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To cite this article: Anita Woolfolk Hoy , Heather A. Davis & Eric M. Anderman (2013)
Theories of Learning and Teaching in TIP , Theory Into Practice, 52:sup1, 9-21, DOI:
10.1080/00405841.2013.795437
Download by: [. Anita Woolfolk Hoy] Date: 07 October 2015, At: 10:22
Theory Into Practice, 52:9–21, 2013
Copyright © The College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University
ISSN: 0040-5841 print/1543-0421 online
DOI: 10.1080/00405841.2013.795437
Teaching in TIP
Developmental Editors: Amanda R. Baker, DeLeon L. Gray, and
Megan Sanders
Research on learning theories is central to most Learning theory has been covered in TIP
of the articles that have appeared in Theory Into throughout the journal’s history. As we review
Practice (TIP) over the past 50 years. Scholarship in this article, coverage within TIP has varied,
on this topic in many ways undergirds all articles and has included a wide array of perspectives
that provide discussions of ways of moving theory on human learning within diverse educational
into practice within the broad field of education. contexts. Although learning theories often are
Indeed, one could easily argue that all research taught and discussed along a historical con-
focusing on improving the education of learners tinuum (e.g., behavioral theories lead to more
at some level encompasses assumptions based on cognitive theories), coverage in TIP has been
learning theory. broad. Indeed, scholarship from diverse theoret-
ical perspectives has been published throughout
the journal’s history.
Anita Woolfolk Hoy is professor emerita of The
Ohio State University, Heather A. Davis is a faculty
member at North Carolina State University, and Eric A Brief Overview of Approaches to
M. Anderman is chair and professor at The Ohio State Learning
University.
Correspondence should be addressed to Anita
Woolfolk Hoy, 7687 Pebble Creek Circle, Unit 102,
Naples, FL 34108. E-mail: anitahoy@mac.com.
B ECAUSE LEARNING IS A COMPLEX cogni-
tive process, there is no single best expla-
nation of learning. Different theories of learning
9
Fifty Years of Theory Into Practice
offer more or less useful explanations depending as the construction of knowledge. In general,
on what is to be explained. Drawing upon sum- constructivism assumes that people create and
maries from Woolfolk Hoy and Hoy (2013), the construct knowledge, rather than internalize it
general categories of learning theories examined from the external environment; additionally, it
in this article are behavioral, cognitive, construc- is important to note that there are different
tivist, and sociocultural. approaches to constructivism. Some construc-
Behavioral theories of learning stress observ- tivist views emphasize the shared and social
able changes in behaviors, skills, and habits. construction of knowledge, whereas others do
Attention is clearly on behavior. Learning is seen not emphasize social forces. Constructivist per-
as a change in behavior brought about by experi- spectives on learning and teaching, which are
ence, with virtually no concern for the mental increasingly influential today, are grounded in the
or internal processes of thinking. Behavior is research of Piaget, Bruner, Dewey, and Vygot-
what people do. The intellectual underpinnings of sky. Inquiry and problem-based learning, cog-
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behavioral theory rest with Skinner’s (1950) op- nitive apprenticeships, and cooperative learning
erant conditioning. Functional behavioral assess- are typical teaching strategies that are consis-
ment, positive behavior supports (Soodak, 2003), tent with constructivist approaches. The essence
and, to a certain extent, deliberate practice in of the constructivist approach is that it places
developing expertise (Ericsson, 2006) are current the students’ own efforts at the center of the
applications of this perspective. When specific educational process, thus the notion of student-
skills and behaviors need to be learned, teaching centered teaching (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby,
approaches consistent with behavioral learning 2011).
theory are quite effective. These approaches have Sociocultural theories of learning acknowl-
been particularly useful in the development of edge the centrality of social and cultural con-
interventions for learners with special needs. texts in learning. These perspectives often are
Cognitive theories of learning deal with think- called social constructivist theories. In the past
ing, decision making, remembering, creating, 25 years, these theories of learning have be-
and problem-solving. How information is re- come more prominent as concerns about diver-
membered and processed, as well as how in- sity, multicultural education, and social justice
dividuals use their knowledge to regulate their increase. Concepts of culturally relevant peda-
thinking, are critical in this perspective. Some gogy and racial identity emphasize the need to
of the most important applications of cogni- consider social and cultural factors in theories of
tive theories are teaching students how to learn learning.
and remember by using learning tactics such as Each of these approaches to learning has
note-taking, mnemonics, and visual organizers. much to offer; in fact, each brings with it ad-
Teaching strategies based on cognitive views of vantages and disadvantages. We think of these
learning, particularly on information processing, main dimensions of learning theories as four pil-
highlight the importance of attention, organiza- lars for teaching. Students must first understand
tion, practice, and elaboration in learning. These and make sense of the material (constructivist);
strategies also provide ways to give students then they must remember what they have un-
more control over their own learning by develop- derstood (cognitive–information processing); and
ing and improving their metacognitive skills and then they must practice and apply their new
self-regulated learning strategies. The emphasis skills and understanding to make them more fluid
of the cognitive approach is on what is happening and automatic, and a permanent part of their
inside the head of the learner. repertoire (behavioral). All of these processes are
Constructivist theories of learning are con- embedded in social and cultural settings. Failure
cerned with how individuals make meaning of to attend to any part of the process may yield
events and activities; hence, learning is seen lower-quality learning.
10
Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, Anderman Theories of Learning and Teaching
Historical View of Learning Theories there has been a distinctly dominant theory or
Through the Lens of TIP emphasis each decade or so that gives way, in
time, to a successor theory (e.g., behavioral to
Fifty years ago, learning was largely cognitive to constructivist to sociocultural). In
equated with performance. Behaviorist theories truth, articles in TIP have long reflected the
(Stephens, 1974) essentially painted teachers and valid applications of all these views, as well
children as machines (Briggs, 1962) capable of as intelligent integrations of several theories to
being trained or programmed toward optimal per- guide practice, as Table 1 indicates. In the next
formance. Teachers were encouraged to consider section, we explore the ways that different learn-
the ways in which they structured the classroom ing theories have been represented in TIP over
and their lesson plans to shape students’ moti- the past 50 years. Note that no one decade in
vation to learn (Stephens, 1974). This narrow TIP has featured a single theory of learning.
definition of learning proved disappointing for
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11
Fifty Years of Theory Into Practice
Table 1
24 Most Relevant Articles on Theories of Learning
(of the 65 Identified as Related to the Topic)
Volume
Authors Title Year (Issue) Issue Theme
Behaviorism
Guba, Egon Teaching machines and language 1962 1 (1) Entire issue
laboratories
Stephens, Directive teaching in the classroom 1974 13 (2) Learning: An individual
Thomas experience
Mader, Cynthia “I will never teach the old way 2009 48 (2) A person-centered approach to
again”: Classroom classroom
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Cognitive science
Bayles, Ernest Theories of learning and classroom 1966 5 (2) Methodology: Its impact on
methods learning
Minor, Frances Cognitive development: Some 1973 12 (2) The early years of childhood
pervasive issues
Shuell, Thomas Teaching and learning as problem 1990 29 (2) Metaphors we learn by
solving
Marzano, Robert How classroom teachers approach 1993 32 (3) Teaching for higher order
the teaching of thinking thinking
Pintrich, Paul The role of metacognitive 2002 41 (4) Revising Bloom’s taxonomy
knowledge in learning,
teaching, and assessing
Zimmerman, Becoming a self-regulated learner: 2002 Becoming a self-regulated
Barry An overview learner
Constructivism
Torrance, E. Paul Independent study as an 1966 5 (5) Independent study
instructional too
Morine, Greta Discovery modes: A criterion for 1969 8 (1) Insights—Collection of articles
teaching
Barclay Murphy, A fresh look at the child 1969 8 (3) A fresh look at the child (Child
Lois & development)
Murphy,
Gardner
Webb, Patricia Piaget: Implications for teaching 1980 19 (2) Teaching methods: Learning
applications
Commeyras, What can we learn from students’ 1995 34 (2) Learning from student voices
Michelle questions?
(continued)
theory, this article was also interesting within transition to cognitive views of learning was well
the context of TIP. At this point in time, many underway.
of the articles being published seemed to focus, Behaviorism, however, is still a viable basis
instead, on cognitive theories of learning—the for teaching applications today. For example,
12
Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, Anderman Theories of Learning and Teaching
Table 1
(Continued)
Volume
Authors Title Year (Issue) Issue Theme
Sociocultural
Ogbu, John Adaptation to minority status and 1992 31 (4) Literacy and the African
impact on school success American learner/The
struggle between access
and denial
Gay, Geneva Coming of age ethnically: 1994 33 (3) Rethinking middle grades
Teaching young adolescents
of color
Ladson-Billings, But that’s just good teaching! The 1995 34 (3) Culturally relevant teaching
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Leslie Soodak’s (2003) article in TIP on “Class- same why function. Positive behavioral supports
room management in inclusive settings” was are interventions designed to replace problem
grounded in behavioral theories, but also incorpo- behaviors with new actions that serve the same
rated concerns about individual differences and purpose for the student. The Individuals with
motivation. Soodak described the use of func- Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997) requires
tional behavioral assessment (FBA) to determine these supports for students with disabilities and
what students are getting out of their problem those at-risk for special education placement.
behaviors—What functions do these behaviors In keeping with TIP’s commitment to repre-
serve? The focus of FBA is on the why of senting diverse viewpoints, some of the articles
the behavior. If the reason for the behavior is on applications of behavioral views of learning
known, then the teacher can devise ways of have been critical. For example, Mader (2009)
supporting positive behaviors that will serve the discussed the downside of contingent rewards,
13
Fifty Years of Theory Into Practice
specifically explaining that the presence of con- explored both the potential of, and the problems
tingent rewards, including stickers and grades, with, concept learning, focusing on its imple-
undermines intrinsic motivation, and the removal mentation in the context of curriculum planning.
of contingent rewards in the classroom may The article framed concept learning as a recent
actually enhance learning. Mader introduced a innovation, based on the stages of human de-
self-grading policy in a graduate course on class- velopment and concerned with helping students
room management. She found graduate students enact “intelligent behavior in a specific instance”
(who also were teachers) engaged in the course (p. 135). He concluded the article with a number
due to genuine interest in the subject. Mader’s of recommendations for putting concept learning
article also spoke to a constructivist perspective into practice. This discussion of concept learning
in the sense that allowing students to self-grade is interesting for a few reasons. First, based
(a) reduces teacher–student power inequalities, on the way Toepfer discussed it, concept learn-
and (b) places students at the center of their own ing seemed to be a new and developing tech-
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14
Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, Anderman Theories of Learning and Teaching
Shuell (1990) discussed why problem solving learning, thinking, and problem solving strategies
is a good metaphor for teaching and learning. applicable to many academic subjects; (b) knowl-
Problem solving as a metaphor suggests that both edge about specific cognitive tasks to apply in
teaching and learning are complex processes that particular situations and why (and when) these
involve: (a) identifying a problem and setting tasks should be employed; and (c) self-knowledge
a goal, (b) actively searching for possible al- about how the individual’s own strengths may
ternatives to solve the problem, (c) evaluating be accentuated in order to optimize performance.
those alternatives, and (d) making a decision This article represented an advance in cognitive
as to which course of action to follow. Factors perspectives on classroom instruction because it
affecting the teaching and learning as problem encouraged educators to teach students to think
solving metaphor include mental representations about their own thinking. Specifically, Pintrich
of the problem, prior knowledge (both propo- advocated for the explicit instruction of metacog-
sitional and procedural), mental strategies, and nitive knowledge as an integral aspect of effec-
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time constraints, all of which can lead to differen- tive of classroom instruction. Kuhn and Dean
tial learning outcomes. Shuell’s article also noted (2004), in their TIP article “Metacognition: A
that problem-solving is domain-specific, and it bridge between cognitive psychology and educa-
also includes an element of self-management or tional practice,” also emphasized the importance
metacognition on behalf of the student, which of metacognition and added considerations of
foreshadowed constructivist concerns with stu- epistemology in understanding when and why
dents taking responsibility for their own learning. students use critical thinking.
In a second example, Marzano (1993) dis-
cussed how teachers use a number of powerful
cognitive strategies to teach thinking, such as Constructivism Approaches to Learning
questioning techniques, writing techniques, and Across the Years in TIP
basic information-processing strategies. How-
ever, Marzano also asserted that teachers fail Constructivist scholars, meanwhile, were scru-
to teach other, even more powerful, cognitive tinizing the extent to which the pedagogies ad-
strategies to students, such as self-regulation and vocated by learning theorists fit the developmen-
critical/creative thinking. Marzano’s commentary tal needs of children (see stage-environment fit
served as a strong precursor to the increased em- arguments by Eccles & Midgley, 1989). As con-
phasis on the teaching of cognitive strategies that structivist scholars interrogated the qualitatively
merged over the next decade (Pressley & Harris, different ways in which children understood tasks
2006). Incorporating these cognitive strategies, in and made meaning, they came to realize that
addition to the ones already utilized by teachers, the one-size-fits-all methods of instruction oft
would enhance the higher-order thinking of stu- advocated were minimizing the critical need
dents. for teachers to listen to and observe children
In the 2000s, cognitive theories of learning in their classrooms and tailor and differenti-
focused increasingly on metacognition and self- ate instructional methods. Constructivist scholars
regulation of learning. Pintrich’s (2002) “The were among the first to call for teachers and
role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, scholars to redefine learning as a purposeful,
teaching, and assessing” discussed the revision developmental process that would look different
of Bloom’s taxonomy, which had historically depending on the evolution and prior experiences
emphasized factual, conceptual, and procedu- of the individual learner. It was during this time
ral knowledge. The revised taxonomy added that learning theory became child-centered, ac-
metacognitive knowledge, or the understanding knowledging that children might approach tasks
of our own thought patterns, as a fourth dimen- and make meaning in systematically different
sion. Pintrich outlined three types of metacogni- ways than adults (Barclay Murphy & Murphy,
tive knowledge: (a) strategic knowledge of broad 1969; Webb, 1980). Constructivists argued that
15
Fifty Years of Theory Into Practice
learning needed to be understood from the child’s tended that, although cognitivism contributed to
perspective. the understanding of learning, this psychology
Articles in TIP have been concerned with of instruction needed to be further developed
child-centered learning over the entire 50 years into a constructivist psychology of inquiry that
of publication. In 1966, Paul Torrence’s article, incorporated students’ interests. To this end,
“Independent study as an instructional tool,” Commeyras argued that letting students, rather
claimed that independent study, in combination than the teacher, guide the class questioning
with more structured teaching, could alleviate and discussion would not only result in more
problem behavior in children, as well as chal- meaningful learning for the students, but also
lenge and motivate children of all ability levels in opportunities for the teachers to learn. Com-
to learn. This is one of the earlier articles to meyras’s article represented a clear example of
discuss motivational factors such as enthusiasm constructivist learning theory applied to prac-
and enjoyment of the work, and it also regarded tice, and also directly addressed the alternative
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the social relationships between teachers and theory of cognitivism. In addition, Commeyras
students as more important than previous work. extended the implications of constructivism be-
The emphasis on independent study stemmed yond a change in content that simply integrated
from a realization that not all learners are the children’s own interests into the curriculum, to a
same, nor do all learners benefit from the same reframing of the entire process of teaching.
type of instruction—early constructivist ideas.
Concern with student-centered learning rever-
berated through the decades. For example, the ar- Sociocultural Approaches to Learning
ticle “Discovery modes: A criterion for teaching” Across the Years in TIP
(Morine, 1969) acknowledged and addressed the
controversy surrounding discovery learning, ul- In the 1990s, a major shift was brewing as
timately offering readers a more nuanced un- scholars began to realize the systematic ways in
derstanding of the method(s) and highlighting which children’s investment in school varied as
the implications for practice. “A fresh look at a function of societal influences. For example,
the child” (Barclay Murphy & Murphy, 1969) Ogbu (1992) outlined four reasons for academic
portrayed low academic achievement as the likely underperformance of students of color: cultural
result of schoolwork that seemed irrelevant and models (worldview), culture and language frames
meaningless (foreshadowing a future emphasis of reference (students’ perceptions of whether
on motivation research), rather than as the result their home and school identities are in co-
of cognitive deficiencies in the child. The em- existence or conflict), the degree of institutional
phasis on individualized, self-directed learning trust (mistrust of the majority culture that also
and meaningful schoolwork suggests a transition controls the school system), and students’ re-
to more constructivist views of teaching and sultant educational strategy use. Ogbu explained
learning. “Freedom, the child, the teacher: The that an understanding of how to address these
gap between ideas and action” (Roberts, 1976) issues—which he discussed as particularly rele-
illustrated a theme within TIP that seemed to vant to the experiences of involuntary minorities
become more established in the 1970s: that of the (e.g., African Americans)—begins with an under-
social context of classrooms and the importance standing of the historical and structural contexts
of relationships in learning and teaching. Here, in which these events occur.
students were addressed as individuals within During the 1990s, TIP contributors be-
a group—recognizing both the individuality of gan calling for theories of learning to for-
learners and also their social ties. These social mally address the role of parents, teachers,
ties were seen as crucial to learning outcomes. school, and society in mediating the learn-
In a final example, “What can we learn from ing process. Sociocultural/social-constructivist
students’ questions?”, Commeyras (1995) con- researchers pushed learning theories to articulate
16
Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, Anderman Theories of Learning and Teaching
the ways in which specific teaching practices prehensible and practically useful for teachers”
were participating in the continued marginaliza- (p. 1). For 50 years, contributors to TIP have
tion of underrepresented students. Geneva Gay attempted to use theory to address these impor-
(1994) described how the learning of adoles- tant problems and questions. Whereas scholars
cents of color could be enhanced through ex- often have the luxury of thinking from a single
ploratory learning (i.e., including allowing stu- world-view, teachers need to be more pragmatic;
dents to explore their ethnic identity directly), they need to be able to work across theories and
caring and supportive learning environments, fa- real-world experiences in a way that allows them
cilitating the personal development of students, to best serve all of the students in their classes.
and implementing developmentally appropriate Even though different theories of learning have
instructional strategies. Gloria Ladson-Billings moved in and out of favor and new findings lead
(1995) discussed culturally relevant pedagogy to new perspectives on learning, articles in TIP
as an approach to educating students from eth- have over the last 50 years reflected applications
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nic minority backgrounds. Culturally relevant and interpretations for practice that draw from
pedagogy emphasizes academic success, cultural all the different perspectives. In doing so, many
competence, and critical consciousness. Ladson- of them have drawn from across theories to
Billings explained that academic success from a understand how to promote a learning/mastery
culturally relevant pedagogy perspective means orientation in classrooms (Marshall, 1987, 1990;
directing students’ natural skills and abilities McCombs, 2003), how to get peers to learn
in ways that are academically relevant. These together (Johnson & Johnson, 1999; King, 2002),
emphases continued in the 2000s with arti- and how to best meet the needs of a diverse
cles in TIP such as Epstein’s (2001) article student body (Bailey & Pransky, 2005; Morrison
on “Racial identity and young people’s per- & Allen, 2007).
spectives on social education” and Ford and Thus, TIP authors have always represented a
Grantham’s (2003) “Providing access to cul- range of useful learning theories, because the
turally diverse gifted students: from deficit to mission of TIP is to bring theory into practice.
dynamic thinking.” But there is a second element of that mission,
From the sociocultural perspective, learning is to use practice to inform theory. Many theo-
a situated activity that happens not only inside, rists of learning in educational psychology have
but also outside school, with knowledge from come to understand what contributors to TIP
across contexts and cultures informing—and have always valued: “Theory building in situ, in
sometimes competing with—each other. Socio- the real world, constitutes our greatest scientific
cultural/social-constructivist researchers offer re- challenge and the most exciting opportunity to
minders that all learners need a voice in their affect practice” (Berliner, 2006, p. 22). Berliner
education and that the country has a history of argued that the early ‘80s presented a critical time
denying voice. for learning theorists, who began to understand
that if learning theory did not begin to address
the real-world problems of the classroom, their
Multiple and Integrated Perspectives on work would continue to be viewed as irrel-
Learning in TIP evant and obsolete. Similar observations have
been made more recently about the overall field
In 2006, Robert Calfee called for scholars to of educational psychology (Patrick, Anderman,
deal with the “really important problems that Breuning, & Duffin, 2011). Contributors to TIP
are confronting today’s public schools” (p. 35). have been, and are, leaders in this movement
Nuthall (2004) also called for research on teach- to increase the relevance of learning theories.
ing that had pragmatic validity, that is “research Subsequently, the last 30 years of research on
that actually answers the question of how teach- learning theory has been devoted to developing
ing is related to learning in a way that is com- increasingly complex and contextualized mod-
17
Fifty Years of Theory Into Practice
els to address the needs of specific students inspired research on learning described by Calfee
and different learning contexts. Contemporary (2006) and Nuthall (2004).
theories spend a great deal of time elaborating Moreover, in teacher education instructors
on the importance of classroom contexts (Perry, often front-load theory early in initial teacher
Turner, & Meyer, 2006), relationships between training programs when students may not have
students and teachers (Davis, 2003, 2004, 2006; the tacit knowledge and practical experiences to
Wentzel, 2009), among peers (Juvonen, 2006; really internalize and integrate each framework.
Ladd, Herald-Brown, & Kochel, 2009), and in There are few resources that compare theories
the community (Greenfield et al., 2006; Oka- in a concise way that practicing teachers can
gaki, 2006). In the following sections, we re- use as a refresher tool. The challenge faced by
view how learning has been redefined and the future contributors to TIP is that constructs from
role TIP scholars played in pushing the field to learning theories don’t look the same in class-
innovate. rooms as they do in textbooks. Removed from
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For over 50 years, contributors to TIP have Practicing teachers need go-to resources for
shed light on the limitations of efforts to prepare how to evaluate classroom problems in light of
teachers to use theory in classroom settings. contemporary learning theories. This probably
Educators need to be more thoughtful about the will require a pragmatic integration of useful
pedagogy they use to teach learning theory to theories of learning with research on teaching,
future teachers (see Anderman, 2011; Woolfolk motivation, deliberate practice, cognitive neu-
Hoy & Murphy, 2001), as well as the timing of roscience, emotions, and a range of learning
courses in learning theory. Whereas traditional environments including online and hybrid tech-
learning theory/educational psychology courses nologies.
in colleges of education tend to cover each of
the four grand paradigms (see Table 1), graduate
instructors often teach them chronologically with Conclusion
equal representation of these theories across the
course. In many ways, this strategy may reflect In this article, we have acknowledged that
their own emerging understanding of the field of theories of learning emanate from different his-
learning theory. However, this approach does not torical perspectives, and have influenced differ-
reflect the type of pragmatic validity and problem ent areas of research and practice in education.
18
Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, Anderman Theories of Learning and Teaching
The treatment of theories of learning through- ence. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.)
out the past 5 decades has not been entirely Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed.,
chronological in TIP. Whereas there is some pp. 3–28). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum As-
evidence of a shift from behavioral to cognitive sociates.
to social/constructivist theories, a deeper exam- Briggs, L. J. (1962). The probable role of teaching
machines in the classroom. Theory into Practice,
ination of the scholarship in TIP indicates that
1, 47–56.
researchers have been thinking and writing about
Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956).
diverse perspectives on learning throughout the A study of thinking. New York, NY: Wiley.
past half century. As the importance of interdis- Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., Norby, M. M., &
ciplinary work continues to rise in the academic Ronning, R. R. (2011). Cognitive psychology and
world, an appreciation of both the individual instruction (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.
and synergistic contributions of these theories Calfee, R. C. (2006). Educational psychology for
to professional practice will continue to enhance the 21st century. In P. A. Alexander & P. H.
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Fifty Years of Theory Into Practice
20
Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, Anderman Theories of Learning and Teaching
at school (pp. 301–322). New York, NY: Rout- Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Murphy, P. K. (2001). Teaching
ledge. educational psychology to the implicit mind. In R.
Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (2013). Instructional Sternberg & B. Torff (Eds.) Understanding and
leadership: A research-based guide to learning in teaching the implicit mind (pp. 145–185). Mahwah,
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