng ilang sandali para magpalamig (EGO). Ang iyong superego ay maaaring ipaalala sa iyo na
tratuhin ang iba ng may kabaitan at respeto, kahit na galit ka (SUPEREGO).
Ang mga halimbawang ito ay nagpapakita kung paano nag-iinteraksyon ang tatlong bahagi ng
personalidad upang matulungan tayong magdesisyon at kumilos ng naaayon sa panlipunang
patakaran.

Freud’s Psycho-sexual Theory

Freud proposed that there were 5 stages of development.
Freud believed that the few people successfully completed all of 5 stages.

5 Psycho-sexual Stages of Development

1. Oral Stage (Birth-2 ). Infants achieve gratification through oral activities such as
feeding, thumb sucking and babbling.
Ang mga karanasang oral sa yugtong Oral ay maaaring magkaroon ng malalim na epekto sa pag-unlad ng
isang tao. Kung ang sanggol ay nakakaranas ng positibong karanasang oral kung saan naibigay ng
magulang ang tamang pagmamahal at pag-aaruga sa pamamagitan ng pagpapasuso at iba pang oral na
aktibidad, maaaring patibayin nito ang kanyang pang-emosyonal na seguridad at pagtitiwala sa sarili at sa
ibang tao. Ito ay magiging pundasyon para sa kanyang susunod na yugto ng pag-unlad.

2. Anal Stage (2-3 ). The child learns to respond to some of the demands of society.
Ang pagtutugon ng isang bata sa mga hinihingi ng lipunan sa aspeto ng pagdidumi ay maaaring maging
pagsubok sa kanyang kakayahang sumunod sa mga patakaran at kontrolin ang kanyang mga aksyon. Ang
pagkakaroon ng tamang pag-aaruga at paggabay mula sa mga magulang ay mahalaga upang
matuto ang bata na maayos na kontrolin ang kanyang bodily functions at sumunod sa mga social norms at
regulasyon.

Ang tamang pagtugon ng isang indibidwal sa mga hinihinging ito ay maaaring magdulot ng sense of
accomplishment at pag-unawang importante ang kanyang papel sa lipunan. Sa kabilang banda, ang hindi
tamang pagtugon o hindi pagkakaroon ng tamang pag-aaruga at paggabay mula sa mga magulang ay
maaaring magdulot ng mga problema sa pagkakaroon ng disiplina, pagsuway sa mga tuntunin ng lipunan,
o kawalan ng kontrol sa sarili.

Samakatuwid, ang karanasang ito sa yugtong Anal ay maaaring magbunsod ng pag-unlad ng mga
katangiang tulad ng pagiging responsable, pagiging disiplinado, at pagkakaroon ng malasakit sa mga
patakaran at regulasyon ng lipunan. Ang tamang pagtugon sa mga hinihingi ng lipunan sa yugtong ito ay
maaaring magtatakda ng mga pundasyon para sa mas malawak na aspeto ng pag-unlad ng isang
indibidwal bilang bahagi ng isang nakakabit na lipunan.

3. Phallic Stage (3-7 ). The child learns to realize the differences between males and
females and becomes aware of sexuality. Oedipus and Electra complexes are
resolved and identification with the same sex parents occurs to loss of interest in
opposite sex.
Ang Phallic Stage ay ang ikatlong yto ng psychosexual development ni Freud, na kadalasang nangyayari
sa pagitan ng 3 hanggang 7 taong gulang. Sa yugtong ito, ang bata ay natututo na maunawaan ang mga
pagkakaiba sa pagitan ng mga lalaki at mga babae, at ma-develop ng kamalayan sa aspeto ng sekswalidad.

Ang karanasang ito sa Phallic Stage ay naka-connect sa development ng isang indibidwal sa pamamagitan
ng paghubog ng kanyang kaisipan at pagsasanay ng mga konsepto at paniniwala tungkol sa sekswalidad at
mga relasyon.

Sa yugtong ito, ang batang lalaki ay maaaring magkaroon ng Oedipus complex, kung saan may
romantikong pagkakagusto o pagnanais sa kanyang ina at may pagkukumpetensya sa kanyang ama. Sa
kabilang banda, ang mga batang babae ay maaaring magkaroon ng Electra complex, kung saan
nararamdaman nila ang pagkakagusto o pagnanais sa kanilang ama at may pagkukumpetensya sa kanilang
ina.

Ang mga pagsisikap na malunasan ang Oedipus complex o Electra complex ay maaaring magdulot ng
pagkakakilanlan sa magulang ng parehong kasarian, kasama na ang pag-develop ng mga katangian at
paniniwala na tugma sa kanilang kasarian. Ang prosesong ito ay tinatawag na "identification," kung saan
tinatanggap ng bata ang mga katangian at halaga na nauugnay sa kasarian ng kanyang magulang.

Ang kabiguang malunasan ang Oedipus complex o Electra complex ay maaaring magdulot ng labis na
pagkaugat sa mga isyung sekswal at interpersonal habang lumalaki ang indibidwal. Kung hindi
naayos, maaaring magkaroon ng mga kumpulsyon, insecurities, o malalim na ugnayan sa magulang ng
kasarian na kadalasang nakakaapekto sa mga relasyon sa hinaharap.

Samakatuwid, ang mga karanasang ito sa yugtong Phallic ay magkakaroon ng epekto sa pag-unlad ng isang
indibidwal sa mga aspetong sekswalidad at identidad. Ang tamang pagkilala at pag-aaruga mula sa mga magulang ay
mahalaga upang matugunan ang mga pangangailangan ng bata sa yugtong ito at magkaroon siya ng maayos at
malusog na pag-unlad ng kaniyang seksuwal at interpersonal na aspeto bilang isang indibidwal.

4. Latency Stage ( 7-11). During this stage the libido is dormant and no further
psychosexual development takes place
Ang Latency Stage o yugtong Latency ang ikaapat yugto sa psychosexual development ni Freud. Karaniwang
nagaganap ito sa pagitan ng 7 hanggang 11 taong gulang. Sa yugtong ito, namamayani ang katahimikan o kawalan ng
aktibong seksuwal na pagnanais, at ang atensyon ng bata ay naka-focus sa mga aktibidad sa paaralan, pagkakaibigan,
at mga non-seksuwal na interes.

Ang yugtong Latency ay mahalaga sa pag-unlad ng tao dahil nagbibigay ito ng pagkakataon sa indibidwal na
matutunan ang mga sosyal at academic na kasanayan. Sa yugtong ito, ang indibidwal ay nakatuon sa pag-aaral,
pagpapalawak ng kaalaman, at pagbuo ng interpersonal na relasyon sa labas ng pamilya.

Ang mga karanasang nakukuha sa yugtong Latency ay nagbibigay daan sa pagbuo ng mga kasanayan tulad ng
pagtitiyaga, pagka-kompyuter, pagbibigay-pansin, at pagkakaroon ng malasakit sa iba. Ito rin ang panahon kung saan
ang mga batang indibidwal ay sumusulong sa pagbuo ng kanilang sariling mga interes at mga talento sa iba't ibang
larangan tulad ng musika, sports, sining, at iba pa.

Sa kanya-kanyang paraan, ang karanasang Latency ay nagpapalakas sa pagkatao ng isang indibidwal. Ito ay nagtuturo
sa kanya ng mga kasanayang kinakailangan para sa kinabukasan na mas malawaka. Sa pamamagitan ng pagkatuto at
pagbuo ng mga kaalaman at kasanayan sa panahon ng Latency Stage, nahuhubog ang indibidwal upang maging isang
produktibong miyembro ng lipunan.

Samakatuwid, ang yugtong Latency ay mahalaga sa pag-unlad ng isang indibidwal dahil dito siya nagkakaroon ng
mga kasanayan sa iba't ibang larangan at nagbuo ng mga interes at pagkakakilanlan. Ang mga karanasang natutunan
sa yugtong ito ay maaaring maging pundasyon para sa kanyang paglaki at pagtingin sa sarili bilang isang indibidwal
na may naiambag at natatanging kakayahan sa lipunan.

5. Genital Stage ( 11-Adult ). Increasing concern with adult ways of experiencing

sexual pleasure.

Ang Genital Stage o yugtong Genital huling yugto sa psychosexual development ni Freud, na kadalasang
nagaganap mula 11 taong gulang hanggang sa pagtanda. Sa yugtong ito, ang konsentrasyon ng indibidwal ay
nakatuon sa pagpapalawak ng social at intimate na mga relasyon, kasama na ang pagtuklas at pag-unawa sa
sekswal na pagkilos.
Ang yugtong Genital ay kaugnay sa pag-unlad ng tao sa aspetong interpersonal na relasyon at seksuwalidad.
Sa yugtong ito, ang indibidwal ay naghahanap ng mga malalim na koneksyon, pagmamahal, at pagka-intimate
sa ibang tao. Ito ay naglalayong makamit ang pagmamahal, kasiguruhan, at kasiyahan sa mga relatyon na
nakabatay sa pagpapahalaga sa kasarian at pagkakilanlan.

Ang mabuting pagtugon at pag-unawa sa yugtong Genital ay makakatulong sa pagbuo ng malusog na mga
intimate na relasyon. Ang indibidwal ay natututunan ang kahalagahan ng paggalang sa ibang tao, pakikinig sa
kanilang mga kailangan, at pagbibigay ng mga sariling pangangailangan at kasiyahan. Sa pamamagitan nito,
maaaring mabuo ang malusog na sekswal na buhay at nagiging handa ang indibidwal na magbigay at
tumanggap ng pagmamahal at intimacy ng iba.

Kung mayroon namang mga kahinaan sa pag-unlad sa yugtong Genital, ang indibidwal ay maaaring
magkaroon ng mga isyung tulad ng takot sa intimacy, kawalan ng tiwala sa ibang tao, o pagkabigo na makamit
ang tunay na kasiyahan sa mga relasyon. Maaaring maging sanhi ito ng mga hindi malusog na relasyon,
masamang karanasan sa intimacy, at hindi malusog na pag-unlad ng sekswalidad.

Sa pangkalahatan, ang yugtong Genital ay isang mahalagang bahagi ng pag-unlad ng tao dahil dito nakukuha
niya ang mga kasanayan, kaalaman, at karanasan sa pagpapalawak ng kanyang mga relasyon, pagka-intimate,
at sekswalidad. Ang malusog na pagtugon sa yugtong ito ay maaaring magdulot ng kadakilaan at kasiyahan sa
mga intimong relasyon, habang ang mga isyung hindi naresolba ay maaaring magdulot ng mga hamon at
isyung interpersonal sa buhay ng indibidwal.

Oral Stage (Birth-2 years): In this stage, infants achieve pleasure and satisfaction through oral
activities such as breastfeeding, bottle-feeding, thumb-sucking, and babbling. An example would
be a baby finding comfort and pleasure in sucking on a pacifier or bottle.

Anal Stage (2-3 years): During this stage, the child learns to respond to the demands of society
regarding toilet training and control over bodily functions. An example would be a toddler starting
to understand the need to use the toilet and successfully learning to control their bladder and bowel
movements.

Phallic Stage (3-7 years): In this stage, children become aware of their gender and the differences
between males and females. They may develop feelings of attraction towards the parent of the
opposite sex and experience the Oedipus complex (boys) or the Electra complex (girls). These
complexes are resolved through identification with the same-sex parent. An example would be a
young boy feeling a strong attachment to his mother and wanting to compete with his father for her
attention.

Latency Stage (7-11 years): During this stage, the child's sexual impulses go into dormancy, and
there is no further development of psychosexual characteristics. The focus of the child's energy
switches to socialization, learning, and developing relationships outside the family. An example
would be a school-age child focusing on academic pursuits, friendships, and extracurricular
activities, with minimal interest in sexual matters.

Genital Stage (11-Adulthood): During this final stage, individuals experience a renewed interest in
sexual pleasure and develop mature intimate relationships. There is an increased focus on adult
ways of experiencing sexual pleasure, including forming emotional connections and engaging in
consensual sexual relationships. An example would be an adolescent who is developing romantic
relationships and exploring their sexual feelings and desires within appropriate social and
emotional boundaries.

Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust. The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage
in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.
Ang Trust vs. Mistrust stage ay mahalaga sa development ng isang tao dahil ito ang yugto kung saan
unang natututunan ng isang sanggol na magtiwala sa mundo at sa mga tao sa kanyang paligid. Ang
pangangalaga at pagmamahal na natatanggap ng sanggol mula sa kanyang mga magulang o caregivers ay
nagtatag ng pundasyon ng tiwala sa mundo at sarili.

Kung ang sanggol ay nakakaranas ng consistent, responsive, at nurturing na

pangangalaga, natututuhan nito na ang mundo ay ligtas at maaasahan. Ito ay naglalagay ng
batang sanggol sa estado ng pagtitiwala, kung saan nakikilala niya ang sarili bilang isang kapaki-pakinabang at
importante na indibidwal.

Halimbawa, si Baby Sophia ay may mga magulang na palaging agad na sumasagot kapag siya ay nangangailangan ng
pagkain o pag-aalaga. Ang kanyang mga magulang ay gumagawa ng mga routine para sa kanyang pagkain, pagtulog,
at pangangalaga sa pangangailangan ng kanyang katawan. Kapag siya ay umiiyak, agad itong inaakay at pinauupo ng
kanyang mga magulang upang ma-comfort. Dahil sa patuloy na maayos na pangangalaga na ibinibigay sa kanya,
natutuhan ni Baby Sophia na tiwalaan ang kanyang mga magulang at sa mundo na kanyang kinabibilangan.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The second stage of Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children
developing a greater sense of personal control.
Ang Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt stage ay ikalawang yugto sa teorya ng psychosocial development ni
Erik Erikson. Ito ay kadalasang nangyayari mula sa 1 hanggang 3 taong gulang. Sa yugtong ito,
natututuhan ng isang bata na magkaroon ng pagka-sarili at kaya na gawin ang mga bagay sa sarili.

Ang yugtong ito ay may kaugnayan sa pag-unlad ng indibidwal na magkaroon ng pagkadigmaan,

katiyakan, at pagiging kompiyansa sa sarili. Kapag ang bata ay pinapahintulutan na mag-explore at
magdesisyon sa mga simpleng bagay tulad ng pagpili ng damit o kumain ng sariling pagkain, natututuhan
niya ang kahalagahan ng pagka-sarili at pagkakaroon ng kontrol sa mga bagay sa paligid.

Kung ang karanasan ng bata sa yugtong ito ay puno ng paghihigpit, paghihigpit, o kawalan ng pagsuporta
sa kanyang pagka-sarili, maaaring magdulot ito ng pagdududa sa sarili at kahihiyan. Ito ay maaaring
magdulot ng mga isyung tulad ng kawalan ng tiwala sa sarili, takot sa pagsusubok, at kawalan ng
kakayahan na makipagtulungan sa ibang tao.

Ang mga karanasang nakukuha sa yugtong Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt ay magkakaroon ng malalim
na epekto sa pag-unlad ng tao. Ang malusog na pag-unlad sa yugtong ito ay mahalaga upang mabuo ang
pagiging independyente, kakayahang gumawa ng desisyon, at pagiging kumpiyansa sa sarili. Ang mga
negatibong karanasan sa yugtong ito, sa kabilang banda, ay maaaring magdulot ng mga hamon at
problema sa pag-unlad ng indibidwal sa mga susunod na yugto ng kanyang buhay.
Sa pangkalahatan, ang yugtong Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt ay naglalayong palakasin ang pagkatao
ng indibidwal sa aspeto ng pagka-sarili, kakayahan, at kumpiyansa. Ang tamang suporta at pagtangkilik
mula sa mga magulang at tagapalaki ay mahalaga

relates to the stage where children develop a sense of independence and self-assurance, or may experience
feelings of shame and doubt in their abilities.

Autonomy, as discussed earlier, refers to a child's developing sense of independence and control over their
own actions and choices. It entails the ability to assert oneself, explore the environment, and make about
daily tasks.

the other hand, shame doubt refer to negative and uncertainty that a may experience if their attempts
independence are met with, control, or punitive. When children's for autonomy is consistently thwarted or
if they face constant disapproval, they may ashamed of their efforts and doubt their own capabilities.

In Erikson's theory the Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt stage occurs during early childhood, typically
between the ages of 1 to 3 years old. During this stage, children strive to gain a sense of autonomy and
self-confidence. Positive experiences that support and encourage their independence help them develop a
healthy sense of autonomy and confidence in their abilities.

However, if children consistently face criticism, excessive control, or are made to feel ashamed of their
attempts at independence, they may develop feelings of shame, doubt, and a lack of self-confidence.

Overall, the meaning related to autonomy and shame and doubt in this context highlights the importance
of supporting children's autonomy and providing a nurturing environment that encourages their
independence while avoiding excessive control or shame. A positive and supportive environment during
this stage can foster healthy emotional development and build confidence in a child's abilities.

during this stage, children start to assert their independence and explore their environment. They want to
do things on their own, as dressing themselves, feeding themselves, and making choices. They begin to
develop a sense of autonomy and self-confidence in their abilities.

If children are encouraged and supported in their desire for autonomy, they develop a sense of self-
assurance and independence. They gain confidence in their abilities and learn to trust themselves.
However, if children are constantly criticized, controlled, or shamed for their efforts to be independent,
they may develop a sense of shame and doubt in their own capabilities.

The experiences and guidance children receive during the Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt stage play a
crucial role in their overall development. This stage sets the foundation for their sense of self, their belief
in their own abilities, and their willingness to explore the world around them.
By fostering autonomy and providing opportunities for children to make choices, take risks, and learn
from their experiences, parents and caregivers can support their healthy development in building a sense
of autonomy and self-confidence. This will have a positive impact on their growth and future stages of
psychosocial development.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt. The third stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development takes place during pre-school years. At this point in psychosocial
development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interaction.
The Initiative vs. Guilt stage is the third stage Erik Erikson's of psychosocial development. It typically
occurs during early childhood, between the ages of 3 to 6 years old. This stage is all about the's increasing
sense of purpose, initiative, and their newly developing sense of guilt.
During the Initiative vs. Guilt stage, children start to take on new roles and responsibilities. They become
more active in exploring the world around them and engaging in imaginative play. They begin to develop
a sense of purpose and initiative, wanting to take on tasks and accomplish things on their own.
This is also the stage when children start to internalize the standards and values of their family and
society. They learn about what is considered right and wrong, and they develop a conscience. If children
are encouraged and supported in their efforts to take initiative and explore their interests, they develop a
sense of purpose and confidence in their abilities.
However, if children's efforts are overly controlled or if they are constantly criticized or made to feel
guilty for their actions, they may develop a sense of guilt and self-doubt. They may become hesitant to
take initiatives and feel ashamed or anxious about expressing themselves.
It is important for parents, caregivers, and educators to provide a nurturing and supportive environment
during this stage. Encouraging children's curiosity, creativity, and independence allows them to develop a
sense of purpose and confidence in their abilities. This stage helps shape children's sense of initiative,
which becomes a foundation for their future motivation, goal-setting, and problem-solving skills.
In summary, the Initiative vs. Guilt stage focuses on children's budding sense of purpose, initiative, and
responsibility. Nurturing their initiative while avoiding excessive control or criticism helps children
develop a healthy sense of self, allowing them to explore their interests and contribute positively to their
personal growth and development.

Sarah, a 4-year-old girl, wants to help her mom with household chores. Her mom encourages her by
giving her simple tasks like setting the table or sweeping the floor. Sarah feels a sense of purpose and
accomplishment, developing her initiative
Emma is constantly criticized by her parents for making a mess when she tries to help in the kitchen. As a
result, she becomes hesitant to take initiative and feels guilty whenever she wants to try something new.
This can potentially hinder her confidence and willingness to explore.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority. The fourth stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Sa yugtong Industriya vs. Kabang-loob, ang mga bata ay nagsisikap na magpakita ng kahusayan at
magkaroon ng industriya sa kanilang mga gawain. Kapag sila ay nae-encourage at sinusuportahan,
nararamdaman nila ang kumpiyansa sa kanilang mga kakayahan. Ngunit kung sila ay patuloy na pinupuna
o hindi pinapansin, maaaring madama nila ang kababaang-loob at pagdududa sa kanilang sarili. Mahalaga
na magbigay ng suporta at papuri upang matulungan ang mga bata na maipakita ang kanilang kahusayan
at magkaroon ng tiwala sa sarili nila

Si James ay madalas na pinupuna ng kanyang coach sa pagsasanay ng soccer. Nagsisimula siyang

magduda sa kanyang mga kasanayan, nakakaramdam ng kawalan ng konpidensa sa sarili, at nagkakaroon
ng kahinaan ng loob kumpara sa kanyang mga kasamahan sa koponan.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion. The fifth stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence
behavior and development for the rest of a person’s life. Teens need to develop a sense
of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while
failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Mia is a teenager who is exploring different interests and activities to figure out her true passions. She
tries out various clubs, sports, and artistic outlets. Through this exploration, she discovers her love for
photography and consistently pursues it. She feels a strong sense of identity and purpose as a
photographer, which helps her build confidence and make decisions aligned with her interests and values.

On the other hand, let's consider another example:

Alex, also a teenager, feels confused about his identity. He is unsure about his future goals and struggles
to find activities or hobbies that truly resonate with him. He constantly switches interests and struggles to
commit to any one path. This lack of clarity and confusion may lead Alex to feel unsure about who he is
and what he wants, causing a sense of identity crisis and feelings of insecurity.
In these examples, Mia demonstrates the successful navigation of the Identity vs. Confusion stage, while
Alex is experiencing confusion and uncertainty. It is important for teenagers, like Alex, to be supported
and guided in their exploration of different interests and values, helping them develop a clearer sense of
identity

. dentity vs. Confusion stage is an important part of adolescent development, typically occurring during
the years. At this stage, adolescents start to question and explore different aspects of their identity. They
may wonder about their values, beliefs, roles, and aspirations, seeking to establish a clear understanding of
who they are as individuals.
During this stage, adolescents embark on a journey of self-discovery, trying out various activities,
exploring different interests, and interacting with diverse social groups. They may experiment with
different styles, hobbies, and relationships as they strive to understand their preferences and find their own
place in the world. This exploration allows them to gather experiences and information that contribute to
the development of their identity.

Successful exploration and resolution of the Identity vs. Confusion stage lead to the establishment of a
solid sense of self. Adolescents who have a clear understanding of their values, interests, and goals are
more likely to make informed decisions and pursue paths that align with their authentic selves. They feel
more confident and secure in their identity, contributing to their overall well-being.

On the other hand, adolescents who are unable to navigate this stage successfully may experience identity
confusion. They may struggle to make decisions, feeling unsure about their values, beliefs, and ambitions.
This can lead to feelings of insecurity, internal conflict, and a general lack of direction.

Support is crucial during this stage. Parents, educators, and mentors play an important role in providing
guidance and creating a safe and supportive environment for adolescents to explore their identity.
Encouraging open communication, being attentive to their interests, and respecting their choices can help
foster a positive identity formation process.

It is important to note that the process of identity formation is not a linear journey and may continue
throughout a person's life. However, establishing a foundation of self-understanding and confidence
during the Identity vs. Confusion stage sets the stage for a healthier sense of self and a more fulfilling life.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation. Young adults need to form intimate, loving
relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure
results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when
people are exploring personal relationships.
ng matagumpay na pagtawid sa yugtong Intimacy vs. Isolation ay nagreresulta sa kakayahang magtatag ng
malalim na ugnayan at maunawaan ang tunay na koneksyon sa ibang tao. Ito ay nagbibigay-daang
magkumpiyansa, bukas na pagtanggap sa emosyonal na komunikasyon, at pagbibigay ng sarili sa relatong
itinatayo sa batayan ng respeto at pag-unawa.

Sa kabilang panig, ang mga indibidwal na nahihirapang magtatag ng malalim na ugnayan o nagkakaroon
ng problema sa pagtitiwala at emosyonal na intimacy ay maaaring magdulot ng pag-iisa. Maaari silang
magkaroon ng pakiramdam ng pagkawala ng koneksyon, kalungkutan, at kawalan ng matinding ugnayan
sa iba. Ang pag-iisang ito ay maaring magdulot ng pakiramdam ng kawalan ng kahulugan, pagka-isolate
sa lipunan, at kakulangan sa kasiyahan sa mga relasyon at buong buhay ng indibidwal.

Ang yugtong Intimacy vs. Isolation ay isang mahalagang panahon para sa mga indibidwal na malinang
ang kasanayan sa pagkakaroon ng malalim na ugnayan at magtatag ng isang network ng suportadong
relasyon. Ito ay nangangailangan ng pagsasakripisyo, pagiging handa sa emosyonal na pagbubukas, at
pag-invest ng oras at pagsisikap sa pagbuo ng mga ugnayan sa iba.
Mahalagang tandaan na ang intimacy ay hindi lamang nauugnay sa mga romantikong relasyon. Ito ay
naglalaman ng malawak na hanay ng malapit na ugnayan, kabilang ang mga kaibigan, pamilya, at
pakikilahok sa komunidad. Ang intimacy ay tungkol sa pagtatag ng makabuluhang koneksyon kung saan
ang mga indibidwal ay nararamdaman, nauunawaan, at pinahahalagahan.

Sa pamamagitan ng matatag na at kasiya-siyang malalim na ugnayan, maaaring makaranas ang mga

indibidwal ng pag-unlad ng kamalayan sa sarili, seguridad sa emosyon, at makatagpo ng mga taong
maaaring magbigay suporta sa kanila. Ito ang nagbibigay ng pundasyon para sa personal na paglago, at
nagtatakda ng direksyon para sa iba't ibang yugto ng pag-unlad ng isang indibidwal sa buhay.

Anna, na nasa kanyang mga 20s, ay nagtatagumpay sa pagtawid sa yugto ng Intimacy

vs. Isolation. Siya ay bukas na nagbibigay ng tiwala at nagpapahayag ng kanyang mga
emosyon sa mga taong malalapit sa kanya. Siya ay aktibong nagtatag ng mga malalim na
ugnayan sa mga kaibigan at karelasyon sa pag-ibig. Sa pamamagitan ng malalim na
pagkakakonekta sa iba, nakakamit ni Anna ang isang malalim at makabuluhan na
pangkalahatang kasiyahan sa kanyang buhay.

Si Mark, na nasa kanyang mga 30s, ay nag-iisa at nagkakaroon ng problema sa

pagbubuo ng malalim na ugnayan. Siya ay nag-aalangan na magtiwala at buksan ang
kanyang sarili sa emosyonal na intimacy. Dahil sa takot sa pagkasaktan o pagkabigo,
kinakailangan ni Mark ang pag-iisa at hindi siya nakakapagkaroon ng malalim na
koneksyon sa ibang tao.to ay nagdudulot ng pagkukulang ng pagkaumpleto at sama ng
loob sa kanyang buhay
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation. Adults need to create or nurture things that will
outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other
people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results
in shallow involvement in the world.
Ang salitang "pagkalugmok" ay tumutuk sa tila pagkakabahala o kamangmangan sa pamamaraan ng pag-
unlad o pag-asenso sa buhay. Ito ay isang estado ng hindi paggalaw o hindi pag-aksyon, kung saan
nawawalan ng direksyon o sigla ang isang tao. Sa konteksto ng "generativity vs. stagnation," ang
"pagkalugmok" ay nangangahulugang hindi maayos na paglahok o pakikisangkot sa mundo at sa
pagkakataon na magbahagi ng kaalaman, talento, at pagmamahal sa iba.

mag-iwan ng magandang impact sa mundo

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair. The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and
is focused on reflecting back on life. At this point in development, people look back on
the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if
they regret the things they did or didn’t do.
ang integridad at kahihiyan ay nagpapakita ng magkaibang pananaw sa pagtingin sa buhay at nakaraan.
Ang integridad ay nagdudulot ng kasiyahan, kasiyahan, at pagkakaisa, habang ang kahihiyan ay
nagdudulot ng panghihinayang, pagkabigo, at hindi pagkakasunduan sa sarili. Ang pag-unawa at
pakikitungo sa yugtong ito ay mahalaga sa pagkakaroon ng positibong perspektibo sa buhay habang
hinaharap ang pagtanda at hinaharap ng mga hamon na kasama nit

Sa yugtong ito, ang taong nagmamay-ari ng mga karanasan at kagustuhang naganap sa buhay. Ang
integridad ay nangangahulugang pagkakaroon ng pagkakaisa at pagkakatugma ng mga pagkakamali at
tagumpay sa buhay. Ito ay nagbibigay ng pagmamalaking nakaraan at pakiramdam ng kasiyahan sa pag-
unawa na may kabuluhan ang kanilang buhay.

Sa kabilang dako, ang kahihiyan ay ang kabaligtaran ng integridad. Ito ay nagreresulta sa pakiramdam ng
pag-aalinlangan, panghihinayang, at kabiguang tanggapin o harapin ang mga nagdaang pangyayari ng
buhay. Ang mga tao na nahihirapan sa yugtong ito ay maaaring magkahawig ng mga salitang "nawalan ng
pag-asa" at "pagsisisi," na nagreresulta sa hindi pagkabuo ng buhay at hindi pagtanggap ng mga kamalian
at kabiguan na naganap sa nakaraan.

Samakatuwid, ang "Integrity vs. Despair" ay isang yugto sa pagkatao kung saan ang mga matatanda ay
hinaharap ang pagtanggap at integrasyon ng mga karanasan at naisasantabi ang mga panghihinayang sa
buhay. Ang tagumpay sa yugtong ito ay nagdudulot ng pagkakaisa, pagka-buong pagkatao, at kasiyahan
sa pag-unawa sa kahalagahan ng kanilang buhay. Ngunit ang kabiguan ay nagreresulta sa kawalan ng pag-
asa, panghihinayang, at hindi pagtanggap sa mga pangyayari sa nakaraan.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development.

Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of
intellectual development that included four distinct stages:
1. Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years
- The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
- Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening.
- Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence).
- They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
- They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them.

ungkol sa mundo sa pamamagitan ng kanilang mga pakiramdam at kilos.

Halimbawa ng sensorimotor na yugto ay ang pagkakaroon ng kaisipang permanente ng mga bagay. Sa

mga 8 hanggang 9 na buwang gulang, nagsisimulang maunawaan ng mga sanggol na ang mga bagay ay
patuloy na nag-eexist kahit hindi nila ito nakikita. Bago ito, kapag ang isang bagay ay hindi na nakikita,
maaaring isipin ng sanggol na ito ay nawala na.
 Halimbawa, kung ang isang tagapag-alaga ay tatakpan ang isang laruan ng kumot sa harap ng isang
sanggol na may edad na 6 na buwan, maaaring isipin ng sanggol na ang laruan ay naglaho na.
Gayunpaman, sa paglapit ng sanggol sa mga 9 na buwang gulang, mag-uumpisa silang maunawaan na ang
laruan ay naroon pa rin kahit ito ay pansamantalang nakatago. Maaring maghanap sila ng laruan o alisin
ang kumot upang hanapin ito.

Ang pag-unlad ng kaisipang permanente ng mga bagay sa yugtong ng sensorimotor ay mahalaga upang
maunawaan ng mga sanggol na ang mga bagay ay may patuloy na pag-eexist, kahit na sila ay wala nang
kitaan. Ito ang importante na sangkap sa kanilang kognitibong pag-unlad, at nagsisilbing pundasyon para
sa mga susunod nilang yugto ng pag-iisip at paglutas ng mga suliranin.

2. Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7

- Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
- Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
- While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.
3. Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11
- During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
- They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
- Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
- Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle.
4. Formal Opertional Stage: Ages 12 and up
- At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems.
- Abstract thought emerges.
- Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
- Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information.

Important Concepts
Schema
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand
the world.
Schemas are mental categories that help us understand and interpret the world us. They are like mental
templates that guide our thoughts and behaviors. Schemas are formed through our experiences and
interactions and help us make sense of new information by fitting it into existing knowledge. They
influence how we perceive, remember, and solve problems. Schemas can be flexible and can change as we
encounter new information and experiences.

Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences
and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.

Assimilation is when we take in new information and fit it into our existing understanding of the world.
It's like fitting puzzle pieces together. We tend to modify or slightly change the new information to make
it fit with what we already believe.

For example, let's say you have a schema or belief that all dogs are friendly. If you encounter a dog that
behaves aggressively, you might try to assimilate this new information by thinking that the dog must be
scared or having a bad day. You explain the dog's behavior in a way that still fits with your belief that
dogs are friendly.

Assimilation helps us make sense of the world quickly. We use our existing knowledge to understand and
interpret new experiences. However, sometimes this can lead to biases or misconceptions because we
might not fully consider conflicting information.

To summarize, assimilation is when we incorporate new information into our existing understanding by
adjusting it slightly. It allows us to quickly make sense of new experiences, but we need to be open to
updating our beliefs if new information shows that our previous understanding may be inaccurate.

Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of
new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves
modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.
New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Accommodation is when we change or adjust our existing ideas or mental frameworks to fit new
information or experiences. It's like updating our knowledge to make it more accurate and complete.
Imagine you have a schema or idea that all fruits are sweet. One day, you try a lemon and discover that it
is sour. In order to accommodate this new information, you need to modify your existing idea that all
fruits are sweet. You now understand that not all fruits are sweet, and you update your schema to include
sour fruits.

Accommodation helps us refine our understanding of the world by incorporating new information that
doesn't fit with our existing beliefs. It allows us to adapt and develop more accurate schemas based on our
experiences.

Another example could be if a child learns that not all birds can fly. They may have to accommodate their
previous belief that all birds can fly with the new knowledge that some birds, like penguins or ostriches,
are flightless. They modify their existing schema of birds to include both flying and non-flying species.

Accommodation is an important part of learning and cognitive development. It helps us expand our
understanding and adjust our beliefs to better reflect reality. By accommodating new information, we can
develop more nuanced and accurate mental frameworks that allow us to navigate and interpret the world
more effectively.

Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As
children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain
how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.
Ang equilibration ay proseso kung saan sinisikap ng mga bata na makahanap ng balanse sa pagitan ng
assimilation at accommodation. Gusto nilang maunawaan ang bagong impormasyon habang
pinananatiling konsistent at stable ang kanilang pagkaunawa sa mundo.

Halimbawa, isipin natin na ang isang bata ay naniniwalang lahat ng hayop na nabubuhay sa tubig ay isda.
Isang araw, nakakita sila ng isang dolphin, na sa katunayan ay isang mammal na nabubuhay sa tubig. Ito
ay nagulat sa kanila at nagbago sa kanilang dating paniniwala. Upang maabot ang equilibrium, kailangan
ng bata na ayusin ang kanilang paniniwala sa pamamagitan ng paglikha ng isang bagong kategorya para sa
mga marine mammal na nabubuhay sa tubig, na iba sa mga isda. Sa ganitong paraan, ang kanilang
pagkaunawa ngayon ay kasama ang mga isda at mga marine mammal.

Ang equilibration ay tumutulong sa atin na maunawaan kung paano lumalaki at nagbabago ang kaisipan
ng mga bata. Patuloy silang naglalayong makahanap ng balanse sa pagitan ng pag-fit ng bagong
impormasyon sa kanilang kasalukuyang mga ideya at pagbabago ng mga ideya upang tugma sa bagong
impormasyon. Ito ay tumutulong sa kanila na pumunta mula sa isang antas ng pag-iisip patungo sa
susunod, na nagtatayo ng isang mas malawak at mas tama na pagkaunawa ng mundo

Isang halimbawa ng equilibrium ay ang pagbabalanse ng oras sa pag-aaral at paglalaro para sa isang
estudyante. Para maabot ang equilibrium, ang estudyante ay dapat maglaan ng sapat na oras at sipag sa
pag-aaral upang makakuha ng magandang mga marka, ngunit hindi rin dapat kalimutan ang pagkakaroon
ng pahinga at paglalaro para sa kalusugan at kasiyahan. Kapag ang estudyante ay nagagawa ang mga ito,
nagkaroon ng equilibrium sa kanilang buhay. May mga maay na resulta sa pag-aaral samantalang hindi rin
hindi nilainalimutan ang personal na kaligayahan at kabutihan ng kanilang sarili.

When we talk about schema, we are referring to mental frameworks or categories of knowledge that help
us make sense of the world around us. It includes both our thoughts and actions when it comes to
understanding and knowing things.

Assimilation is a process where we incorporate new information into our existing schemas. We tend to
interpret and understand new experiences based on our preexisting beliefs and knowledge. For example, if
a child has a schema for a bird as a small, flying animal, they may assimilate the sight of a butterfly into
their bird schema until they learn that butterflies are a separate kind of creature.

On the other hand, accommodation occurs when we modify or change our existing schemas to fit new
information or experiences. It involves adjusting our thoughts and beliefs to account for new knowledge.
For instance, if a child initially thinks that all four-legged creatures are dogs, but then learns about other
animals like cats and horses, they accommodate their schema for four-legged animals to include these new
examples.

Equilibration is a process that helps children find a balance between assimilation and accommodation. It is
the mechanism through which children strive to achieve cognitive balance by applying their existing
knowledge (assimilation) and adapting their thinking to accommodate new information (accommodation).
It allows for cognitive growth and the progression from one stage of thinking to the next as children strive
to find harmony between their existing knowledge and new experiences.

Overall, schema, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration are fundamental concepts in Piaget's
theory of cognitive development. They explain how children organize and make sense of the world,
adjusting their thoughts and beliefs as they encounter new information and experiences.

Kohlberg’s 3 Levels and 6 Stages of Moral Development

Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until
approximately age 9. At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal
 code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults
and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1: Obedience - Punishment Orientation
The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is
punished, they must have done wrong.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed
down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Pre-conventional morality refers to a basic level of moral development observed young children.
At stage, children are primarily focused on avoiding punishment and seeking personal rewards.
They follow rules mainly to avoid getting in trouble or to benefit themselves.

There are two stages within pre-conventional morality:

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation - Children in this stage believe that the right
thing to do is what avoids punishment. They follow rules to avoid getting reprimanded or facing
consequences. For example, a child may not take a cookie from a jar because they know they
will get trouble if caught.

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation - In this stage, children consider their own interests
and the interests of others. They make decisions based on what brings them personal gain or
rewards. For instance, a child might share their toys with others in order to be liked and receive
favors in return.

It's important to remember that pre-conventional morality is common in young children, but
individuals can still exhibit this type of thinking as they grow older in certain situations. As
people develop morally, they typically move on to more advanced stages of moral reasoning,
such as conventional morality and post-conventional morality.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and is characterized by
an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level
(most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued
adult role models.
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by
others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
 Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order
The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments
concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Sa conventional morality, nauunawaan ng mga t ang mga karani batas at asal ng lipunan. Sila
ay nagbabase ng kanilang mga moral na desisyon sa pagpapanatili ng kaayusan sa lipunan at
pagkakaroon ng pag-apruba mula sa iba. Ang kanang atensyon ay naglilipat mula sa pansariling
interes tungo sa pagtugon sa mga halaga at inaasahan ng kanilang grupo. Mayroong dalawang
yugto sa conventional morality:

Yugto 3: Mabubuting Ugnayang Panlipunan - Sa yugtong ito, hinahangad ng mga tao na maging
mabuting kasama at makakuha ng pagkilala mula sa iba. Ang kanilang mga moral na desisyon
ay batay sa kung paano sila nakikita ng iba at sa pagpapanatili ng magandang ugnayan.
Mahalaga sa kanila ang pagsunod sa mga inaasahan ng lipunan at pagpapahalaga sa kasiyahan
ng ibang tao. Halimbawa, maaaring tumulong ang isang tao sa isang kaibigan sa panahon ng
kagipitan dahil nais nilang ituring bilang magandang tao at mapanatili ang positibong
pagkakaibigan.

Yugto 4: Paggalang sa Kinikilalang Pangkalahatang Batas - Sa yugtong ito, pinahahalagahan

ng mga tao ang mga batas at regulasyon ng lipunan. Nauunawaan nila na ang mga batas ay
ginawa para sa kabutihan ng lahat at sinusunod nila ito upang mapanatili ang kaayusan sa
lipunan. Ang mga moral na desisyon ay batay sa pagtupad sa tungkulin at pagsunod sa
awtoridad. Halimbawa, maaaring hindi mandayuhan ng isang tao sa isang pagsusulit dahil
naniniwala siyang mahalaga na sumunod sa mga patakaran at mapanatiling patas ang sistema
ng edukasyon.

Sa conventional morality, nagbibigay prayoridad ang mga tao sa mga asahan ng komunidad at
sumusunod sa mga batas at asal ng lipunan. Ang kanilang mga desisyon ay batay sa pagnanais
na magkaroon ng kaayusan sa lipunan at mapabilang sa grupo. Gayunpaman, mahalagang
tandaan na hindi lahat ay umuusad pataas sa yugtong ito, at maaaring ipinapakita pa rin ng
ibang tao ang combination ng pre-conventional at conventional na pag-iisip depende sa
sitwasyon at sariling mga halaga.

Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality

Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterized
by an individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and
ill-defined, but might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of
human dignity.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
- The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the
good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the
interest of particular individuals.
- The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the
protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

- People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may
or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
 Post-conventional morality is the highest level of moral
development At this stage, develop their own moral values
and principles, which may go beyond what society expects.
They base their decisions on universal ethical principles and
their own sense of justice, rather than just following rules.
There are two stages in post-conventional morality:

 Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation - In this stage, people
understand that rules and laws are important for the greater
good, but they also recognize that they can be questioned and
changed if they are unfair. They make decisions by
considering the values and principles behind the rules and
balancing individual rights with the needs of the community.
For example, someone might participate in protests to
advocate for changing unfair laws.

 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles - At this stage, people
develop their own ethical principles that they believe are
important for everyone. They make decisions based on these
principles, even if they go against societal norms or laws. For
instance, someone might engage in civil disobedience to
protest against an unjust law, guided by their belief in
fairness and justice.

 In post-conventional morality, people have their own internal
sense of what is right and wrong. They think critically about
societal norms and make choices based on their own beliefs
about what is ethical and just. It's important to note that not
everyone reaches this level of moral development, and people
 may still display characteristics of lower stages in certain
situations.


 Post-conventional morality refers to a stage of moral

development where individuals their own personal set moral
values and principles, independent of societal norms and
expectations. In this stage, people base their moral decisions
on universal ethical principles and their own sense of justice,
rather than simply following rules or seeking approval from
others. They prioritize fairness, equality, and the greater
good, even if it means going against societal norms or laws.
Essentially, post-conventional morality reflects an individual's
ability to think independently and make moral choices guided
by their own internal ethical compass

Lev Vygotsky Socio-Cultural Theory

Emphasizes the crucial influence that social inter-actions and language, embedded
within a circular context, have on cognitive development.
Initiative Learning - a person tries to imitate or copy another person.
Instructed Learning - a person remembers the instructions of the teacher uses
them to self -regulate.
Collaborative Learning - a group of person who arrive to understand each
other and they work together to learn specific skills.
Social Interaction
- Emphasizing the effective learning happens through participation in
social activities.
Language
It can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture, every culture
has the words it needs for lifestyle, it also open the door for
learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
Private Speech - is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s
thinking and action.
Zone of Proximal Development. The distance between the student’s ability to
perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the
student’s ability solving the problem independently.
Zone of Actual Development
- Refer in which child may perform at a certain level of competency
and she/he may not immediately proficient at it.
 o Scaffolding. Refers to providing support and resources to help a
child learn new skills, and then gradually removing the support as
child improves.
ev Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory emphasizes significant impact that social interactions and language,
within a contextual framework, have on cognitive development. According to this theory, learning and
development occur through three main types of interactions: initiative learning, instructed learning, and
collaborative learning.

Initiative learning occurs when an individual tries to imitate or copy another person. They observe
someone else's actions or behavior and attempt to replicate it. This form of learning is driven by the
individual's innate curiosity and desire to learn from others.

Instructed learning refers to the process in which a person remembers and follows the instructions
provided by a teacher or mentor. The individual uses these instructions to guide their own learning and
self-regulation. They internalize the instructions and apply them independently.

Collaborative learning involves a group of individuals coming together to understand each other and work
together to learn specific skills or knowledge. Through communication, cooperation, and shared problem-
solving, individuals contribute to each other's learning and collectively achieve a deeper understanding.

Vygotsky's theory highlights the importance of social interaction in the learning process. It suggests that
effective learning occurs through active participation in social activities, interactions, and dialogues with
knowledgeable others.

Language is considered a vital component in Vygotsky's theory. It is viewed as a verbal expression of

culture, reflecting the specific words and concepts unique to a particular society. Language serves as a tool
for communication, social interaction, and cognitive development. It allows learners to acquire knowledge
that has already been accumulated by others in their culture.

Private speech is another concept in Vygotsky's theory. It refers to the self-talk that children engage in to
guide their thinking and actions. Through private speech, children verbalize their thoughts, solve
problems, and regulate their behavior. Over time, private speech becomes internalized and transforms into
inner speech or silent thinking.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is a key concept in Vygotsky's theory. It refers to the gap
between a student's ability to perform a task with adult guidance or peer collaboration and their ability to
solve the problem independently. The ZPD represents the level of challenge that is optimal for a student's
development. Teachers and peers provide the necessary support and scaffolding to help the student
progress in their learning. As the student gains proficiency, the scaffolding is gradually removed.
The Zone of Actual Development refers to the level of competency at which a child can perform
independently. It indicates the child's current abilities, skills, and knowledge.

Scaffolding refers to the process of providing support, resources, and guidance to help a child learn new
skills or knowledge. The support is gradually reduced as the child becomes more capable and independent
in their learning. The scaffolding process ensures that the child is appropriately challenged and supported
in their learning journey.
Ex.
Initiative Learning: A toddler observes their older sibling stacking blocks to create a tower. Intrigued, the
toddler attempts to imitate their sibling by also stacking the blocks, even though they may not fully
comprehend the purpose or technique behind it. In this case, the toddler is engaging in initiative learning
by observing and attempting to replicate the behavior they witnessed.
2.structed Learning: A teacher gives explicit instructions to a group of students on how to solve a math
problem. The students carefully follow the instructions, step by step, to arrive at the correct answer. The
students are using instructed learning, as they rely on the provided instructions to guide their own
problem-solving process.

Collaborative Learning: A group of students is assigned a group project that requires them to research and
present information on a particular topic. The students engage in discussions, divide tasks, share ideas, and
collaborate closely throughout the project. Through this collaborative learning process, they collectively
gain a deeper understanding of the topic and learn valuable teamwork skills.

Social Interaction: A child is playing a game with their peers, taking turns and following rules. Through
the social interactions during the game, they develop their social skills, learn about cooperation, and
understand the importance of following rules for a smooth and fair experience.

Language: A preschool teacher reads a story aloud to a group of children, engaging them in discussion
about the characters, plot, and moral lessons from the story. The children learn new vocabulary, expand
their understanding of storytelling, and develop their language abilities through this interactive language
experience.

Private Speech: A child is working on a challenging puzzle. As they manipulate the puzzle pieces, they
talk to themselves, commenting on the colors, shapes, and positions of the pieces. By verbalizing their
thoughts aloud, the child is using private speech to guide their thinking processes and problem-solving
strategies.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): A teacher works with a student who is struggling with
understanding fractions. The teacher provides guidance, breaks down the concepts, and offers strategic
prompts to help the student solve fraction problems. By working within the student's ZPD, the teacher
provides support and scaffolding to bridge the gap between what the student can do with assistance and
what they can do independently.
Scaffolding: A student is learning to write an essay. The teacher provides an outline, guiding questions,
and examples to support the student in organizing their thoughts and structuring the essay. As the student
gains confidence and skill, the teacher gradually reduces the guidance and allows the student to take more
ownership of the writing process.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Systems

The Microsystem. The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory, and
is the things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment,
such as parents, siblings, teachers and school peers.Relationships in a microsystem are
bi-directional, meaning the child can be influenced by other people in their
environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and actions of other people
too.
The Mesosystem. The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s
microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or
between school peers and siblings. The mesosystem is where a person’s individual
microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and assert
influence upon one another.
The Exosystem. The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory
developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and
informal social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly
influence them as they affect one of the microsystems.
The Macrosystem. The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
systems theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child’s development,
such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. Thus, culture that
individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions about
events that transpire in life.
The Chronosystem. The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory is known as the chronosystem. This system consists of all of the environmental
changes that occur over the lifetime which influence development, including major life
transitions, and historical events.
Microsystem: The student's microsystem consists of their parents, siblings, teachers, and
school peers who have direct contact with them. For example, their parents provide emotional
support, their teachers provide education, and their school peers influence their social
interactions.

Mesosystem: The mesosystem involves the interactions between the student's microsystems.
For instance, the interactions between the student's parents and teachers or between their
school peers and siblings These interactions can have an impact on the student's overall
development.
Exosystem: The exosystem includes other formal and informal social structures that indirectly
influence the student, such as the policies and practices within the school system or the
involvement of the extended family in the student's life.

Macrosystem: The macrosystem focuses on how cultural elements affect the student's
development. For example, the student's socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity
can influence their beliefs, perceptions, and opportunities in life.

Chronosystem: The chronosystem includes all the environmental changes that occur over the
student's lifetime. Major life transitions, such as moving to a new school or experiencing
historical events, can have an impact on their development.